development of an environmental ...eprints.uthm.edu.my/id/eprint/8866/1/zarina_shahri.pdfkomponen di...
TRANSCRIPT
i
DEVELOPMENT OF AN ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT FRAMEWORK
FOR SUSTAINABLE REUSE OF MALAYSIAN DREDGED MARINE
SEDIMENTS
ZARINA BINTI SHAHRI
A thesis submitted in
fulfilment of the requirements for the award of the
Degree of Master of Civil Engineering
Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering
Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia
MAY 2016
iii
Special for:
Beloved mother
Siti Zubaidah Abas
Siblings
Suriazana, Nurehan, Taufik, Haniff and Akmal
Family
Mak Ngah, Pak Andak and Mak Andak
Supervisor
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Chan Chee Ming
Co-supervisors
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Angzzas Sari Mohd Kassim
Dr. Norshuhaila Mohamed Sunar
Supporting friends
Junita Abd Rahman, Amira Azhar, Nurasia Mira Anuar, Nadzirah Roslan, Siti
Nuraen Jaharudin, Nurdiana, Nurul Fariha, Rashiedah, Hartini, Nurasyikin,
RECESS and FKAAS team and my dearest best friends,
Rosfarina Roslan, Mohd Akmal Abu Bakar and Khairudin Sakury
Love all of you
iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
In the name of Allah, The Most Gracious and Merciful.
Alhamdulillah, first of all, I would like to express my deepest appreciation and
sincere gratitude to my supervisor, Assoc. Prof. Dr.Chan Chee Ming for her
invaluable guidance, advices, supports, encouragements, knowledge, ideas and time.
Without her interest and encouragement, this study would never be completed.
Thank you to my co-supervisors, Assoc. Prof. Dr. Angzzas Sari Mohd Kassim and
Dr. Norshuhaila Mohamed Sunar for advices, knowledge and guidance for this study.
Mdm Siti Zubaidah Abas, thank you very much for the pray, motivation,
strength and scarification during my study is the most valuable things in my life.
Special thanks to my family for their support. The willingness in any kind of
helps make this journey of study unforgettable. Thanks to all my friends, laboratory
staff and technician for knowledge sharing and help during this study. Last but not
least, I would like to thank to all people who have directly and indirectly contributed
to the successful completion of this research.
v
ABSTRACT
Dredged marine sediments (DMS), product of dredging activities, is classified as a
waste and usually disposed off at sea. However, certain DMS is contaminated and
sea disposal can significantly affect water quality and marine ecosystem. This can be
mitigated and controlled by appropriate DMS management. The aim of this study is
to develop an environmental management framework for sustainable reuse of
Malaysian DMS. The DMS was retrieved from four dredging sites: Lumut, Melaka,
Tok Bali and Pasir Gudang. There are six components in this framework: physical
properties, chemical properties, biological properties, treatment, beneficial uses and
disposal. The framework begins with DMS physical properties. Assessment DMS
with > 50 % of particles with sizes less than 2 mm are subjected to the chemical and
biological properties. DMS dominated by coarse particles are suitable for beneficial
reuse without further treatment. Fines with contaminant levels below the permitted
levels could be directly reused, while those with high levels would undergo
treatment. After treatment, those with reduced contaminant levels fulfilling the
stipulated limits would be considered suitable for reuse. Treated DMS with residual
high contaminant levels exceeding the limits would be assigned to suitable disposal
sites. Laboratory experiments were carried out to identify the physical, chemical and
biological properties according to British Standards (BS 1377 and BS 6068). All the
DMS were mainly silt and clay. There were six heavy metals detected namely
arsenic, chromium, copper, lead, nickel and zinc in all DMS. Based on Sediment
Quality Guidelines (SQG), As, Cr, Pb and Ni in Lumut DMS exceed the TEL values.
Arsenic and nickel concentration in Melaka DMS was exceeded both guideline, ERL
and TEL. The concentration of Cr, Cu and Pb in Melaka was also higher than TEL
limits. The DMS of Tok Bali contained two trace metals (As and Pb) that higher than
ERL and TEL. The Pasir Gudang DMS was high concentration of As and Cr. From
the biological property assessment test, Serratia plymuthic, Vibrio alginolyticus and
Corynebacterium genitalium were detected in Lumut DMS, while Serratia
marcescens, Vibrio vulnificus, Edwardsiella tarda, Bacillus cereus and Escherichia
coli were in Melaka DMS and 14 bacteria detected in Tok Bali DMS. All the
inhabitant bacteria were classified as Risk Group level 2. Based on the results
obtained, treatment is necessary for all DMS prior to consider for reuse or disposal.
Keywords: Dredged marine sediments, environmental management framework,
properties, contaminant, beneficial reuse
vi
ABSTRAK
Mendakan marin kerukan (DMS), produk daripada aktiviti pengerukan,
diklasifikasikan sebagai bahan buangan dan lazimnya dibuang ke laut.
Walaubagaimanapun, sebahagian DMS adalah tercemar dan pembuangan ke laut
boleh memberi kesan kualiti air dan ekosistem marin. Kesan ini boleh dikurangkan
dan di kawal dengan pengurusan DMS yang betul. Matlamat kajian ini adalah untuk
membangunkan sebuah rangka kerja pengurusan alam sekitar bagi membolehkan
DMS Malaysia diguna semula secara mampan. DMS telah diperoleh dari empat
tapak kerukan: Lumut, Melaka, Tok Bali dan Pasir Gudang. Terdapat enam
komponen di dalam rangka kerja ini: sifat fizikal, sifat kimia, sifat biologi, rawatan,
kegunaan berfaedah dan pembuangan. Rangka kerja ini bermula dengan sifat fizikal
DMS. DMS yang mengandungi > 50 % daripada partikel bersaiz kurang dari 2 mm
adalah tertakluk kepada sifat kimia dan biologi. DMS yang didominasi dengan
partikel kasar adalah sesuai untuk diguna semula tanpa rawatan lanjut. Partikel halus
dengan tahap bahan pencemaran di bawah tahap yang dibenarkan boleh diguna
semula secara terus, manakala mendakan yang melepasi tahap tinggi akan melalui
rawatan. Selepas rawatan, mendakan dengan tahap pencemaran yang berkurangan
yang memenuhi had yang ditetapkan akan dianggap sesuai untuk penggunaan
semula. DMS yang dirawat, dengan tahap pencemaran yang tinggi, melebihi had
yang akan ditentukan, akan ke tapak pelupusan yang sesuai. Ujian makmal yang
telah dijalankan untuk mengenal pasti fizikal, kimia dan biologi adalah mengikut
British Standards (BS 1377 dan BS 6068). DMS dari tiga lokasi pensampelan
mempunyai kandungan utama kelodak dan tanah liat. Terdapat enam logam berat
dikesan iaitu arsenik, kromium, tembaga, plumbum, nikel dan zink. Berdasarkan
Garis Panduan Kualiti Mendapan (SQG), arsenik dalam semua sampel DMS dan
nikel di Melaka DMS adalah di atas paras yang mungkin memberi kesan. Dari ujian
taksiran biologi, Serratia plymuthic, Vibrio alginolyticus dan Corynebacterium
genitalium dikesan di Lumut DMS, manakala marcescens Serratia, Vibrio vulnificus,
Edwardsiella tarda, Bacillus cereus berada di Melaka DMS dan 14 bakteria dikesan
di Tok Bali DMS. Semua bakteria diklasifikasikan sebagai Kumpulan Risiko 2.
Berdasarkan kepada keputusan yang diperoleh, rawatan adalah keperluan untuk
semua DMS sebelum diguna semula atau dibuang.
Kata kunci: Mendakan marin kerukan, rangka kerja pengurusan alam sekitar, sifat-
sifat, bahan cemar, guna semula secara bermanfaat
vii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
TITLE i
DECLARATION ii
DEDICATION iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iv
ABSTRACT v
TABLE OF CONTENTS vii
LIST OF FIGURES xii
LIST OF TABLES xvi
LIST OF SYMBOLS AND
ABBREVIATION
xviii
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Overview 1
1.2 Background of study 1
1.3 Problem statement 4
1.4 Research aim and objectives 5
1.5 Scope of research 5
1.6 Limitation of Study 6
1.7 Significance of Study 6
1.8 Organization of the thesis 6
CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 8
2.1 Introduction 8
2.2 Dredging 8
2.3 Dredging marine sediments (DMS) 9
2.3.1 Properties of DMS 9
2.3.1.1 Physical characteristic 10
2.3.1.2 Chemical characteristic
2.3.1.3 Biological characteristic
10
12
viii
2.4 Contaminants of DMS 13
2.4.1 Heavy metals
2.4.1.1 Sources of heavy metals
14
16
2.4.1.2 Effects of heavy metals 17
2.4.1.3 Interaction of heavy
metals with dredged
marine sediment
17
2.5
2.6
2.7
2.4.1.4 Assessment of heavy
metals
2.4.2 Biological contaminants
Management of dredged marine
sediments
2.5.1 International Dredged Marine
sediment Guidelines
Beneficial uses of DMS
2.6.1 Engineering uses
2.6.1.1 Beach Nourishment
2.6.1.2 Land reclamation
2.6.1.3 Landfill cover
2.6.1.4 Landfill liner
2.6.2 Environmental Enhancement
2.6.2.1 Wetland Habitat Creation/
Enhancement
2.6.3 Agricultural
2.6.3.1 Manufactured Topsoil
2.6.4 Product making
2.6.4.1 Bricks and ceramic
making
Treatment of dredged marine sediment
2.7.1 Soil Washing
2.7.2 Composting
2.7.3 Bioremediation
2.7.4 Solidification
17
21
22
27
36
36
36
37
37
38
39
39
40
40
40
40
41
41
42
42
42
ix
2.8
2.7.5 Thermal Desorption
2.7.6 Electrochemical Remediation
2.7.7 pH adjustment
Disposal
2.8.1 Open water disposal
2.8.2 Confined disposal
42
43
43
43
43
44
CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY 47
3.1 Introduction 47
3.2 Development of environmental
management framework (EMF)
47
3.2.1 Basic Steps in Planning Process
(National Dredging Team, 1998)
48
3.2.2 Review and compare the existing
frameworks
50
3.3
3.2.3 Selection of components to make
the EMF compatible with
Malaysian needs
DMS properties tests
51
51
3.3.1 Samples collection
3.3.2 Physical properties tests
51
53
3.3.2.1 Particle size distribution 53
3.3.2.2 Natural moisture content 54
3.3.2.3 Atterberg limits 55
3.3.2.4 Specific gravity, Gs 56
3.3.2.5 Morphology 57
3.3.3 Chemical properties 58
3.3.3.1 Loss on ignition (LOI) 59
3.3.3.2 pH value
3.3.3.3 Chemical composition
3.3.3.4 Electrical conductivity
(EC)
3.3.3.5 Mineralogy
3.3.3.6 Heavy metals
59
60
61
62
63
x
3.4
3.3.4 Biological characteristic
3.3.4.1 Bacteria identification
3.3.4.2 Escherichia coli (E.coli)
and Total coliform Test
3.3.4.3 Media agar preparation
3.3.4.4 Sample preparation
3.3.4.5 Dilution technique
3.3.4.6 Pour plate test method
3.3.4.7 Counting bacteria
Applicability of the developed
framework
63
64
64
64
64
65
66
66
66
CHAPTER 4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS 67
4.1 Introduction 67
4.2 Developing an environmental
management framework
67
4.2.1 Overview
4.2.2 Key considerations in designing an
environmental management
framework for dredging marine
sediments
4.2.2.1 Physical properties
4.2.2.2 Chemical properties
4.2.2.3 Biological properties
4.2.2.4 Beneficial uses
4.2.2.5 Treatment
4.2.2.6 Disposal
67
68
70
71
72
73
73
73
4.3 Verification of the framework
applicability
77
4.3.1 Physical properties
4.3.1.1 Particle size distribution
4.3.1.2 Moisture content
78
78
81
4.3.1.3 Atterberg limits 83
4.3.1.4 Specific gravity 86
xi
4.3.1.5 Soil morphology
4.3.2 Chemical properties
4.3.2.1 Loss on ignition (LOI)
4.3.2.2 pH value
4.3.2.3 Chemical composition
4.3.2.4 Electrical conductivity
(EC)
4.3.2.5 Soil mineralogy
4.3.2.6 Heavy metals
4.3.3 Biological Properties
4.3.3.1 Bacteria identification
4.3.3.2 Escherichia coli (E. coli)
and total coliform test
89
92
92
96
97
98
100
101
111
111
114
4.4 Treatment 114
4.5
4.6
Beneficial reuse
Disposal
116
116
CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSIONS AND
RECOMMENDATIONS
117
5.1 Introduction 117
5.2 Conclusions 117
5.3 Recommendations 119
REFERENCES 120
APPENDIX 137
VITA
xii
LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE
NO.
