theoretical approaches to conceptualising volunteerism

Mediating the decline through compromise

ABSTRACTThis paper has been inspired by Dr.

Don Robotham’s work on volunteerism in

Jamaica and notably its decline. Dr. Robotham

in his presentation noted the apparent difficulty

in defining volunteerism and how it would be

envisioned in this period of decline. This paper

therefore seeks to conceptualise volunteerism

through the perspectives of communitarianism,

liberalism and utilitarianism. In mitigating the

decline, an approach at engineering

volunteerism in the Caribbean is proposed

through a usage of the approaches.

Carlos Applewhaite 620069334

Volunteerism

Local Democracy

Local Government

Community Development

Introduction

As disillusionment of political systems progresses and citizens question the efficacy of

representative democracy, the concept of participatory democracy will come to the fore.

However, how willing are citizens to actively participate in their own affairs. What type of

citizen is needed for entrenched local democracy and subsequently effective local government?

In a homogenous society finding the ideal citizens for civic action will present little to no

challenge. However the Caribbean presents itself as a society that has not once been seen as

homogenous, it has in fact been theorised as plural, class stratified and creole societies.

As a cultural tower of Babel, according to Rex Nettleford, the region has been influenced

by a myriad of ideologies and belief systems that have become ingrained in the modern

Caribbean-the African Ubuntu tradition, western liberal welfare and Indian panchayati. These

varying traditions of community existence have co-existed to make the Caribbean a unique

region. A concurrent theme from each of these traditions is that of volunteerism, which can be

simply defined as “a basic expression of human relationships. It is about people’s needs to

participate in their society and to feel that they matter to others” (UNV, 2011). The aspect of

participation is key to understanding the role of volunteerism in effective local democracy and

community development.

However as the spread of free market capitalism continues globally, altering not only

national agendas but also community formation, social scientists question whether there is a

decline in volunteerism as Robotham notes “the spirit of the times has changed and that the time

in which we live, is inhospitable to volunteerism” (Robotham, 1998). Buddan also notes that post

World War II there were a plethora of changes in the socio cultural composition of the region, he

1

identifies 15 changes, notably the “rampant individualism that have weakened family and

community bonds and the traditional mechanisms of social control such as parenting, religion

and collective values” (Buddan, 2001, p. 52). This adds a historical dimension to the possible

decline in volunteerism. So how does one retool volunteerism for this postmodern globalised

world? It therefore becomes necessary to reconceptualise volunteerism in local democracy.

The concept of volunteerism however, like any other in social sciences is difficult to

define and conceptualise. Therefore to aid in this conceptualisation it is necessary to view it

through differing theoretical frameworks in order to understand its role in community

development, local government and local democracy. It is therefore the aim of this researcher to

analyse volunteerism in these three areas through the lenses of liberalism, communitarianism and

utilitarianism. Therefore answering what is volunteerism, and how does it impact community

development, local democracy and local government in Jamaica?

As community is also a concept with contending definitions for purposes of this paper,

community will be conceptualised in two ways. The realist approach of the similarities and

interactions of people in a given space. Along with the idealists way of identifying “elements of

shared patterns of thought, norms, values and meanings” (Brown, 2006, p. 17)

The paper will approach a brief history of community development and local government

in the Caribbean. Along with an introduction of the theoretical approaches and how volunteerism

is understood through each lens. As a region in search of its own space for development, and

ideology, the preferred lens for applying volunteerism to the Jamaican perspective will be

posited.

2

The place for volunteerism in local democracy, local government

and community development

The aim of effective local government is invariably community development.

Community development being the “creation of improved social and economic conditions

through emphasis on voluntary cooperation and self-help efforts of the communities”. (Nikkhah

& Redzuan, 2009, p. 170). As such, volunteerism presents itself as the foundation of community

development. With local government in the Caribbean being associated strongly with community

development, the level of voluntary activity is a key factor. Though not covered by specific

legislation, the vision of Jamaica’s Ministry of Local Government and Community Development

(MGLCD) is “promoting community involvement, family participation and self-reliance to

eliminate the dependence on government welfare programmes”1

This specific method of the MGLCD emphasises a bottom up approach to community

development, where central government acts as a facilitator for the on the ground activities. In

order for there to be grass roots activities, there must be some social capital and invariably active

volunteerism. Robotham’s claims that volunteerism in Jamaica is in decline therefore makes the

task of the MGLCD more challenging as it attempts to formalise local democracy through

entrenched local government. The specific theory to defining volunteerism will therefore impact

the approach of the MGLCD and any other local government agency in building social capital.

