developing design strategies for universally … · 2006. 3. 14. · pean commission introduced a...

ABSTRACT

The study aims to examine the importance of working out design strategies and tech-niques combined with information technologies that can contribute to the realization ofthe goals of universal design. As the dimensional standards and disability guidelines havean important place in universal design, the overall form, the organization of spaces, circu-lation networks and the whole movement patterns should also be taken into considerationfrom the point of universal design. It becomes significant to design the whole spatialstructures and infrastructures in conformity with the concept of universal design. As it waspresented throughout the study, the universal design approach and its implementation aresignificant to achieve equality for everyone in the built environment. The study also sug-gested appropriate formal organizations or spatial configurations - Stan Allen’s (1999)architectural design strategies - referring contemporary examples of architecture andurban design with diagrams designed by author.

Keywords: Design Strategies, Universal Design, Equality for Everyone, Formal Organi-zations, Spatial Configurations

INTRODUCTION

In the last decade, there is a growing awareness to create products, buildings andbuilt environments accessible, usable and adaptable for all people. Althoughmany studies conducted to address the proposed or built examples of universaldesign, universal design requires taking a broader user perspective elaboratedwith design strategies and information technologies to improve its practice at theurban scale to guide planners and architects. The impact of new technologiesshould be also set out to increase the quality of life of people with disabilities. Inthis perspective, the study contributes to the literature by presenting how the ini-

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DEVELOPING DESIGN STRATEGIES FOR UNIVERSALLYDESIGNED BUILT ENVIRONMENTS IN THE 21st CENTURY

Yasemin Afacan Faculty of Art, Design and Architecture, Bilkent University, [email protected]

tial design decisions can be set in light of the seven universal design principles,so that exclusive and stigmatizing design solutions can be avoided to achieve newopportunities for a better designed built environments.

What is intended with that the juxtaposition of the principles of universal designand the new contemporary architectural strategies is to establish a comparativecontext for the application of universal design approach. Second is to reveal thefact that today’s exemplary universal design projects cited in research papers andother publications are insufficient for guiding architects and planners for theimplementation of the universal design principles. They are hardly focusing onplanning and urban design issues. In this respect, this study also criticizes theimages of the built environments associated with universal design approach interms of their potentials for achieving universal design practice in the contempo-rary architecture and urbanism.

THE SIGNIFICANCE OF UNIVERSAL DESIGN IN THECONTEMPORARY WORLD

Today, there is an increasing awareness of universal design in many countriesaround the world. There are exemplary design projects, related proceedings,established centers and associations for universal design and various attempts forthe integration of universal design in many countries considering its role in the

21st century. Around the world there are numerous studies that aim to improveuniversal design. In this respect, it is important to relate what is going on todaywith universal design approach all around the world. Since universal design is adeveloping concept, it brings up to date its definitions. It is explained in the pro-ceedings Inclusion by Design that “Universal design is a concept of the 1990’sand it should be regularly update its definitions and intentions in order to stay rel-evant to the present and future needs of society” (Parker, 2001).

In international Conference Easy Access - A City for All in Kristiansand, Norwayin 2003 was held in order to discuss the universal design in the built environment.The accessibility attempts in Nordic countries and creation of a city for all are themain concerns of the conference. In Luxemburg, 2003 experts set up by the Euro-pean Commission introduced a report Making Europe Accessible For All by 2010and mentioned the importance of universal design and they promoted certainaccessibility issues in order to make Europe accessible for all. Aaotulis project2001-2003 (Kennig & Ryhl, 2001) is also one of these international attempts toenable universal design with innovative teaching methods in many countries andit is cofounded by the European Union. In light of these discussions, it should behighlighted that “worldwide there is an increasing as well as understanding ofuniversal design, and an increasing number of people actively try to impart con-

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structive and qualitative design solutions, either based on their professional back-ground or their personal experience” (Kennig & Ryhl, 2001).

Different from the other accessibility attempts and their related design approach-es, universal design approach takes into account the equality of all users, theirchanging demands throughout the entire lifespan and their involvement into thedesign process. The Center for Universal Design states that universal design is thebest way to integrate access for everyone into any effort to serve people well inany field (Story et all, 1998). The tendency toward this kind of design approach-es attests the importance of the human rights and the inclusion of all ages, cul-tures and differences in the contemporary world. Universal design is based on theidea of human rights: “The concept that human beings whatever their natural oraccidental specificities might be, should be treated, and treat other human beings,in a way that protects human dignity” (Kuçuradi, 2003).