TITLE PAGE
1.1 Map of Malaysia with highlight the sampling point. 2
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
2.8
2.9
2.10
2.11
2.12
Dredging stages
The structure of dredged material framework
(DMAF) (LC, 1972).
Steps to be considered in assessing permits
application for sea disposal (Helsinki Commission
(HELCOM), 2007).
Steps to be considered in assessing permits
application for sea disposal (Oslo-Paris (OSPAR)
Convention, 2009).
Beach nourishment at Alicante, Spain, before
replenishment (left) and after (right) (IADC, 2005)
Land reclamation at Dubai (www.iadc-
dredging.com
Landfill cover and construction of a centre for
sediments located in Belgium
(http://www.jandenul.com)
DMS created wetland in Louisiana
(http://el.erdc.usace.army.mil/)
Brick of DMS (Mezencevova et al., 2012)
Open water disposal (USEPA and USACE ,2004)
Contaminant pathway for open water disposal
(USEPA and USACE, 2004).
Confined disposal facilities (USEPA and USACE,
2004).
23
33
34
35
36
37
38
40
41
44
44
45
xiii
2.13 Contaminant pathways for upland CDF (USEPA
and USACE, 2004).
45
3.1 Basic steps in planning process 48
3.2 Steps in developing the EMF 50
3.3 Location map of sampling sites 52
3.4 Trailing suction hopper dredger (TSHD) (Lumut,
Perak)
52
3.5 Backhoe dredger (BHD) (Marina Melaka, Melaka) 53
3.6 Dredged marine sediments in the TSHD 53
3.7 Dredged marine sediments in the BHD 53
3.8 Cone penetration instrument 55
3.9 The cup size for the LL test 55
3.10 Samples being rolled into a thread 56
3.11 Empty density bottle with stopper 56
3.12 The density bottle filled with kerosene 57
3.13 FESEM instrument 58
3.14 Coated sample on a mould (top view) 58
3.15 Mould size 58
3.16 Sample after being heated at 440 ˚C 59
3.17 pH meter 60
3.18 The XRF mechanism (Verma, 2007) 61
3.19 Sample for XRF test 61
3.20 X-ray fluorescence instrument 61
3.21 Electrical conductivity probe 62
3.22 Mechanism of XRD (Mitchell and Ramirez, 2010) 63
3.23 Sample for XRD test 63
3.24 Chromocult preparation 65
3.25 Serial dilution technique (www.physics.csbsju.edu) 65
4.1 Environmental management framework for
Malaysian dredged marine sediments.
69
4.2 Particle size distribution 80
4.3 Relationship between clay content and moisture
content.
82
xiv
4.4 Relationship between fines content and the moisture
content of the DMS.
83
4.5 Plasticity chart of dredged marine sediments. 84
4.6 Relationship between plastic limit and clay content. 86
4.7 Relationship between plastic limit and fines
content.
86
4.8 Relationship between specific gravity and clay
content.
88
4.9 Relationship between specific gravity and fines
content.
88
4.10 Morphology of dredged marine sediments with
different magnifications.
90
4.11 Relationship between loss on ignition and clay
content.
94
4.12 Relationship between loss on ignition and fines
content.
95
4.13 Relationship plastic limit and organic matter. 96
4.14 Comparison elements oxide in dredged marine
sediments.
98
4.15 Relationship between electrical conductivity and
clay content.
99
4.16 Relationship between electrical conductivity and
fines content.
100
4.17 Arsenic concentrations in dredged marine
sediments.
105
4.18 Chromium concentrations in dredged marine
sediments.
105
4.19 Copper concentrations in dredged marine
sediments.
105
4.20 Lead concentrations in dredged marine sediments. 106
4.21 Nickel concentrations in dredged marine sediments. 106
4.22 Zinc concentrations in dredged marine sediments. 106
4.23 Geoaccumulation index of dredged marine 108
xv
sediments.
4.24 Contamination factor of dredged marine sediments. 109
4.25 Degree of contamination factor of dredged marine
sediments.
110
4.26 Potential ecological risk factor of dredged marine
sediments.
111
xvi
LIST OF TABLES
TABLE
NO.
TITLE PAGE
2.1 International definitions of DMS. 9
2.2 DMS properties. 11
2.3 Bacteria in dredged marine sediments. 13
2.4 Metals in DMS. 15
2.5 Summary of Effects-Range Guidelines (Long and
Morgan, 1990 and MacDonald, 1994).
18
2.6
2.7
2.8
2.9
2.10
2.11
2.12
2.13
2.14
2.15
4.1
Index of geoaccumulation (Igeo) of heavy metal in
sediment (Muller, 1979).
Contamination factor (Cf) (Hakanson, 1980).
Degree of contamination (Cd) (Hakanson, 1980).
Geochemical background concentration (Bn),
reference value (Mb) and toxocity coefficients (Tir) of
heavy metals in sediments (Hilton et al., 1985).
Terminology used to describe the risk factor Eir and
risk index (RI) as suggested (Hakanson ,1980).
Classification of biohazardous agents by Risk Group
(RG), and Pathogenicity (MBCH, 2010).
Possibilities of the different types of dredgers
Dredging related rules and regulations in nations and
their problems (Manap and Voulvoulis., 2015)
Comparison of London Convention, OSPAR and
HELCOM Guideline (Sapota et al., 2012).
Level of Sanitary Landfill System
Comparison of London Convention, OSPAR,
HELCOM Guideline and EMF.
19
20
20
20
21
22
24
25
27
46
74
xvii
4.2 Physical properties of dredged marine sediments. 78
4.3 Comparison of particle size distribution of dredged
marine sediments.
80
4.4 Comparison of moisture content of dredged marine
sediments.
81
4.5 Comparison of LL, PL, PI, LI and A of dredged
marine sediments.
84
4.6 Specific gravity of dredged marine sediments. 87
4.7 Chemical properties of dredged marine sediments. 93
4.8 Loss on ignition of dredged marine sediments 94
4.9 pH value of dredged marine sediments. 97
4.10 Comparison of chemical composition of dredged
marine sediments
98
4.11
4.12
4.13
4.14
4.15
4.16
Comparison of mineralogy of dredged marine
sediments
Heavy metals of dredged marine sediments.
Index of geoaccumulation (Igeo) of heavy metal in
dredged marine sediments
Contamination factor and degree of contamination of
dredged marine sediments.