1 Taken from the vision of the Ministy of Local Government and Community Development. The full vision states “We envision that the client’s population be fully rehabilitated or in receipt of proper care and protection by: -

1. Ensuring that service providers deliver maximum performance and assistance.2. Ensuring the enforcement of family support/maintenance Laws and Policies governing the System.3. Promoting community involvement, family participation and self-reliance to eliminate dependency on

government welfare programmes.4. Ensuring the provision of shelter care, protection and rehabilitation for all street people/homeless persons.

http://www.localgovjamaica.gov.jm/bos.aspx?c=vision

3

The sequence of events is illustrated in figure 1 below. To further frame this relationship,

it is necessary to trace the development of local government in line with local democracy and

community development. Thus affording the opportunity to trace the apparent decline in social

capital over time.

Volunteerism in Early Caribbean History

Volunteerism has existed in the Caribbean since the islands were colonised by the British,

from the early 17th century and the introduction of Western Africans as labourers on slave

plantations. The African sense of community which is evident in the Ubuntu tradition as

(Letseka, 2012) notes “motho ke motho ka botho (in Sotho languages) and umuntu ngumuntu

ngabantu (in Nguni languages)” which in English is translated as “a human being is a human

being because of other human beings”. Despite the practice of separating slaves from different

tribes and clans the sense of community remained. This sense of community as Robotham notes

was greatly influenced by the religious beliefs which maintained a social order. For volunteerism

to thrive in such a society where communal values and a notion of collective responsibility were

so organic, helping neighbours and strangers was a natural way of life.

Another great influence on the creole societies is also that of the Indian indentured

labourer brought to the Caribbean post emancipation. Guyana and Trinidad and Tobago have the

largest Indo-Caribbean populations with Trinidad being 35.43per cent East Indian descendants2,

in Guyana this stands at 43.5per cent (the majority)3. These countries due to their size also have

differing levels of local government which is relevant due to the system of panchayati,

2 Taken from the Trinidad and Tobago 2011 Population and Housing Census Demographic Report, pg. 15 http://www.cso.gov.tt/sites/default/files/content/images/census/TRINIDAD%20AND%20TOBAGO%202011%20Demographic%20Report.pdf

3 Taken from the 2002 Population and Housing Census – Guyana National Report, http://www.statisticsguyana.gov.gy/census.html

4

originating from Asia. There have in fact been recent calls for a return to this form of local

government as a solution to the crime problem (Ramnarine, 2011).

The above traditions have further been supplemented by the European welfare tradition,

which was responsible for the work of many missionaries in the distribution of land post

emancipation. The work of the Baptists such as Wiliam Knibb presented a confrontation to the

exploitation practised by the colonial elite. This welfare tradition continued into the twentieth

century in the development of a Caribbean civil society.

Brief history of local government

Out of these traditions of local democracy has been the development of local government.

Presently six Caribbean territories – The Bahamas, Belize, Dominica, Guyana, Jamaica and

Trinidad- have elected local government. Barbuda, Nevis and Tobago are administered by local

government authorities and Antigua, St. Lucia and St. Vincent and the Grenadines have informal

non-elected local government systems. (Ragoonath, 2002). Local government is no new concept

to the Caribbean, even for those territories who have no recognisable system currently.

Barbados had been divided into 6 parishes by its Governor, Sir William Tufton in 1629.

While Jamaica in 1644, Deputy Governor Sir Charles Lyttleton passed an Ordinance which

created the first 7 parishes. The Anglican Church played an important role in the management of

these parishes, as the vestry acted as the authority. The vestry constituted “the parish rector, the

church warden the local justices and elected members”. The franchise was determined for

example in Manchester in Jamaica by a salary of £160 or 10 slaves. These vestries managed the

church maintenance and roads, along with minimal relief for the poor. (Singh, 1972, p. 3)

5

The main priority of this vestry system was the maintenance of roads, relief for the poor

and any other community development was non-existent. Notably, community development was

not a purpose of the early colonising mission, as it deterred from extraction of wealth. Post

emancipation, local government became the most accessible form of political participation for

small property holders. As stated earlier, with the help of missionaries many former slaves were

able to acquire land and meet the requirement for the vestry elections.