In this respect, equality and non-discrimination are key terms. Accommodatingindividual differences and eliminating discrimination in a design process are themain issues of universal design. The Center for Universal Design (2000, vii)explains the inclusive character of universal design by emphasizing that “... beinghuman means that there is to one-model individual whose characteristics remainstatic through their life time. Universal design embodies this inclusive spirit”.

A SERIES OF NEW ARCHITECTURAL STRATEGIES IN LIGHT OFTHE SEVEN PRINCIPLES OF UNIVERSAL DESIGN

It should be noted that contemporary architecture and urbanism have learnedfrom the past, from the CIAM (Congrés Internationaux d’el ArchitectureModerne) to Team10, from Team10 to Alison and Peter Smithsons’ emphasis onhigh density, fluidity, speed, space articulation, respect for context and need forchange. This continuity of the thoughts is obvious in many built projects of recentarchitecture. In this respect, the main concern of the study is to re-read the orga-nizational strategies in architecture and urbanism, which developed by Stan Allen(1999) in his book Point+Lines: Diagrams and Projects for the City.

The Historical Context within which Allen’s Architectural Strategies Developed

Modern town planning ideas were discussed in CIAM held between the years of1928-1954. Certain principles related with the organizations of town planningand productions of the urban environments were introduced. The declarations anddiscussions made in the congresses are important because they point to the newrelationships between architecture and urban planning. However, there were reac-tions to this new solution to urban problems within CIAM itself. A group ofyounger architects within CIAM, called Team 10, have come together to develop

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this new language of architecture and urbanism (Mumford, 2001). The reactions,Team 10 debates and their outlined principles and functions within CIAM led tothe tenth congress of CIAM, the last congress, in 1956 at Dubrovnik and then,Team 10 meetings have begun in order to search for an environmentally respon-sive architecture with the emphasis on the human association, which later direct-ly led to the emergence of a mat-building (Smithson, 1991). With this new lan-guage of architecture, Team 10 members developed a new kind of urban organi-zation that diverges from the strict rationalism of CIAM. Woods has summarizedtheir ideas of structuring under four points:

“We can already deduce from what goes beyond that, if we are to accept the con-cept of organization of the environment, then we must consider that organizationin these terms:

The only viable organization is one of which is potentially dynamic.

The dynamic organization is concerned with the evolution of the human habitat.

The organizations with which we must deal are global in scope and discipline.They are conditioned by everything that happens in the world.

In urbanism there are not three but at least four dimensions, of which the timedimension is perhaps the most important” (Wagner, 1999, 21).

What links today’s architecture and urbanism to the 1960s organizational strate-gies, is the importance of the further exploration for the ongoing dialogue of thenew architectural strategies. Allen (2001) explains this continuity that so althoughsome of the issues raised in the text may seem dated, there is much to discuss thatstill resonates today. This is partly due to the tone, to the openness and generosi-ty of the language, but also to the ebb and flow of issues in architecture andurbanism. In relation to this context, the environmental claims of 1960’s organi-zational strategies are developed by Allen in the contemporary discussions ofarchitecture. In his projects, he illustrated an architecture of continuity and con-nectivity, lightness and affect. This new urban condition supports “a high degreeof diversity, exchange and complexity” (Allen, 1999, 16).

In this respect, it is possible to talk about a conceptual framework and a modelfor creating relationship between user and its surrounding environment (Mum-ford, 2001). As this new urban condition is capable to respond to the relationshipbetween building and its surrounding context, it can be also offered for other con-temporary issues in architecture and urbanism. This flexibility of new urban con-ditions plays a key role in this critical study. In this sense, the study explores thepossibility of Allen’s architectural strategies for urban environments that can ful-fill the requirements of universal design.