The potential ecological risk factor (Eir) and risk
index (RI)
Bacteria found in dredged marine sediments
101
102
108
109
111
112
xviii
LIST OF SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATION
% percent
angle
wavelength
(SiO4)-4
silica tetrahedrons
µm micrometer
A Activity
AASHTO American Association of State Highway and Transportation
Officials
Al aluminium
Al2O3 aluminium oxide
As Arsenic
ASTM American Society for testing and Materials International
Standard
BHD Backhoe dredger
Bn geochemical background concentration
BS Bristish Standard
C Concentration
CaO calcium oxide
CaO lime
Cc coefficient of curvature
RECESS Research Centre for Soft Soils
Cd cadmium
Cd degree of contamination
CDF confined disposal facilities
Cf contamination factor
CH High Plasticity Clay
CILAS Particle Size Analyzer
cm centimeter
cm/sec centimeter per second
Cn measured concentration of heavy metal in sediments
Cr Chromium
Cr2O3 chromium (III) oxide
Cu Copper
Cu uniformity coefficient
Cv Coefficient of consolidation
xix
D Diameter
D10 diameter at which 10 % of the soil particles are finer than the
size
D60 60 % of the soil particles are finer than the size
DID Department of Irrigation and Drainage
DMS Dredged marine sediments
DOE Department of Environment
DOER Dredging Operations and Environmental Research Programme
DOF Department of Fisheries Malaysia
dS/m desiSiemens per meter
E.coli Escherichia coli
e.g. For example
EC Electrical conductivity
EDX Energy-dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy
Eir Potential ecological risk
EMF Environmental management framework
ERL Effect range low
ERM Effect range median
et al and other people
etc and others
EU European Union
FDEP Florida Department of Environmental Protection
Fe iron
Fe2O3 iron oxide
FESEM Field Emission Scanning Electron Microscope
g Gram
Gs Specific gravity
HELCOM Helsinki Commission
Hg Mercury
i.e. In other words
i.e. that is
IADC International Association Dredging Companies
Igeo geoaccumulation index
ISO International Standard Organization
kg Kilogram
kN Kilo Newton
kPa Kilo Pascal
kV kilo volt
L Length
LC London Convention
LI Liquidity index
LL Liquid limit
LOI Loss on ignition
LT Lumut
xx
m meter
Mb reference value for metals
MBCH Malaysia Biosafety Clearing House
mg/kg milligram per kilogram
MgO magnesium oxide
MH High Plasticity Silt
ML Low Plasticity Silt
ml mililiter
MM Melaka
mm Milimeter
Mn mangan
mS/cm miliSiemens per centimeter
Ni nickel
nm nanometer
NOAA National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
NZFSA New Zealand Food Safety Authority oC degree celcius
OSPAR Oslo-Paris Convention
PAH polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
Pb plumbum
Pb Lead
PCB polychlorinated biphenyls
PEL Probable effect level
PG Pasir Gudang
PHAC Public Health Agency of Canada
PI Plasticity index
PIANC Permanent International Association of Navigation Congress
PL Plastic limit
RG risk group
RI ecological risk index
SEM Scanning electron microscopy
SiO2 silica dioxide
SO3 sulfur dioxide
SQAG Sediment Quality Assessment Guideline
SQG Sediment Quality Guideline
TB Tok Bali
TEL threshold effect level
Tir toxocity coefficients
TMTC too many too count
TSHD trailing suction hopper dredger
USA United State of America
USACE United State Army Corps of Engineers
USCS unified soil classification systems
USEPA United State Environmental Protection Agency
xxi
UTHM Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia
w moisture content
XRD X-Ray diffraction
XRF X–Ray fluorescence
Zn Zinc
ZnO zinc oxide
ρL density of the liquid
ρs particle density
1
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Overview
Dredging is important to remove materials from the bottom of rivers, harbours and
other water bodies. Dredging activities are needed to maintain or enlarge river and
port channel, flood control, waterfront construction and access to harbours (Dubois et
al., 2009). Sediment is the materials that settle at the bottom of a water body. It
principally derives from natural processes (i.e. erosion of soil and weathering of
rock) and anthropogenic activities (i.e. agricultural practices and construction
activities). The term dredged marine sediment refers to the sediment that has been
dredged from a water body (Permanent International Association of Navigation
Congress (PIANC), 2006). Dredged marine sediments (DMS) are predominantly
clean and usable products. It can be used for beach nourishment, wetland restoration,
construction material and wildlife habitat development. However, DMS are also
reported to be contaminated with chemical and biological contaminants which will be
discussed in detailed in the next sections.
1.2 Background of study
Malaysia is a coastal nation located between Thailand in the north and Singapore in
the south. The country has two distinct parts; Peninsular Malaysia and East Malaysia
(i.e. Sabah and Sarawak). Peninsular Malaysia is separated from East Malaysia by
the South China Sea and separated from Indonesia by the Straits of Malacca (Sarkar
et al., 2014) (Figure 1.1). Since Peninsular Malaysia is surrounded by the sea,
2
dredging activities is inevitably necessary to maintain the navigation channel depth at
their designed dimensions.
In this study, the DMS were retrieved from 4 dredging sites located on the
east and west coasts of Peninsular Malaysia, i.e. Lumut (Perak), Marina Melaka
(Melaka), Tok Bali (Kelantan) and Pasir Gudang (Johor). Lumut and Marina Melaka
are situated on the west coasts of Peninsular Malaysia, where the dredging activities
were at within the Straits of Malacca. Tok Bali (Kelantan) is located on the east
coasts of Peninsular Malaysia with the dredging activities facing the South China
Sea. Pasir Gudang (Johor) is located at the southern top of Peninsular Malaysia, near
the Straits of Tebrau.
Figure 1.1: Map of Malaysia with highlight the sampling point ( ).
Dredged marine sediment (DMS), which are products of dredging activities,
consists mainly of clays, silts and sands. It is mingled with rocks, debris, large
obstacles and organic matter (Millrath et al., 2002). DMS is often contaminated with
organic and inorganic contaminants, as well as pathogenic bacteria (Meegoda and
Perera, 2001 and Ihejirika et al., 2011). Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) and
polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB) are examples of organic pollutants. The inorganic
pollutants are mainly heavy metals (cadmium, mercury, lead and nickel), nitrates,
phosphates and salts (Zoubeir et al., 2007). Common pathogenic bacteria in sediment
are Escherichia coli, Salmonella thypi and Shigella (Indest, 2003 and Ihejirika et al.,
2011).
iqahaziqah.tripod.com
Lumut
Marina
Melaka
Pasir
Gudang
Tok Bali
3
In Malaysia, DMS are commonly disposed off in the open sea without
evaluation on the properties of the material. The DMS were disposed offshore in
designated dumping sites with deep at least 20m and 10 nautical miles (1 nautical
mile = 1.852 km) from the shoreline. It is to minimize disruption to the surrounding
waters (Marine Department of Malaysia, personal communication, 2013). This
routine could spread the contaminants to the surrounding waters of the disposal site
and adversely affect the marine ecosystem (Mulligan et al., 2001). However, this risk
can be controlled and minimized by adopting proper DMS management.
The poor engineering properties aside, DMS have the potential to be reused as
an acceptable geo-material. Some DMS may also be good as raw materials for
beneficial uses such as brick and tile making. However, as mentioned above, DMS
could be contaminated, hence in a way limiting the material’s potential to be reused.
DMS need to be characterized and the contaminant risk ascertained. The results
would be the key to make informed decision on the reuse area, either with or without
treatment. If the DMS is found risky for reuse even post-treatment, the DMS material
would need to be disposed of using suitable disposal methods.
Therefore, an environmental management framework is important to assess
the suitability of the DMS to be reused or disposed. However, Malaysia has yet to
establish such a management framework for DMS, to serve as guideline for
determining the best option of second lives for the DMS (Kaliannan et al., 2015).
In a dredging project, there are many stakeholders involved, i.e. client,
dredging contractor, national and local agencies, port authorities, environmental
consultant and the public (Cutroneo et al., 2014). In Malaysia, the stakeholders
include Marine Department Malaysia, Department of Environment (DOE),
Department of Irrigation and Drainage (DID), Department of Fisheries Malaysia
(DOF), port administrator, dredging companies, environmental consultants and the
public. The framework is developed to provide a standard reference and guideline to
ensure consistent approach for DID, Marine Department Malaysia and DOE in
evaluating the best options for the DMS. It would help facilitate decision-making
among the authorities. Besides, with the framework, DMS deemed suitable for reuse
would help conserve the marine environment and ecosystem by reducing the amount
of DMS disposed offshore.
In DMS management, information on its properties, (e.g. physical, chemical
and biological properties) is essential to the selection of the suitable management
4
option, i.e. disposed or reused (Harrington and Smith, 2013). According to Mink
(2007), decisions on the dredging methods, treatment options and environmental
effects are mainly dependent on the DMS properties.
1.3 Problem statement
To date, Malaysia does not have an established environmental management
framework (EMF) for DMS. It affects the DMS handling process as the DMS are not
considered for reuse due to the unknown properties and conditions of the material,
and hence disposed off back to the sea without further evaluation. According to Chan
(2014), disposal is the most common DMS management practice in many countries
including Malaysia. The DMS was dispose of without confirmed, either it was
cleaned or contaminated. Open water disposal of contaminated DMS could transfer
the contaminants to the marine ecosystem. The contaminants would adhere to small
organisms like worms and insect larvae, which habitat is at the bottom of the water
body. The small organisms are eaten by fish, while the fish are consumed by human.
This food chain inevitably transfers the contaminants to human through ingestion
(Mulligan et al., 2001).
Instead of treating DMS as a waste, the material can be reused for a variety of
applications, such as beach nourishment, habitat restoration and landfill cover
(Parson and Swafford, 2012). DMS can be a valuable material if properly applied in
a beneficial manner. The cost for buying raw material can be reduced based on the
DMS suitability to the possible uses. This can be realized with proper DMS
management. The evaluation on DMS properties is required before making decision
either to reuse or dispose it. Treatment may even be necessary to make the
contaminated DMS suitable for reuse. If still found unsuitable or unsafe for reuse, the
disposal methods should also be carefully determined based on the DMS properties.
Hence, an environmental management framework for Malaysian DMS is important
to manage the DMS in proper way with environmental consideration. Since Malaysia
has yet not have DMS framework, this study is found to be a useful tool for the
authorized department in decision making.
5
1.4 Research aim and objectives
The aim of this research is to propose environmental management framework (EMF)
for Malaysia dredged marine sediment (DMS). It considers the DMS properties, level
of DMS contaminant, beneficial uses and safety for dispose to the sea as the last
resort.
The three objectives of this study are;
i. To develop an environmental management framework (EMF) for
sustainable reuse of Malaysian dredged marine sediment.
ii. To identify and quantify the physical, chemical and biological properties of
dredged marine sediment from Malaysian waters.
iii. To verify the applicability of the developed framework on Malaysian DMS
characterization in objective 2.
1.5 Scope of research
The study directed at on the development of an environmental management
framework (EMF) for sustainable reuse of Malaysian dredged marine sediments. The
framework was developed by referring to London Convention (LC), Oslo and Paris
(OSPAR) Convention and Helsinki Commission (HELCOM) Guidelines (LC, 1972,
HELCOM, 2007 and OSPAR, 2009). The EMF for DMS is focused on material
characterization, contaminant assessment, treatment suitability, potential beneficial
reuse and disposal method. The actual sample characterization and contaminant
assessment were used to validate the framework. The verification of the framework is
necessary in order to ensure its workability and suitability in the Malaysian context.
The DMS used in this study were retrieved from Lumut (Perak), Melaka
(Melaka), and Tok Bali (Kelantan). The physical, chemical and biological properties
of all samples were identified. The physical properties test included particle size
distribution, specific gravity, Atterberg limits and moisture content. The loss on
ignition, pH value, heavy metals, electrical conductivity, chemical composition and
mineralogy were the chemical properties measured. The biological properties
examined were bacteria identification, enumeration of Escherichia coli (E.coli) and
total coliform. Florida Sediment Quality Assessment Guidelines (SQAG) and
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Sediment Guideline
6
were used to assess the level of heavy metals in the soil (Long and Morgan, 1990 and
MacDonald, 1994). On the other hand, Risk Group of Malaysia Biosafety Clearing
House (MBCH) was used to assess the pathogenecity of inhabitant bacteria (MBCH,
2010).
1.6 Limitation of Study
The dredging projects were assigned by Marine Department. The DMS samples were
taken from dredging sites with permission from Marine Department. The sampling
time and location were as advised by the department. Therefore, the weather
condition and sampling points during sampling process were depends on the
condition during the dredging activities.