After more blacks reached the franchise requirement, the plantocracy instituted changes

to stifle this development. The struggles for proper representation had thus begun in the

Caribbean, which Robotham notes was one of the peak periods of volunteerism in Jamaica. The

Baptists having worked on the Free Village movement had, served to undermine the plantation

system in the larger islands. The plantocracy responded with the Ejectment Act and the Trespass

act, which were imposed to tether the former slaves to menial contract work on the plantation

(Singh, 1972, p. 12). The struggle for efficient representation and local democracy culminated in

the Morant Bay Rebellion in Jamaica in 1865 due to agitation from Magistrate George William

Gordon and gross discontent of parishioners. The system of Crown Colony Government was

subsequently established across the Caribbean.

Local government continued to be oligarchical until following World War II when some

reforms were made, notably the introduction of Universal Adult Suffrage. At this stage, the

ambit of duties had grown. Nonetheless post-independence, local government evolved into a

‘political football’. The development of partisan politics served as a threat to the effectiveness of

local government, as real decentralisation was not evident. The apparent fall in the relevance of

local government can be connected to the posited decline in volunteerism, though for differing

reasons.

6

Communitarianism as a tool for developing volunteerism

Communitarianism has presented itself as one of the new alternative theories to challenge

the dominance of the traditional behavioural theories, specifically that of the realist and liberals.

The rationalistic world seen through the perspective of liberals has emphasised the importance of

the individual. Human beings are perceived as self-obsessed, and self-maximising, with little

interest in the success or failure of others. (Wagner, 1995)

This overemphasis on the self contradicts any attempts at creating a common identity.

What it does is reinforce the idea of community as a ‘fictitious body composed of individuals’.

Wagner however has proposed a reconceptualization of the individual as ‘person in community’

as opposed to ‘homo economicus’. This new type of citizen which is a willing participant in the

community, has as its main interest or motive the development of the community. Robotham in

his attempt to define volunteerism places strong emphasis on the motive of the individual,

whether it be simply to participate in community life or to help others. This approach to defining

volunteerism therefore is dependent on the altruistic nature of the individual.

Altruism however as Robotham contends, is finite, individuals are normally incapable of

acting under altruistic tendencies for a prolonged period of time. Nonetheless the communitarian

approach of the person in the community negates this. The individual’s motive will be governed

by the will to help in the society. The liberal counter to this however is that altruism does not

exist, the individual gives for the pleasure obtained from the act of giving. This then

The person in community approach is a by-product of (Etzioni, 1988) and the I&We

paradigm or the responsive community. Etzioni proposed a new moral dimension, which placed

the individual as empathetic and responsive to the needs of others, as opposed to rational and

7

self-serving. Individuals are aware of the importance of the self, I, however this is not the final

unit of analysis there is the collective, We. Thus communitarians seek to enforce the association

of the individual and the community in the I&We.

Etzioni according to (Watson, 1999) is the leader of the communitarianism movement.

In order to adapt for the myopic and amoral shortcomings of the traditional neoclassical

paradigm which used the rational choice theory to explain individual behaviour, Etzioni

presented a new paradigm. The responsive community paradigm seeks to fall in between the

authoritarian community and the sum of aggregates of self-maximising individuals. The

authoritarian community being the hierarchical and structured environment that imposes values

on individuals. (Etzioni, 1988)

The ‘new labour’ approach to communitarianism, though influenced by Etzioni was

much broader in its scope, as it showed the multi-dimensional and multi-level nature of

communitarianism. According to (Driver & Martell, 1997) the three levels-sociological, ethical

and meta-ethical- represent a clear departure from the traditional focus on the individual. It

further develops into a multi-dimensional approach-pluralist to conformist, more to less

conditional, progressive or conservative, prescriptive or voluntary, moral or socioeconomic and

individual or corporate. These dimensions serve to allow for the application of

communitarianism in every form of society making the approach flexible.

With this said, how then does one define and manufacture volunteerism based on

communitarian principles. By taking into context the community as the unit of analysis and

individual altruism, volunteerism in the communitarian sense is any act conducted by an

individual with the purpose of assisting in the improvement of his or her community without

coercion or tangible reward.

8

The weakness of communitarianism as a new approach however is its omission of the

type of community it seeks to place the individual within, whether it be the geographical or the

ideological. In later works Etzioni elaborates on how community ought to be viewed and

emphasises the traditional homogenous community that has been eroded as a result of

modernisation. However Watson in his critique of communitarianism is correct in noting its need

for development as there are points of ambiguity. The application of this approach in public

policy has profound implications as it attempts to reverse years of moral decline. It has in fact

been used by ‘New Labour’ in the United Kingdom as a response to the Thatcher years, where

societal development was undermined for the advancement of the liberal free market economy.