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Definition of Stan Allen’s Architectural Strategies

In 1996 in an open international competition for the Logistical Activities Zone(ZAL) in Barcelona, Allen had the opportunity to examine the potentials of theabove mentioned infrastructural urbanism. He defined five architectural conceptsto create a structured but flexible field condition which is architecturally specificbut programmatically indefinite to respond to the changing conditions of thefuture life (Allen, 1999). Allowing adaptability and flexibility for the unexpectedspatial conditions and for the changing requirements of users over time is alsorequired by the universal design approach. The proposed five architectural con-cepts are surfaces, movement, program, patch typologies and infrastructure.Allen (1999) has explained these concepts as below.

Surfaces

The field is defined a horizontal phenomenon organized in the form of patchesand corridors. The site constructs itself. Either it transforms the green areas orbuilt environments to respond the future requirements. Patches are non-linear sur-face areas and corridors are pathways for movement, services and functions.Patches and corridors extend and organize the horizontal surfaces. For Allen, thedense section of buildings can be compared with the thick 2d of the forests, fieldswhere a new sense of connection in different levels is achieved by ramps (Allen,2001).

Movement

Circulation networks can be defined as primary circulation, secondary circula-tion, pedestrian movement etc. Appropriate movement patterns provide also thepossibility of the future adaptation, the insurance of flexibility and the exchangebetween building and its context (Trelcat, 2003).

Program

It is significant to propose programmatic categories for services such as work,recreation etc. For Sarkis (2001), programming can be considered as a process ofexamining and formulating the user needs and building requirements into thesuitable spatial organizations. In this respect, the relationship between program-matic determination and spatial configurations become important. The programis also important in terms of programming access, adjacency and proximity ofservices to patches. Relating program to form, mobility, flexibility and intercon-nection are the key concepts emphasized both in Smithsons’ thoughts and con-temporary architecture.


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Patch typologies

Allen defined patch typologies as series of loose organizational strategies that arefunctions according to density and program of the urban structure. Lootsma(1999) explains these new landscape typologies of densification strategies withnumber of its built examples. He explains the urban plan designed by Geuze andWest 8 for Borneo and Sporenurg in Amsterdam as follows:

“By repeating this type in a great variety of dwelling modes and with maximumarchitectural variations, an animated street elevation emerges with a fine focus onthe individual […] At the scale of the area as a whole, a balanced relationshipexists among the repetition of individual dwellings. The articulated roofscape, andthe great scale of the docks, between the intimate containment of the houses andthe vast endlessness of the water.” (Lootsma, 1999, 260)

Infrastructure

Infrastructure doesn’t only propose buildings within the site but it works with thegeography. Division, allocation and construction are key words for the infrastruc-tures in order to establish networks for movement, exchange and communication.Infrastructure’s medium is geography in which landscape can also weave thebuilding to the city. Landscape is used to let the city flow and to link scatteredfunctions. Wall (1999) describes the term landscape that landscape is a muchwider concept rather than its simple definitions of spaces between the buildings,parking lots, planted areas, green areas or recreational spaces. He points out thatlandscape is a ground structure and defines it as a wide and inclusive ground-plane of the city rather than limiting its definition to wholly green spaces. Thisground structure plays an important role in organizing the urban fabric andaccommodating the changes of the future.

Correspondence Between Architectural Strategies and Universal DesignPrinciples

Having discussed the theoretical frameworks of the concepts within which Allen(1999) developed a series of new architectural strategies, this part of the studyquestions the Allen’s approach to create universally designed built environments.It develops a conceptual framework for exploring the possibility of Allen’s fiveconcepts integration with universal design approach. It highlights the importanceof an investigation for appropriate formal organizations or spatial configurationsto implement the seven principles of universal design more comprehensively. Itshould be noted that this study doesn’t aim to evaluate the exemplary Allen’sstrategies as the best design solutions that fulfill the requirements of universaldesign. Rather, it tries to contribute to the further elaboration of a design strate-gy to improve universal design practice at the urban scale and to guide architectsand urban planners.