1.7 Significance of Study
The establishment of an environmental management framework (EMF) of DMS is
important to guide the authorities in DMS handling. The framework should include
the DMS characterization (physical, chemical and biological properties) and
contamination level (heavy metal and pathogens) leading to informed decisions of
the suitable reuse areas, with or without pretreatment. Disposal is the last option if
application elsewhere even after treatment is found risky. An EMF as this would
provide a systematic evaluation of DMS in the Malaysian marine environment
context, avoiding indiscriminate open sea dumping of the potentially reusable
material.
1.8 Organization of the thesis
Chapter one summarizes the general information about the study. It contains the
background of study, problem statement, research objectives, scope of research,
significance of study and organization of the thesis.
In Chapter two, a review of literature on the related topic is presented, i.e.
historical background and information about the (DMS), especially on the physical,
chemical and biological properties, contaminants and existing management systems.
Chapter three discusses the research methodology adopted for the study,
7
including the basis and procedural development of the environmental management
framework, identification and quantification of the physico-chemical properties and
determination of the bio-characteristics of the DMS samples. The first section
describes the processes involved in developing the EMF while the second section
explains on the determination of physical, chemical and biological properties of the
DMS. The second section also gives details of the assessment on the chemical and
biological contaminants (i.e. sediment quality guidelines, contamination indices and
risk group of pathogens).
In Chapter four, the EMF is designed and developed. The information
obtained from other DMS management guidelines adopted by other countries is
adopted and adapted to fit Malaysian environment via adoption when applicable and
adaption when deemed unsuitable. The framework began with physical properties
determination. Based on the physical properties, if a DMS sample contains more than
50 % of coarse particles, it would proceed for beneficial reuse. If not, it would be
subjected to chemical and biological characterization. Key geotechnical elements are
added in this EMF; i.e. Atterberg Limits, moisture content, soil morphology,
electrical conductivity, chemical composition, mineralogy, pH and inhabitant
bacteria. These elements are served to identify suitable reuse areas for the DMS. The
characterizations of DMS together with assessment of the heavy metals level are
given due consideration in the EMF development. The verification of the EMF is
based on the samples collected from 4 different dredging sites in Peninsular
Malaysia.
In the last chapter, conclusions of the findings are presented and
recommendations for future research are highlighted.
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction
According to Boutin (1999), several 100 million tons of materials are dredged around
the world each year. These materials, ranging from rocks to clays, can contain a
variable amount of organic matter, different types and levels of contaminants.
According to the European Waste Catalogue, dredged marine sediments are
classified as waste materials and required to be dispose off (Hamer and Karius,
2002).
2.2 Dredging
The maintenance of waterways requires dredging on a regular basis to prevent
flooding, facilitate navigation and allow for use of a given water system (Bert et al.,
2012). Dredging works also involve the periodic removal of accumulated bottom
sediments from waterways (Pebbles and Thorp, 2001). According to Bortone and
Palumbo (2007), the main reason for dredging is maintenance of waterways for
shipping and water discharge, capital dredging and remediation of contaminated
sites.
All the major ports in the world have periodically required new dredging
works known as capital dredging. Capital dredging is to enlarge and deepen access
channels, provide turning basins and achieve appropriate water depths along
waterside facilities. Subsequently, these channels would require maintenance
9
dredging to remove sediments which have accumulated at the bottom of the channels
(International Association Dredging Companies (IADC), 2005).
Dredging is an important way of providing sands and gravels for construction
and reclamation projects too. Dredged aggregates have a wide range of uses
including land reclamation and construction materials. Dredging is also often
undertaken to create underwater foundations, facilitate the emplacement of pipelines
or immersed tunnel elements and to construct flood control such as dams. It is also
improved the discharge capacity of watercourses and create storage capacity in water
supply reservoirs (IADC, 2005).
Dredging is also beneficial to the environment. It is to remove contaminated
sediments, thus improving water quality and restoring the health of aquatic
ecosystem. This remediation dredging is used in waterways, lakes, ports and
harbours which was near to industrialized or urbanized areas. The removed materials
may be treated and reused or disposed under strict environmental controls (IADC,
2005).
2.3 Dredged marine sediments (DMS)
DMS are material that dredged out from harbour and waterways. Table 2.1 gives
some common definitions of DMS.
Table 2.1: International definitions of DMS (Owens, 2008).
International organization Definition
Oslo-Paris Convention (OSPAR) Sediments or rocks with associated water, organic
matter etc., removed from areas that are normally or
regularly covered by water, using dredging or other
excavation equipment.
International Standard Organization (ISO) Materials excavated during maintenance,
construction, reconstruction and extension measures
from waters.
London Convention Material dredged that is by nature similar to
undisturbed sediments in inland and coastal waters.
2.3.1 Properties of DMS
The DMS properties are mainly focus on its physico-chemical characteristics, along
with biological influence. DMS properties are different with space and time; and
10
closely to the past and present land uses in the watershed (Pebbles and Thorp, 2001
and Mulligan et al., 2001). Dredging location will affect the mineralogy, morphology
and composition of the DMS. The soils are heterogeneous and can be characterized
by grain size distribution, density, water and organic matter contents (Mulligan et al.,
2001). Table 2.2 shows some of its properties from several published works. The
comparison shows that DMS may have a variety of moisture content, specific
gravity, plastic limit, liquid limit, pH and organic matter.
2.3.1.1 Physical characteristic
The primary physical characteristics of DMS were particle size distribution, water
content, engineering properties, permeability characteristic, Atterberg limits and
organic content (Harrington and Smith, 2013).The DMS are predominantly a clean
and usable material. DMS are categorized into five sediment types; rock, gravel and
sand, consolidated clay, silt or clay and a mixture of rock, sand, silt and clay (IADC,
2005).
According to Grubb et al. (2008), the moisture content of fresh DMS from a
dredging scow or barge is between 100 to 200 %. The higher moisture content of
DMS is reflecting the particle size of the DMS. Fine particles (silt and clay) have the
ability to retain water due to the arrangement of the particle.
According to Martinez et al. (2008), fine sediment was correlated with
contamination level, as it increased with high fine particle content. The greater
surface area of fine particle which tend to adhere the contaminants (Herut and
Sandler, 2006).
2.3.1.2 Chemical characteristic
Chemical characteristic of DMS is necessary in understanding the condition of the
DMS. According to Dredging Operations and Environmental Research Programme
of United State (DOER) (1999), the primary chemical characteristic are organic
content, pH value, salinity, nutrient content and contaminant (e.g. PAH and heavy
metals). pH value is important because it affects chemical properties of dredged
marine sediments including a) surface charge of organic matter, clay or mineral
particles, b) solubility, mobility and toxicity of contaminants, c) relative binding of
11
12
positively charged ions to the cation exchange sites, d) calcium carbonates
equivalents (liming requirements) and e) nutrient availability (Winfield and Lee,
1999). A high acid content may be found in some natural soils, especially those
containing sulphides or sulphate-reducing bacteria or high alkali content in limy soils
(Whitlow, 2001).
Organic matter content in the marine sediment originates from marine and
terrestrial sources. Chemical compounds of marine sediment are predominantly
proteins (amino acids), carbohydrates (sugars) and lipids, while terrestrial organic
matter consists of living biomass, plant litter and soil organic matter (Bastami et al.,
2015). Soil plasticity has correlation with organic matter where the limits of liquidity
and plasticity increase with the amount of organic matter (Dubois, 2006;
Thiyyakkandi and Annex, 2011).
Salinity of a soil where measured by electrical conductivity (EC) test is
related with plant growth. Generally, plants respond in the following ways to EC: EC
< 2, negligible response, 2 ≤ EC < 4, slight reduction in yield sensitive plants, 4 ≤ EC
< 8 reduced yield in most plants, 8 ≤ EC < 16 satisfactory yield only in salt tolerant
plants and EC > 16 satisfactory yield only in plants that are extremely salt-tolerant
(Winfield and Lee, 1998).
Marine clay is microcrystalline in nature. The clay minerals like chlorite,
kaolinite and illite and non-clay minerals like quartz and feldspar are present in the
soil (Rao et al., 2012). One of soil mineral in DMS is quartz. Quartz is a space-lattice
silicate composed of silica tetrahedrons, (SiO4)-4
linked together by primary valence
bonds to form a three dimensional network with the formula SiO2. There is no
isomorphous substitution in quartz and each silica tetrahedron is firmly and equally
braced in all directions. As a result quartz has no planes of weakness and is very hard
and highly resistant to mechanical and chemical weathering. Quartz or amorphous
silica is frequently present in colloidal (1 to 100 nm) and molecular (<1 nm)
dimensions (Terzaghi et al., 1996).
2.3.1.3 Biological characteristic
The coastal environment contains a mixture of microorganisms capable of
metabolizing organic wastes. The microorganisms in the coastal waters include
bacteria, fungi, algae, protozoa rotifers, crustacean, worms and insect larvae
13
depending upon environmental conditions. High concentrations of toxic metal ions or
toxic chemicals and extreme temperature can decrease or exterminate the activity of
the microorganism (Omiema and Ideriah, 2012). Table 2.3 shows the bacteria
commonly found in DMS from published works. Escherichia coli, klebsiella mobilis,
shigella dysenteriae, salmonella typhi, proteus vulgaris, enterobacter cloacae, and
citrobacter freundii were detected in Nworie River dredged sediments of Nigeria
(Ihejirika et al., 2011).
Table 2.3: Bacteria in dredged marine sediments
2.4 Contaminants of DMS
Many waterways are located close to industrial and urban areas. Wastes from
industrial, domestic and port enter the waterways by surface runoff (Meegoda and
Perera, 2001). Due to different urban, industrial and agricultural activities, the DMS
have contaminated with various organic contaminants (e.g. polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons (PAHs), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and mineral oils), inorganic
contaminant (e.g. heavy metals) and pathogens (vibrio cholerae, vibrio vulnificus,
salmonella spp., shigella spp. and escherichia coli) (Brettar et al., 2007 and Bert et
References Location Type of soil Microorganisms Details
Li et al.,
(2009)
Pacific Arctic
Ocean Sediment Acidobacteria 14%
Actinobacteria Small proportion
Bacteroidetes 15 %
Deltaproteobacteria 12 %
Betaproteobacteria 40 %
Alphaproteobacteria 17 %
Gammaproteobacteria 76 %
Kouridaki et
al., (2010)
Northeastern
Pacific Ocean Sediment Gammaproteobacteria 23.3 %
Deltaproteobacteria 13.6 %
Actinobacteria 12.1 %
Luna et al.,
(2010)
Donghae
Sediment Total prokaryotes
78.4 % of explained
variance
Fecal coliforms
49.2 % of explained
variance
Schippers et
al., (2012)
Black Sea Subsurface
marine
sediment Bacteria
107-10
8 cell /ml
sediments
Archaea
107-10
8 cell /ml
sediments
14
al., 2012). There are four type of chemicals that are considered to be the most
harmful to the aquatic environment; heavy metals, organotin compounds,
polychlorinated biphenyls and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) as they are
toxic and bioaccumulate in the food chain (Harrington and Smith, 2013). The type
and level of contaminants concentration are different with the dredging location
(Millrath, 2002). Inorganic contaminant gets more concern due to its properties, non-
biodegradable contaminant. Heavy metals are unlike organic pollutants, cannot be
chemically degraded or biodegraded by microorganisms. The properties of DMS,
made it possible to entrap contaminants (Meegoda and Perera, 2001).