Neoclassical or Liberal approach

The discussion has so far been critical of the liberal approach to analysing individual

behaviour. However as a theory it has more than a modicum of support from a variety of

thinkers. The individual as the unit of analysis is noted in the liberal philosophy as far back as

Adam Smith (Smith) who notes

after himself, the members of his own family, those who usually live in the same house with him, his parents, his children, his brothers and sisters, are naturally the objects of his warmest affections. They are naturally and usually the persons upon whose happiness or misery his conduct must have the greatest influence

The individual’s decision is fundamentally rooted in the self. However Smith according

to (Butler, 2011) did make provisions for actions of self-sacrifice, which ought to be made in

fundamentally beneficial purposes. These acts of self-sacrifice can be attributed to voluntary

acts, which would normally fall outside the individual’s ‘objects of warmest affections’.

The liberal approach like that of the newer communitarianism was developed as a

critique; of the authoritarian state form, governed by the church and the state. The social contract

9

had allowed society to emerge from the traditional form to one where liberties were sacrificed

for social order, the problem however arose as leaders became ‘invested with a sacrosanct

authority’. It espoused nine principles of liberty-civil, fiscal, personal, social, economic,

domestic, local racial and national, international and political liberty. (Hobhouse)

The liberalism espoused by Mill was greatly influenced by the utilitarian tradition and as

such sought to pursue individual actions which produced happiness. This liberty however is

limited as man’s actions ought not to ‘molest others’. Liberalism like communitarianism in its

opposition to an authoritarian society places the individual outside of the authoritarian sense of

community, “he who lets the world, or his own portion of it, choose his plan of life for him, has

no need of any other faculty than the ape like function of imitation” (Mill)

Despite using the individual as the unit of analysis Mill notes that the theory is not one of

selfishness, which only seeks to confine the individual to acts that concern his own well being “it

would be a great misunderstanding of this doctrine, to suppose that it is one of selfish

indifference, which pretends that human beings have no interest in each other’s conduct in life”

(Mill, p. 142). What it does portend however is that it should always be the choice of the

individual what actions he chooses to pursue.

Within this context, the form of community development which (Nikkhah & Redzuan,

2009) noted as top down would be inapplicable to a liberal society. It would deny the individual

the voluntary right to participate in community development, as government directed activity

would impede the rights of the individual. Therefore, from the liberal perspective the only option

for community development is one which is bottom up, where the individual makes the choice of

whether he wants to participate and how he ought to participate.

10

Volunteerism therefore from the liberal approach brings to the fore the professional

volunteers which Robotham alluded to. These individuals who volunteer as a self-sacrifice, but

also are seeking the gratification and reward of the act of volunteerism. Today this is espoused in

the numerous young people who, unable to obtain jobs volunteer for the experience, the ability to

have work experience, to fill a curriculum vitae. Or for those who seek the popularity attached to

volunteering-helping with a sports team or feeding the homeless. The act therefore becomes one

of egoism. This egoism motive thus juxtaposes the altruist motive of the ‘person in community’

ethos. (Eckstein, 2001) notes that compassion is inherent in the volunteerism practised in

America, this compassion is focussed on the individual and does not allow for any lasting

relationship with the individual being served. The traditional liberals according to Etzioni have

come to regard the act of giving as one that is still utility maximising, as the individual does it for

the pleasure. He notes “those who seek to give gifts are said to receive reciprocal gifts,

reputation, status approval or some other goods the doer desires” (Etzioni, 1988)

Conceptualising a definition for volunteerism based on liberalism, one must begin with

the individual as a unit of analysis, who is capable of actions of self-sacrifice, as long as these

actions are conducted of the individual’s volition and not through coercion. Therefore

volunteerism from a liberal approach can be posited as any self-sacrificing act conducted by an

individual for the purpose of developing the community and serving the individual’s interest

without tangible reward.

Utilitarianism

Utilitarianism as the antecedent to the liberal philosophy interprets individual behaviour

as contingent on pain and pleasure. Bentham is explicit in his account of the principle of utility

as “that principle which approves or disapproves of every action whatsoever, according to the

11

tendency it appears to have to augment or diminish the happiness of the party whose interest is in

question” (Bentham). The motives of an individual’s actions are determined by the outcome of

these actions and whether they produce pleasure or pain.