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Principle 1: Equitable Use

Beginning from the first stage of the design process, the integration of patches,corridors and proposed ramps by Allen can minimize the need for specializeddesign solutions. Thus without segregation of any user, all people can explore andexperience the whole infrastructure equally. In the Reconstruction of Beirut proj-ect Allen (1999) has proposed to recover the ground of the site with a series ofcontinuous surfaces. This constructed ground can accommodate a series of func-tions such as housing, business, leisure and dining with reference to the relation-ship between programmatic determination and spatial configurations. Moreover,as explained under the category of the infrastructure, the floors, slabs and otherbuilding features can be considered as an extension and continuity of landscape.A continuous flow between the buildings and the site can accommodate an easyaccess to buildings without the need of any specialized solutions. In the move-ment concept, Allen mentioned the potential of a continuous roof structure. Theunifying capacity of the roof structure can also combine diverse demands of usersand equally accessible spaces underneath. People with special needs can beaccommodated equally with other people in the society under the unifying capac-ity of the roof structures.

Principle 2: Flexibility in Use

As it is mentioned, the infrastructural element is adaptable and flexible. Flexibledesign features have an important place in universal design approach. Spaces thatfulfill universal design criteria can be easily adapted to the differing needs andrequirements of the users. The use of Allen’s strategies gives the possibility offlexible design features so that the buildings and urban fabrics can be structuredin such an inclusive way which can provide different choices of access for itsusers. In universal design it is also important to provide an equally accessibleapproach and entrance from the site to the buildings (Figure 1). In this sense,Allen’s strategy has the potential for the flexible choices of access and designsolutions for universal design’s implementations at the urban scale.

Principle 3: Simple and Intuitive Use

As programming is explained as formulating the user needs and building require-ments into the suitable spatial organizations, Allen’s strategies have the potentialsof making use of spatial organizations easy to understand for everyone. It is pos-sible to eliminate the unnecessary complexities for the users. As seen in theReconstruction of the Souks of Beirut, Allen (1999) proposed the repetition ofcertain roof modules so that the variety of functions within the complexity of thecity becomes easy to use. Regardless of the user’s experience, the built environ-ment can be easily understood by the repetition of certain design elements.Through defining circulation networks in the movement concept, simple and


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intuitive use can be achieved in the built environments. In universal design, theusability and understandability of both interior and exterior spaces are importantas design considerations. As it can be observed easily in the analytical diagram,a simple designed network between the ramps can eliminate the confusion with-in the structure and enable easy use of the spaces (Figure 2).

Principle 4: Perceptible Information

Nodes, specific points, links, main and secondary circulation networks and hori-zontal dispositions of functions become important within the overall frameworkof Allen’s architectural strategies. These design features can help to create distin-

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Figure 1. Analytical Model of Equal and Flexible Accessibility of the Building withinthe Urban Fabric

Figure 2. An Analytical Diagram Showing a Simple Designed Network Between theramps (drawn by the Author, 2004)

guishable urban environments that can be used and understood by a variety ofusers (Figure 3). A directed system and a travel pathway allow people to find theway in the building easily. For Mayor’s Office for People with Disabilities andDepartment of Design and Communication, “The information provided must bepresented with sufficient contrast to surrounding conditions so that it is distin-guishable from its context and decipherable in all its various modes of presenta-tion” (Giuliani, 2001, 23).

A variety of modes of information can be achieved under or above roof structureswith nodes, points and other design elements specific to the mat-like configura-tions. In Logistical Activities Zone in Barcelona Allen proposes a continuous roofstructure, under which a network of pathways is created. Allen states that “…Infrastructures organize and manage complex systems of flow, movement andexchange. Not only they provide a network of pathways, they also work throughsystems of locks gates and valves- a series of checks that control and regulateflow” (Allen, 1991, 83).

When the dimensions and details of the surfaces, patch typologies, pathways andinfrastructures are reconsidered taking into account the related codes of accessi-bility and universal design, it is then possible to ensure the path of travels that arereadily perceptible by anyone.

Principle 5: Tolerance for Error

Pedestrian movement, programmed individual patches in relation to the access,adjacency and proximity to services can reduce the risk of unintended actions. Itis possible to create universally designed safe urban environments with the helpof the repetitive design elements as proposed by Allen. If these design elementsare usable and safe for everyone and can be designed also in variation, then it canbe stated that with universal design approach in infrastructures hazards and errorsare minimized. The integration of Allen’s strategies with universal design can


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Figure 3. Analytical Model Showing the Relationship between Nodes, Links, Directional Pathways in a Universally Designed Built Environment (drawn by theAuthor, 2004)

provide to design clear and accessible pathways, circulation networks and spacesby marking and identifying them through the use of safe and repetitive structures.