2.4.1 Heavy metals
Heavy metals are known to be serious components of inorganic contaminant in
aquatic sediments due to its ability to accumulate for long period of time (Dong et
al., 2011 and Guven and Akinci, 2013). According to Yin et al. (2014), marine
sediments are often rich in heavy metals due to accumulation and resistivity to
biodegradation. Heavy metals in the water usually transfer into sediments by
physical, chemical and biological processes including ion-exchanging, precipitation,
adsorption and flocculation. Marine sediments are good indicators for the assessment
of various contaminants in aquatic environments because they act as major repository
of metals, leading to the contaminants of coastal zone (Ghannem et al., 2014). Table
2.4 shows metals in DMS.
Metals are used in automobiles, pesticides, paints, photographic papers, photo
chemicals, textiles, electroplating and mining industries (Lohani et al., 2008). Certain
metals play important roles in biological metabolism at very low concentrations, i.e.
copper, iron, zinc, manganese and cobalt. In aquatic environment, the minute
quantities of some metals such as copper, zinc, iron, manganese and nickel are
essential for biological systems to function. However, when excess the limit, its can
disturb biochemical functions in both humans and animals (Sany et al., 2013).
Chromium, lead, cadmium and mercury can be toxic even at low concentration
(Nguyen et al., 2005).
15
16
2.4.1.1 Sources of heavy metals
Human activities had increased heavy metals concentrations in marine ecosystem (Ra
et al., 2013). The main sources of these trace metals are related to different local
coastal activities and development, such as land filling and dredging for coastal
expansion, maritime activities, crude oil pollution, shipping processes, industrial
discharge, agricultural activities and lack of public awareness (Al-Rousan et al.,
2012). In marine environment, heavy metals can result from geologic weathering,
land runoff, industrial effluents, atmospheric deposition, coastal waters and waste
products (Gopinath et al., 2010). Contamination of marine sediments also occurred
through shipyards, ships and industrial activities near the coast. Nearshore sediments
can therefore be a repository for marine pollution (Goldsmith et al., 2001).
Heavy metals are rapidly associated with the sediment via adsorption onto
surface particles, hydrolysis and co-precipitation. Adsorption is usually the
predominant process because metals have strong affinities for iron and manganese
hydroxides, particulate organic matter and extent to clay minerals. Consequently,
metals tend to accumulate in bottom sediments (Rezayi et al., 2011). Only small
portion of free metal ions can be found dissolved in water (Sultan and Shazili, 2009).
Metals of anthropogenic origin introduced into aquatic media are generally present in
ionic or particulate forms. Then it incorporated into organic-metallic compounds or
some mineral phases. They subsequently become part of the suspended matter
transported in the water column and finally decant into sediments (Kabata-Pendias
and Pendias, 2000).
The Current European Union regulations (EU, 2006) consider plumbum,(Pb),
cadmium (Cd) and mercury (Hg) metals to be dangerous for human beings.
Chromium (Cr) and nickel (Ni) are good indicators for industrial contamination. The
presence of Pb, copper (Cu) and zinc (Zn) are generally good indicators for a variety
of human activities, domestic, agricultural or industrial. The elements that normally
present high concentrations in sediments are aluminium (Al), iron (Fe) and mangan
(Mn) up to percentage level. They are not considered to be an indicator for
contamination and their possible variations are usually related to mineralogical
changes (Tapia et al., 2014).
17
2.4.1.2 Effects of heavy metals
Trace metals remain in the environment unchanged for years and bioaccumulate
increase the concentration as they go up the food chain. The toxic metals pose a long-
term public health risk for the human population which relies on fish for proteins
where heavy metals accumulated in tissues and organs of aquatic organisms
(Gopinath et al., 2010).
2.4.1.3 Interaction of heavy metals with dredged marine sediment
According to Gopinath et al. (2010), the nature of the sediment like particle size,
organic content and mineralogy influenced concentration of trace metals in
sediments. The concentration of pollutants was stored in sediments, which affected
by sediments mineralogy, dimension and distribution. Trace elements are adsorbed
by organic substances like carbohydrates, and minerals like Fe and Mn oxides. The
adsorption capacity increases with decreasing particle sizes. The overall process is
dependent on pH and redox potential, hence the absorbed trace metals can be
released again in the water body (Bartoli et al., 2012). The metals tend to adhere to
the fine particles in aquatic sediments, due to their greater relative surface area
(Herut and Sandler, 2006). The distribution of heavy metals is also influenced by
nature of parent materials and their relative mobility depending on sediment
parameter such as mineralogy, texture and classification of sediment (Bramha et al.,
2014).
2.4.1.4 Assessment of heavy metals
A) Sediment Quality Guidelines (SQG)
Sediment Quality Guidelines (SQG) is used to evaluate the patterns of contaminant
in sediments. The primary purpose of SQG is to protect animals living in or near to
sediment from the adverse effects associated with contaminated sediment. Two of the
most widely applied SQGs for estuarine and marine ecosystems are Florida Sediment
Quality Assessment Guidelines (SQAG) and National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration (NOAA) Sediment Guideline (Long and Morgan, 1990 and
18
MacDonald, 1994). The effects-range guidelines by NOAA and SQAG are the effect
range low (ERL)/effect range median (ERM) and the threshold effect level
(TEL)/probable effect level (PEL) values respectively (Table 2.5). Concentrations
below the ERL/TEL are rarely associated with adverse effects, concentrations
between the ERL/TEL and ERM/PEL are occasionally associated with adverse
effects, and concentrations above the ERM/PEL are frequently associated with
toxicity.
Table 2.5: Summary of Effects-Range Guidelines (Long and Morgan, 1990 and
MacDonald, 1994).
Heavy metals (mg/kg) NOAA Guidelines SQAG
ERL ERM TEL PEL
Arsenic (As) 8.2 70 7.24 41.6
Cadmium (Cd) 1.2 9.6 0.68 4.21
Chromium (Cr) 81 370 52.3 160
Copper (Cu) 34 270 18.7 108
Lead (Pb) 46.7 218 30.2 112
Mercury (Hg) 0.15 0.71 0.13 0.7
Nickel (Ni) 20.9 51.6 15.9 42.8
Zinc (Zn) 150 410 124 271
B) Contaminant Indices
Contaminant indices are another tool to assess the pollution level of heavy metals in
soils and sediments. These indexes e.g. geoaccumulation index (Igeo), contamination
factor (Cf) and degree of contamination (Cd) rely on geochemical background for an
element in order to calculate an enrichment or contamination factor. The background
value chosen can either be a feature of the area of interest (for example a
measurement taken upstream of a contamination point source), the value from the
sample with the lowest concentration, the concentration value at the base of a core
sample or an accepted background value. In the absence of geochemical background
data of the area studied, the average shale values reported by Turekian and Wedephol
(1961) are often used as background reference values (Hamdoun et al., 2015).
The geoaccumulation index (Igeo) (Table 2.6) was introduced by Muller (1979)
may contribute to the estimation the degree of the sediment contamination and these
results reflect the effect of lithogenic sources (Nobi et al., 2010 and Sany et al.,
19
2013). Potential ecological risk (Eir) is an index used in ecological risk assessment of
heavy metals in sediment. The ecological risk index (RI) as diagnostic tools for
determining the degree of pollution and to assess the effect of multiple metals
pollution in the sample (Hakanson, 1980 and Gao et al., 2013).
Table 2.6: Index of geoaccumulation (Igeo) of heavy metal in sediment
(Muller, 1979).
The geo-accumulation index (Igeo) was estimated using the equations 2.1,
𝐼𝑔𝑒𝑜 = log2 (Cn /1.5Bn ) (Eq. 2.1)
where Cn is the measured concentration of heavy metal in sediments and Bn is the
geochemical background concentration of the same metal in average shale. The
constant 1.5 was introduced to consider the possible variations of the background
values due to the lithological variations. The contamination factor (Cf) and the degree
of contamination (Cd) were estimated based on the average concentration values of
metals following the method of Hakanson (1980). The applied equations are
presented in equations 2.2 and 2.3.
𝐶𝑓 = 𝐶𝑛/𝑀𝑏 (Eq. 2.2)
𝐶𝑑 = 𝐶𝑓𝑛𝑖=0 (Eq. 2.3)
where Cn is the metal concentration in the sediment, Mb is a reference value for
metals. According to Hakanson (1980), the following terms were used to describe
contamination factor (Table 2.7) and the degree of contamination (Table 2.8). Table
2.9 shows the reference value (Mb) and toxocity coefficients (Tir) of heavy metals in
sediments (Hilton et al., 1985).
Igeo Class Sediment accumulation Pollution Intensity
0 Igeo ≤ 0 Unpolluted
1 0< Igeo < 1 Unpolluted to moderately polluted
2 1< Igeo < 2 Moderately polluted
3 2< Igeo < 3 Moderately to highly polluted
4 3< Igeo < 4 Highly polluted
5 4< Igeo < 5 Highly to very highly polluted
6 Igeo > 5 Very highly polluted
20
Table 2.7: Contamination factor (Cf) (Hakanson, 1980).
Contamination factor Description
1 < Cf Low contamination
1 < Cf <3 Moderate contamination factor
3 < Cf < 6 considerable contamination factor
Cf > 6 Very high contamination factor
Table 2.8: Degree of contamination (Cd) (Hakanson, 1980).
Degree of contamination Description
Cd < 8 Low degree of contamination
8< Cd<16 Moderate degree of contamination
16 < Cd < 32 Considerable degree of contamination
Cd > 32 Very high degree of contamination
Table 2.9: Geochemical background concentration (Bn), reference value (Mb) and
toxocity coefficients (Tir) of heavy metals in sediments (Hilton et al., 1985).
Heavy metals Hg Cd As Cu Pb Cr Zn
Bn 0.25 1 15 50 70 90 175
Mb (mg/kg) 0.2 0.5 15 30 25 60 80
Tir 40 30 10 5 5 2 1
Ecological risk (Eir) is an index widely used in ecological risk assessment of
heavy metals in sediment (Equation 2.4). Risk index (RI) is the sum of all ecological
risk by using Equation 2.5 and 2.6. Terminology used to describe the risk factor Eir
and risk index (RI) as tabulated in Table 2.10 (Hakanson ,1980).