Bentham sees the community as “the fictitious body, composed of the individual persons

who are considered as constituting as it were, its members” (Bentham). Any action taken for the

community must therefore be contemplated within the interest of the individual. As long as the

action adds to the sum total of individual pleasures or to the reduction of his pains, this can thus

be taken by the community. It is on this point that the communitarians criticise the utilitarian

approach. The utilitarian principle however simply seeks to protect the individual from

experiencing pain, or that which is not pleasure.

Utilitarianism as an approach to defining volunteerism is more appropriate in its

recognition of ‘the greatest happiness principle’, which sees “the greatest happiness of the

greatest number that is the measure of right and wrong” (Burns, 2005). This phrase has been

adapted by many and distorted, however its universalist appeal is not lost. Despite Bentham’s

individualist notion of community, the greatest happiness principle is much more than an

individualist approach, as Bentham applied it to the appropriate administration of government.

Thus when one considers volunteerism and an act of volunteerism to result in the greatest

happiness for the greatest number it is in fact a highly idealistic approach. This idealism does not

find its place in the rational world that sees this as impossible. Nonetheless there is potential for

developing utilitarianism as a political philosophy which influences public policy. It requires a

top down approach as its main focus is on the administration of government and thus informs

greatly the discussion on community development and local government. However in the bottom

12

up approach to community development which emphasises participation, the utilitarian principle

becomes incongruous.

Nonetheless an approach to the definition of volunteerism based on the utilitarian

principles can be conceptualised. An act conducted by an individual for the purpose of helping

another, so long as it causes the individual pleasure without receipt of some tangible reward.

Application of the theories

Given the definitions proffered under the differing theories, the applicable approach to

the challenge facing local democracy in the Caribbean can be conceived. Robotham has noted

the decline of volunteerism, as synonymous with the decline of the morals and values of society.

He indicates that the diminution of the traditional morals in Jamaica would require a national

initiative to reclaim this lost character of society. It has been the expression mission of many

Caribbean governments to reengineer the idealist notion of community in respective countries.

This is evident as there is a department or ministry of every Caribbean territory with a mandate

of community development.

As noted earlier, community development cannot occur without the participation of

citizens. The discussion has shown how this participation must be voluntary and bottom up for

there to be empowerment of citizens. However for local government to be effective, the

voluntary spirit needs to be rekindled, it therefore becomes the role of the state to act as

facilitator and engineer.

The radical path of changing a society’s value system would be to instigate a revolution

and embark on a mission of developing national identity and community development. However

this approach has great limitations in its overtly coercive action. Using the behavioural theories it

13

is evident that in engendering volunteerism it must recognise the liberties of the individual.

Therefore any action, though adopted from the state must not be overtly coercive. Government’s

role in achieving the greatest happiness for the greatest number is paramount. Communitarianism

alone presents a weakness in its ability to influence public policy, this was evident in the ‘new

labour’ version of communitarianism adopted in the United Kingdom which espoused some

liberal principles. Therefore there must be some reconciliation in Caribbean society as states

affected by the international decline of values through rapid urbanisation.

The approach of manufacturing volunteerism therefore in communities, schools and

public groups can therefore be conceived from the three definitions posited with great

compromise. Volunteerism therefore must recognise that the individual seeks to maximise

pleasure in all his actions, however as a person in community, actions conducted for the

development of the entire group can be in the interest of the individual. Therefore the motives of

an individual’s actions are irrelevant as long as they are not disingenuous. The ideological battle

between egoism and altruism is superfluous in achieving the goal of local democracy.

Conclusion

The above discussion has highlighted the importance of volunteerism in the narrative of

local democracy, local government and community development. Through a brief historical

analysis, the experience of local government in the Caribbean pre independence has been

14

expounded. The theoretical approaches of communitarianism, liberalism and utilitarianism have

been expanded, using the classical definitions to understand the approaches.

Volunteerism has therefore been defined according to the communitarian approach as

‘any act conducted by an individual with the purpose of assisting in the improvement of his or

her community without coercion or tangible reward. According to the principles of liberalism ‘as

any self-sacrificing act conducted by an individual for the purpose of developing the community

and serving the individual’s interest without tangible reward.’ Finally the utilitarian approach

garnered volunteerism as ‘an act conducted by an individual for the purpose of helping another,

so long as it causes the individual pleasure without receipt of some tangible reward.

Tackling the decline of volunteerism therefore requires a compromise of all these

approaches, as relegating any of them would render the attempt superfluous. Volunteerism as a

form of civic participation in the 21st century, exposed to polemic views is an action by an

individual in a community which requires some self-sacrifice to assist in the development of

another so long as this action does not lead to an absence of pleasure.

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