Principle 6: Low Physical Effort

The potentials of low-rise structures in Allen’s strategies can reduce the physicaleffort. They can offer the possibility of using the spaces with low physical effort.In Allen’s infrastructures the allocation of functions along internal pedestrianstreets and courtyards allows the use of spaces with low physical effort (Adding-ton et all, 2001). The dense interconnected structures have the potentials of pro-viding spaces that allow users to use and travel comfortably with the help of theramps. A clear path to travel for all users, resting places and seating areas near theinternal courtyards and ramps are also important for people with or without a dis-ability. Moreover, the continuation of the landscape allows users to move com-fortably and with low physical effort (Figure 4-4.39). The integration of mat-building with universal design can allow an accessible site design and travelroutes to the buildings. Everyone can access easily and comfortably by creatinguniversally designed spaces as an extension of the landscape.

Principle 7: Size and Space for Approach and Use

Providing appropriate sizes and spaces regardless of the users’ body size, age andability are important design considerations in universal design. Rather than defin-ing an average human being, universal design aims at creating the built environ-ments based on the measures and standards appropriate for everyone. Allen’sstrategies can evolve in different phases of the design process so that they can bere-dimensioned related to the temporary and permanent changes of the function-al program have the potentials of creating the conditions for providing changeand growth within the boundaries of the roof structure. Allen considered thefuture construction under the continuous roof structure in the Logistical Activi-ties Zone in Barcelona (Figure 4.32). He states that “the future life of the site isfree to unfold beyond the fixed limits of a master plan” (Allen, 1999, 74).

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Figure 4. Analytical Model Showing the Capability of Allen’s Proposed ArchitecturalStrategy in Providing the Appropriate Sizes and Spaces (drawn by the Author, 2004).)

From the point of universal design approach, the important issue is to accommo-date the growth and change and providing enough clear areas. It is also possibleto state that the roof structure can function as roof gardens and terraces which canprovide appropriate spaces for the required facilities.

CONCLUSION

Architects and planners should take a closer look how universal design can bedeveloped systematically and integrated into the contemporary architecture andurbanism. Throughout the study, it is aimed to reveal the significance of such anintegrated universal design approach. The proposed architectural strategies byAllen have capabilities of evolving over time and responding to the users’ chang-ing needs in time and circumstances. The different dimensions of human form areimportant to capture diversity of people and having knowledge of social architec-ture. Lack of knowledge related to disability types and diverse demands of peo-ple for providing accessibility and usability are important problems that architectsand planners are facing today while designing the urban environments. Theyshould be aware of the requirements of all ages, abilities and sizes. Rather thanaddressing the needs of an average human being, they should consider and beconscious of the issue of diversity. Thus, it should be noted that the architects andplanners have the responsibility of creating buildings in an inclusive way. In thiscontext, this critical study can also bring clarity in achieving the relationshipbetween the social issues and the physical environment by suggesting a viabledesign strategy for universal design’s implementations at urban scale. As it ismentioned in many references, universal design at urban scale is a comparative-ly new concept. Therefore, future researches in this emerging new area can alsoinvolve further development of Allen’s architectural strategies and offering otherappropriate design strategies for universal design’s implementation as well.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to thank my master thesis’s advisers Assoc. Prof. Dr. Emel Aközer for introducingme to this area of research and for their broad-minded comments.

REFERENCES

The images are from the authors’ unpublished master thesis.

EREN, Y. (2004), Exploring The Potential of Mat-Building for The Creation of UniversallyDesigned Built Environments, unpublished M. Arch Thesis, Middle East Technical University,Ankara.

ADDINGTON, M., KIENZL, N., INTRACHOOTO, S., (2001), Mat Buildings and the Envi-ronment: Examination of A Typology, chapter in Case: Le Corbusier’s Venice Hospital and theMat Building Revival, Sarkis, H., Allard, P. and Hyde, T. (eds.), Prestel, New York, pp. 66-79.


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ALLEN, S. (1999), Points+ Lines: Diagrams and Projects for the City, Princeton, New York.

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