Eir = T
ir Cf (Eq. 2.4)
RI =∑Eir (Eq. 2.5)
RI = sum of all risk factor for heavy metal
Eir = monomial potential ecological risk factor
Tir = toxic-response factor
21
Table 2.10: Terminology used to describe the risk factor (Eir) and risk index (RI) as
suggested (Hakanson ,1980).
Eir
Potential ecological risk for single
regulator RI
Ecological risk
for all factors
Eir <40 Low RI <150 Low
40 < Eir <80 Moderate 150< RI <300 Moderate
80 < Eir <160 Considerable 300< RI <600 Considerable
160 < Eir <320 High RI >600 Very High
Eir > 320 Very high
2.4.2 Biological contaminants
Pathogen is one of biological contaminants in DMS. Physical properties such as
structure and texture of the soil environment influence the microbial community.
Clay soils, compared to sandy soils, have a greater capacity for retaining carbon in
the soil organic matter component because the carbon is protected in smaller pore
spaces. Clayey soils also have greater surface area for organic matter to bind to clay
particles. In addition, soils with higher clay content have enhanced biomass retention
after substrate addition for the following reasons: lower turnover rate of microbial
products, increased retention of microbial biomass and organic matter, increased
nutrient adsorption, and greater protection from microbial predators. Microbes are
protected in clay soil aggregates, which increase efficiency of microbial utilization of
substrates. Risk Group (RG) is used to classify the risky level of microorganisms.
There are 4 level of RG; RG1, RG2, RG3 and RG4 and the details as tabulated in
Table 2.11 (MBCH, 2010).
22
Table 2.11: Classification of biohazardous agents by Risk Group (RG), and
Pathogenicity (MBCH, 2010).
Risk Group (RG) Pathogenicity Features
RG 1
low individual and
community risk
A microorganism that is unlikely to cause human disease or animal
disease of veterinary importance.
RG 2
moderate individual risk,
limited community livestock
or environment risk
A pathogen that can cause human or animal disease but it is unlikely
to be a serious hazard to laboratory workers, the community,
livestock or the environment. Laboratory exposure may cause serious
infection. Infection risk via direct contact, ingestion or inhalation.
Effective treatment, preventive and control measures are readily
available and can be implemented to control disease transmission.
Risk of spread to a community is limited.
RG 3
high individual, low
community risk
Organism, which may be an exotic or indigenous agent with potential
to transmit disease mainly via aerosols. disease caused is severe and
may result in death. It could present a risk if spread in the community
however effective treatment, preventive and control measures are
available.
RG4
high individual and
community risk
Organism, which may be an exotic agent or new agent usually able to
cause life-threatening human disease. The infectious disease is
readily transmissible from one individual to another. Infectious
disease may be transmitted via aerosol or via unknown route.
effective treatment, preventive and control measures are not readily
available.
2.5 Management of dredged marine sediments
Management generally is the role that manages people‟s efforts to achieve their goals
using available resources efficiently and effectively. The principles of management
are planning, organizing, command, coordination and control (Fayol, 1976). A
framework serves as tool concepts that guide research. DMS management framework
is important and necessary for sustainable reuse of DMS as there are no proper
guidelines for it in Malaysia. It is essential to have this management framework
because DMS potentially poses health and environmental effect (Kaliannan et al.,
2015).
In dredging activities, there are three main stages involved; excavation,
transport and disposal (Manap and Voulvoulis, 2015) (Figure 2.1). Dredging
activities was started with excavation of sediments. The sediment was removed by
using different types of dredger which depends on the depths and sediment‟s physical
as in Table 2.12. The dredging equipment can be divided into two types; mechanical
23
and hydraulic dredgers. The differences between these two types‟ dredgers are the
technique to excavate the sediment either mechanical or hydraulic. The mechanical
dredgers were bucket ladder dredger, dipper and backhoe dredger and grab dredger.
Trailing suction hopper dredger, cutter dredger and plain suction dredger are example
of hydraulic dredgers (Vlasblom, 2003). According to Manap and Voulvoulis (2015),
trailing suction hopper dredger, backhoe dredger and cutter suction dredgers are
frequently used to date.
Figure 2.1: Dredging stages
The dredged sediments were transferred into barges or pipelines as
transportation to the selected disposal site. According to Manap and Voulvoulis
(2015), there were several methods in disposed the dredged sediment; agitation
dumping, side casting, dumping in rehandling basins, sump rehandling operations
and direct pumping ashore. Open water disposal is the most economical and widely
used method. During open disposal, the dredged sediments are barged to the
designated dumping site and disposed through its bottom gate. Another technique is
the use of pipelines to pump the dredged sediments onto land. The sediments were
transported through pipelines by loading the sediments into the hopper and pumped
them ashore (Kizyaez et al., 2011 and Manap and Voulvoulis, 2015).
According to Manap and Voulvoulis (2015), silt curtains or booms were used
during open disposal to prevent diffusion and help sedimentation. A boom is a heavy
structure comprising a plastic cover, connectors, skirt, tension member and ballast
• Using hydraulic or mechanical cutter dredger
Excavation
• Hopper barges
• Pipelines
Transport
• Open water
• Land
Disposal
24
weight which is hooked to an air or solid float (Dreyer, 2006). A submerged or
floating silt curtain consists of a tension member, ballast weight, anchor and curtain.
However, there is concern regarding their use due to the risk of contamination
leakages and contaminated sediments is not permitted for open disposal (Dreyer,
2006 and Manap and Voulvoulis, 2015).
Table 2.12: Possibilities of the different types of dredgers.
Bucket
dredger
Grab
dredger
Backhoe
dredger
Suction
dredger
Cutter
dredger
Trailer
dredger
Hopper
dredger
Dredging
sandy
materials
yes yes yes yes yes yes yes
Dredging
clayey
materials
yes yes yes no yes yes no
Dredging
rocky
materials
yes no yes no yes no no
Anchoring
wires
yes yes no yes yes no yes
Maximum
dredging
depths (m)
30 >100 20 70 25 100 50
Accurate
dredging
possible
yes no yes no yes no no
Working
under offshore
conditions
possible
no yes no yes no yes yes
Transport via
pipelines
no no no yes yes no no
Dredging in
situ densities
possible
yes yes yes no limited no no
According to Manap and Voulvoulis (2014), dredging is performed in a
highly contaminated site but has not been identified as a risk, such as in Malaysia.
There was lacks of efficient tools and practises to access the environmental risks of
dredging. Therefore, the need remains for an efficient tool or guideline to be
developed in order to identify possible risks of dredging (Manap and Voulvoulis,
2014). Manap and Voulvoulis (2014) had introduces an Ecological Risk Assessment
(ERA) framework to identify dredging-related risks in a dredging area. The methods
were only focused on the level of contaminants in the water, groundwater, air and the
behaviour of environmental indicators during monitoring of historical dredging.
REFERENCES
Al-Rousan, S., Al-Shloul, R., Al-Horani, F., and Abu-Hilal, A. (2012). Heavy metals
signature of human activities recorded in coral skeletons along the Jordanian
coast of the Gulf of Aqaba, Red Sea. Environmental Earth Sciences, vol.
67(7), pp. 2003-2013.
American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO)
(2008) Classification of soil and Soil-Aggregate Mixtures for Highway
Construction Purposes in Das, B.M. (2013). Fundamentals of Geotechnical
Engineering. 4th
ed. Canada: Cencage Learning.
Bartoli, G., Papa, S., Sagnella, E. and Fioretto, A. (2012). Heavy metal content in
sediments along the Calore river: Relationships with physicalechemical
characteristics. Journal of Environmental Management, vol. 95, pp. S9-S14.
Basack, S. and Purkayastha, R.D. (2009). Engineering properties of marine clays
from the eastern coast of India. Journal of Engineering and Technology
Research, vol. 1 (6), pp. 109-114.
Bastami, K.D., Neyestani, M.R., Shemirani F., Soltani, F., Haghparast, S. and
Akbari, A. (2015). Heavy metal pollution assessment in relation to sediment
properties in the coastal sediments of the southern Caspian Sea. Marine
Pollution Bulletin, vol. 92, pp. 237-243.
Bert, V., Lors, C., Ponge, J.F., Caron, L., Biaz, A., Dazy, M. and Masfaraud, J.F.
(2012). Metal immobilization and soil amendment efficiency at a
contaminated sediment landfill site: A field study focusing on plants,
springtails and bacteria. Environmental Pollution, vol. 169, pp. 1-11.
Bhattacharya, P. Welch, A.H., Stollenwerk, K.G., McLaughlin, M.J., Bundschuh, J.
and Panaullah, G. (2007). Arsenic in the environment: Biology and
Chemistry. Science of The Total Environment, vol. 379(2-3), pp. 109-120.
Biedenbach, D. J., Moet, G. J., and Jones, R. N. (2004). Occurrence and
antimicrobial resistance pattern comparisons among bloodstream infection
121
isolates from the SENTRY Antimicrobial Surveillance Program (1997-2002).
Diagnostic Microbiology and Infectious Disease, vol. 50(1), pp. 59-69.
Bortone, G. and Palumbo, L. (2007). Sustainable Management of Sediment
Resources Volume 2 .Sediment and Dredged Material Treatment.1st ed. The
Netherlands: Elsevier.
Boutin, R. (1999). Improvement of knowledge about the outputs of dredging
products as mud in sea: phenomena short term-close field. Thesis of INSA,
Lyon.
Bramha, S.N., Mohanty, A.K., Satpathy, K.K., Kanagasabapathy, K.V., Panigrahi,
S., Samantara, M.K. and Prasad, M.V.R. (2014). Heavy metal content in the
beach sediment with respect to contamination levels and sediment quality
guidelines: a study at Kalpakkam coast, southeast coast of India.
Environmental Earth Sciences, vol. 72, (11), pp. 4463-4472.
Brettar, I., Guzman C.A. and Höfle, M.G. (2007). Human pathogens in the marine
environment - an ecological perspective. CIESM Workshop Monographs
No.31: Marine Sciences and Public Health, Geneva (Switzerland) CIESM
2007, pp. 59-68.
Brinkmeyer, R, Amon, R.M., Schwarz, J.R., Saxton, T., Roberts, D., Harrison,
S., Ellis, N., Fox, J., DiGuardi, K.,Hochman, M., Duan, S., Stein, R., and
Elliott, C. (2015). Distribution and persistence of Escherichia coli and
Enterococci in stream bed and bank sediments from two urban streams in
Houston, TX. Sci Total Environ, vol. 502, pp. 650–658.
British Standards Institution. British Standard Methods of Test for Soils for Civil
Engineering Purposes. Part 3: Chemical and electro-chemical tests. United
Kingdom, BS 1377. 1990.
British Standards Institution. British Standard water quality Part 4: Microbiologcal
methods. United Kingdom, BS 6068. 1989.
Burton, G.A., Gunnison, D. and Lanza, G.R. (1987). Survival of pathogenic bacteria
in various freshwater sediments. Applied and Environmental Microbiology,
vol. 53(4), pp. 633-638.
Carpentier, S., Moilleron, R., Beltran, C., Hervé, D. and Thévenot D. (2002). Quality
of dredged material in the river Seine basine (France). II Micropollutants.
Science of the Total Environ., 299 (1-3), pp. 57–72.
122
Chakraborty, R., Wu, C.H. and Hazen, T.C. (2012). Systems biology approach to
bioremediation. Current Opinion Biotechnology, vol. 23, pp. 1-8.
Chan, C.M., Mizutani, T., and Kikuchi, Y. (2011). Reusing dredged marine clay by
solidification with steel slag: A study of Compressive strength. International
Journal of Civil and Structural Engineering, vol. 2(1), pp. 270-279.
Chan, C-M, Pun, K-H and Ahmad, F. (2013). A fundamental parametric study o the
solidification of Malaysian dredged marine soils. World Applied Sciences
Journal, vol. 24(6), pp. 784-793.
Chan, C-M. (2014). Influence of mix uniformity on the induced solidification of
dredged marine clay. Environmental Earth Sciences. vol. 71, ( 3), pp.1061-
1071.
Chi-Square Curve Fitting. Retrieved on October 15, 2013 at www.physics.csbsju.edu
Current European Union regulations (EU) (2006) Commission Regulation No.
1881/2006 of 19 December 2006, Official Journal of European Communities
L 364/5.
Cutroneo, L., Massa, F., Castellano, M., Canepo, G., Costa, S., Povero, P., Tucci, S.
and Capello, M. (2014). Technical and public approaches to involve dredging
stakeholders and citizens in the development of a port area. Environ Earth
Sci, vol. 72, pp. 3159-3171.
Das, B.M. (2013). Fundamentals of Geotechnical Engineering. 4th
ed. Canada:
Cencage Learning.
Davies, C.M. and Bavor, H.J. (2000).The fate of stormwater-associated bacteria in
constructed wetland and water pollution control pond systems. J Appl
Microbiol, vol. 89(2), pp. 349-360.
Davies, C.M., Long, A.J., Donald, M. and Ashbolt, N.J. (1995). Survival of fecal
microorganisms in marine and freshwater sediments. Appl. Environ.
Microbiol., vol. 61(5), pp. 1888-1896.
Department of Environment Malaysia, (2007). Environmental Impact Assessment
(EIA) Guidance Document for Sand Mining/Dredging Activities.
Department of Irrigation and Drainage Malaysia, (1997). Guidelines on Erosion
Control for Development Projects in the Coastal Zone DID 1/97.
Department of Irrigation and Drainage (DID), (2010). Beach Nourishment. Retrieved
on May 9, 2015 at www.water.gov.my.
123
Department of Standards Malaysia (2014). Landfill safe closure-Requirements.
Malaysia: MS 2547.
Dong, J.H., Yu, M, Bian, Z.F., Wang ,Y., Di, C.L. (2011) Geostatistical analyses of
heavy metal distribution in reclaimed mine land in Xuzhou, China. Environ
Earth Sci, vol. 62(1), pp.127–137.
Dredging Operations and Environmental Research Programme of United State
(DOER), (1999), “Dredged material characterisation tests for beneficial use
suitability”, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, Washington, USA.
Dreyer, H.B., (2006). Submersible boom for use in aquatic environment, has
buoyancy unit to raise and lower horizontal support unit between two
positions, and boom curtain suspended from horizontal support unit.
US096033:0-15.
Dubois, V., Abriak, N.E., Zentar, R. and Balivy, G. (2009). The use of marine
sediments as a pavement base material. Waste Management, vol. 29, pp. 774-
782.
Eichmiller, J.J., Borchert, A.J., Sadowsky, M.J. and Hicks, R.e. (2014). Decay of
genetic markers for fecl bacterial indicators and pathogens in sand from Lake
Superior. Water Research, vol. 59, pp. 99-111.
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) (2010). Guidance Document for Coastal
and Land Reclamation Activities . Malaysia.
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) (2008). Chapter 2: Bacteria and water
Quality. Retrieved on January 25, 2015 at
http://www.usawaterquality.org/volunteer/ecoli/june2008manual/chpt2_ecoli.
Environmental Quality (Prescribed Activities) (Environmental Impact Assessment)
Act, October 1987. Malaysia.
Environmental Quality (Control of Pollution from Solid Waste Transfer Stations and
Landfill) Regulations, (2009). Malaysia.
Fayol, H. (1976).General Principles of Management.
Feldman, M., Bryan, R., Rajan, S., Scheffler, L., Brunnert, S., Tang, H., and Prince,
A. (1998). Role of flagella in pathogenesis of Pseudomonas aeruginosa
pulmonary infection. Infection and Immunity, vol. 66(1), pp. 43-51.
124
Frangipane, G. Pistolato, M., Molinaroli, E., Guerzoni, S. and Tagliapietra, D.
(2009). Comparison of loss on ignition and thermal analysis stepwise
methods for determination of sedimentary organic matter. Aquatic Conserv:
Mar. Freshw. Ecosyst. vol. 19, pp. 24–33.
Gao, X. and Chen, C.T.A. (2012). Heavy metal pollution status in surface sediments
of the coastal Bohai Bay. Water Res. vol. 46, pp. 1901–1911.
Gerba, C.P. and McLeod, J.S. (1976). Effect of sediments on the survival of
Escherichia coli in marine waters. Appl. Environ. Microbiol., vol. 32(1), pp.
114-120.
Ghannem , N., Gargouri, D., Sarbeji, M.M., Yaich, C. and Azri, C. (2014). Metal
contamination of surface sediments of the Sfax–Chebba coastal line, Tunisia.
Environ Earth Sci, vol. 72, pp. 3419–3427.
Goldsmith, S.L., Krom, M.D., Sandler, A. and Herut, B. (2001).Spatial trends in the
chemical composition of sediments on the continental shelf slope off the
Mediterranean coast of Israel. Continental Shelf Research, vol. 21, pp. 1879–
1900.
Gopinath, A., Nair, S.M., Kumar, N.C., Jayalakshmi and Pamalal, D. (2010). A
baseline study of trace metals in a coral reef sedimentary environment,
Lakshadweep Archipelago. Environ. Earth Sci., vol. 59, pp. 1245-1266.
Government of Malaysia, 5th November 1987. Environmental Quality (Prescribed
Activities) (Environmental Impact Assessment) Order 1987.
Govil, P.K., Sorlie, J.E., Sujatha, D., Krishna, A.K., Murthy, N.N. and Mohan, K.R.
(2012). Assessment of heavy metal pollution in lake sediments of Katedan
Industrial Development Area, Hyderabad, India. Environ Earth Sci, vol. 66,
pp. 121-128.
Great Lakes Commision. The Report of the Great Lakes Beneficial Use Task Force.
(2001). Retrieved on February 21, 2014 at www.glc.org.
Grubb, D.G., Chrysochoou, M., and Smith, C.J. (2008). “Dredged material
stabilization: The role of mellowing on cured properties.” Proc.,GeoCongress
2008: Geotechnics of Waste Management and Remediation, ASCE, Reston,
Va., 772–780.
Grubb, D.G., Chrysochoou, M., Smith, C.J. and Malasavage, N. E. (2010). Stabilized
dredged material. I : Parametric study. J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng., vol.
136, pp. 1011-1024.
125
Gualtieri, A.F., Ferrari, S., Leoni, M., Grathoff, G., Hugo, R., Shatnawi, M., Paglia,
G. and Billinge, S. (2008). Structural characterization of the clay mineral
illite-1M. J. Appl. Cryst., vol. 41, pp. 402-415.
Guven, D.E. and Akinci, G. (2013). Effect of sediment size on bioleaching of heavy
metals from contaminated sediments of Izmir Inner Bay. Journal of
Environmental Sciences, vol. 25 (9), pp. 1784-1794.
Hakanson, L. (1980). An ecological risk index for aquatic pollution control. A
sedimentological approach. Water Research, vol. 14(8), pp. 975–1001.
Hamdoun, H., Van-Veen, E., Basset, B., Lemoine, M., Coggan, J., Leleyter, L. and
Baraud, F. (2015). Characterization of harbor sediments from the English
Channel: assessment of heavy metal enrichment, biological effect and
mobility. Marine Pollution Bulletin, vol. 90, pp. 273-280.
Hamer, K. and Karius, V. (2002). Brick production with dredged harbour sediments.
An industrial-scale experiment. Waste Management, vol. 22, pp. 521-530.
Hamzah, A., Kipli, S.H., Ismail, S.r., Una, R. and Sarmani, S. (2011). Microbiology
study in coast water of port Dickson, Malaysia. Sains Malaysiana, vol. 40, pp.
93-99.
Harrington, J. and Smith, G. (2013). Guidance on the Beneficial Use of Dredged
Material in Ireland. Cork Institute of Technology.
Hartley, W., Riby, P., Dickinson, N.M., Shutes, B., Sparke S. and Scholz, M. (2011).
Planting woody crops on dredged contaminated sediment provides both
positive and negative effects in terms of remediation. Environmental
Pollution, vol. 159, pp. 3416-3424.
Helsinki Commission (HELCOM) (2007). Guidelines for the Disposal of Dredged
Material at Sea. Retrieved on March 3, 2014 at www.helcom.fi
Herut B. and Sandler, A. (2006). Normalization methods for pollutants in marine
sediments: review and recommendations for the Mediterranean Basin. In:
F.R. s.t. UNEP/MAP (ed) Research Report H18/2006. Israel Oceanographic
and Limnological, p 22.
Hilton, J., Davison, W., and Ochsenbein, U. (1985). A mathematical model for
analysis of sediment coke data. , Chem Geol, vol. 48, pp. 281-291.
Horpibulsuk, S., Rachan, R. and Suddeepong, A. (2011). Assessment of strength
development in blended cement admixed Bangkok clay. Construction and
Building Materials, vol. 25, pp. 1521-1531.
126
Ihejirika, C.E., Nwachukwu, M.I., Udensi, J.U., Ihejirika, O.C. and Agbaegbu, M. C.
(2011), Management consequences and diseases transmission potentials of
dredge sediments from Nworie River, Owerri, Eastern Nigeria. Journal of
Biodiversity and Environmental Sciences, vol. 1(5), pp. 32-38.
Indest, K.J. (2003). Interim guidance of assessing the risk posed by pathogens
associated with dredged material. EEDP Technical Notes Collection
(ERDC/TN EEDP-01-49), U.S. Army Engineer Research and Development
Center, Vicksburg, MS.
International Association of Dredging Companies (IADC), (2005). Dredging: the
facts. Retrieved on November 4, 2013 at http://www.iadc-dredging .com.
Jain, C., Malik, D. and Yadav, R., (2007). Metal fractionation study on bed
sediments of Lake Nainital, Uttaranchal, India. Environ. Monit. Assess., vol.
130, pp. 129–139.
Jamil, T., Lias, K., Hanif, H.F.,. Norsila, D., Aeisyah, A., Kamaruzzaman, B.Y.
(2014). The spatial variability of heavy metals concentrations and
sedimentary organic matter in estuary sediment of Sungai Perlis, Perlis,
Malaysia. SciencePostprint 1(1): e00016.
Jiang, M., Zeng, G., Zhang, C., Ma, X., Chen, M., (2013). Assessment of Heavy
Metal Contamination in the Surrounding Soils and Surface Sediments in
Xiawangang River, Qingshuitang District. PLoS ONE 8(8): e71176
Jones, J.B.Jr. (2012) Plant Nutrition and soil Fertility Manual. 2nd
ed. USA: CRC
Press.
Jong, S-Y. and Chan, C-M. The fundamental compressibility characteristics of
solidified dredged marine soil. Proceedings of the UMT annual Symposium
(UMTAS 2013), Terengganu, Malaysia, 8-10 October 2013. Malaysia:
Terengganu.
Kabata-Pendias A, and Pendias, H. (2000) Trace elements in soils and plants, 3rd ed.
Boca Rato: CRC Press.
Kaliannan, S., Chan, C-M. and Suratkon, A. (2015). Developing a DMS (Dredged
Marine Sediments) Management Framework for Beneficial Reuse in
Artificial Land Creation. Applied Mechanics and Materials, vol. 802, pp.
655-660.
127
Kim, B-K., Baek, K., Ko, S.-H., and Yang, J.-W. (2011). Research and field
experiences on electrokinetic remediation in South Korea. Separation and
Purification Technology, vol. 79 (2), pp. 116-123.
Kissel, D.E., and L. Sonon (2008) Soil Test Handbook for Georgia. Athens:
University of Georgia,. Retrieved on October 15, 2013 at.
http://aesl.ces.uga.edu/publications/soil/ STHandbook.pdf.
Kizyaev, B.M., Golubev, N.K., and Bass, V.N., (2011). Method to clean canals and
waterways from sediments includes working and washing of sediments with a
hydraulic dredger into a dump arranged in a near-bed zone and fenced with
banking dams along the whole perimeter. RU145021:0-1.
Kouridaki, I., Polymenakou, P.N., Tselepides, A., Mandalakis, M. and Smith, K.L.
(2010). Phylogenetic diversity of sediment bacteria from the deep
Northeastern Pacific Ocean: a comparison with the deep Eastern
Mediterranean Sea. International Microbiology, vol. 13, pp. 143-150.
Lal, R. and Shukla, M.K. (2004) Principles of Soil Physics. Boca Rato: CRC Press.
Land reclamation at Dubai. Retrieved on October 10, 2014 at www.iadc-
dredging.com.
Landfill cover and construction of a centre for sediments located in Belgium ,
Retrieved on October 10, 2014 at http://www.jandenul.com.
Lee, C., Yun, T.S., Lee, J.S., Bahk, J.J. and Santanamarina, J.C. (2011). Geotechnical
characterization of marine sediments in the Ulleung basin, East Sea.
Engineering Geology, vol. 117, pp. 151-158.
Li, H., Yu, Y., Luo, W., Zeng, Y. and Chen, B. (2009). Bacterial diversity in surface
sediments from the Pacific Arctic Ocean. Extremophiles, vol. 13, pp. 233-
246.
Liu A., and Gonzalez, R.D. (1999). Adsorption/desorption in a system consisting of
humic acid, heavy metals and clay minerals. J Colloid Interface Sci, vol. 218,
pp. 225-232.
Lohani M.B., Singh, A., Rupainwar, D.C., Dhar, D.N., (2008). Seasonal variations of
heavy metal contamination in river Gomti of Lukhnow city region. Environ
Monit Assess. vol. 147, pp. 253-263.
London Convention (LC) (1972). Specific guidelines for assessment of dredged
material. Retrieved on February 10, 2014 at
http://www.gc.noaa.gov/documents/gcil_imo_dmwag.pdf
128
Long, E.R. and Morgan, L.G. (1990). The potential for biological effects of
sediment-sorbed contaminants tested in the National Status and Trends
Program. NOAA Technical Memorandum NOS OMA 52. National Oceanic
and Atmospheric Administration. Seattle, Washington.
Luna, G.M., Manini, E. and Danovaro, R. (2002). Large fraction of dead and inactive
bacteria in coastal marine sediments: Comparison of protocols for
determination and ecological significance. Appl. Environ. Microbiol., vol.
68(7), pp. 3509-3513.
MacDonald D.D. (1994). Approach to the assessment of sediment quality in florida
coastal waters, vol.1: Development and Evaluation of Sediment Quality
Assessment Guidelines. Report prepared for Florida Department of
Environmental Protection. Tallahassee, FL
Malaysia Biosafety Clearing House (MBCH), (2010). Biosafety Guidelinesfor
Contained Use Activity of Living Modified Organism (LMO). Malaysia:
Department of Biosafety, Ministry of Natural Sources and Environment.
Mamindy-Pajany, Y., Hurel, C., Geret, F., Romeo, M., and Marmier, N. (2013).
Comparison of mineral-based amendment for ex-situ stabilization of trace
elements (As, Cd, Cu, Mo, Ni, Zn) in marine dredged sediments: A pilot-
scale experiment. Journal of Hazardous Materials, vol. 252-253, pp. 213-
219.
Manap, N. and Voulvoulis, N. (2014). Environmental Screening Method for
Dredging in Contaminated River. Applied Mechanics and Materials, vol. 567,
pp. 50-55.
Manap, N. and Voulvoulis, N. (2015). Environmental management for dredging
sediments-The requirement of developing nations. Journal of Environmental
Managment, vol. 147, pp. 338-348.
Manoylov, K.M. and Dominy, J.N.J. (2013). Changes in Epipelic Diatom Diversity
from the Savannah River Estuary. Journal of Environmental Protection, vol.
4, pp. 172-179.
Maps of Malaysia. Retrieved on July 4, 2014, at
http://iqahaziqah.tripod.com/maps.htm
Martinez, M.C.C., Forja, J.M. and Delvalls, T.A. (2008). A multivariate assessment
of sediment contamination in dredged material from Spanish ports.
Hazardous material, vol. 163, pp. 1353-1359.
129
Martin-Gonzalez, A., Wierzchos, J., Gutierrez, J.C., Alonso, J. and Ascaso, C.
(2009). Double fossilization in eukaryotic microorganisms from Lower
Cretaceous amber. BMC Biology, vol. 7 (9), pp. 1-11.
Masciandaro, G., Biase, D.A., Macci, C., Peruzzi, E., Iannelli, R. and Doni, S. (2014)
Phytoremediation of dredged marine sediment: monitoring of chemical and
biochemical processes contributing to sediment reclamation. J. Environ
Manage, vol. 134, pp. 166-174.
McLeod, M.K., Slavich, P.G, Irhas, Y., Moore, N., Rachman, A., Ali, N. and
Iskandar, T. (2010). Soil salinity in Aceh after December 2004 Indian Ocean
tsunami. Agricultural Water Management, vol. 97, pp. 605-613.
Meegoda, J.N. and Perera, R. (2001). Ultrasound to decontaminate heavy metals in
dredged sediments. Journal of Hazardous Materials, vol. 85, pp. 73-89.
Mezencevova, A., Yeboah, N.N., Burns, S.E., Kahn, L.F. and Kurtis, K.E (2012).
Utilization of Savannah Harbor river sediment as the primary raw material in
production of fired brick. Journal of Environmental Management. vol. 113,
pp. 128-136.
Millrath, K., Kozlova, S., Meyer, C. and Shimanovich, S. (2002). New approach to
treating the soft clay/silt fraction of dredged material, Progress Report.
Columbia University, New York, NY.
Ministry of Housing and Local Government (2004), The Technical Guidelines for
Sanitary Landfill Design and Operation.
Mink, F. J. (2007). Dredged Material Rules and Regulations in EU. Retrieved on
January 9, 2014, at www.pmaesa.org/download.php?f=35_Mink.pdf
Miraoui, M., Zentar, R. and Abriak, N. (2012). Road material basis in dredged
sediment and basic oxygen furnace steel slag. Construction and Building
Materials, vol. 30, pp. 309-319.
Mohd Yusoff, S.A.N. Influence of different preconsolidation stress on the
consolidation behavior of soft marine clay. Degree Thesis. Universiti Tun
Hussein Onn Malaysia; 2011.
Moriaty, D.J.W. and Hayward, A.C. (1982). Ultrastructure of bacteria and the
proportion of gram-negative bacteria in marine sediment. Microb. Ecol., vol.
8, pp. 1-14.
Mostafa, Y.E.S. (2012). Environmental impacts of dredging in land reclamation at
Abu Qir Bay, Egypt. Ain Shams Engineering Journal, vol. 3, pp. 1-15.
130
Muller, G. (1979). Schwermetalle in den sedimenten des Rheins-
VeraÈnderungenseit. Umschau, vol. 79, pp.778–783. In C. Green-Ruiz, and
F. PaÂez-Osuna, (Eds.). Heavy metal anomalies in Lagoon sediments related
to Intensive Agriculture in Altata-Ensenada del PabelloÂn coastal system (SE
Gulf of California). Environment International,vol. 26, pp. 265–273.
Mulligan, C. Fukue, M. and Sato, Y. (2010). Sediments Contamination and
Sustainable Remediation. Boca Raton: CRC Press.
Mulligan, C.N., Yong, R.N. and Gibbs, B.F. (2001). An evaluation of technologies
for the heavy metal remediation of dredged sediments. Journal of Hazardous
Materials, vol. 85, pp. 145-163.
National Dredging Team USA, (1998). Local Planning Groups and Development of
Dredged Material management Plans.
New Zealand Food Safety Authority (NZFSA), (2010). Retrieved on May 6, 2015 at
www.foodsafety.govt.nz/science-risk/hazard-data-sheets/pathogen-data-
sheets.htm
Nguyen, H. Leermakers, M. Osan, J. Torok, S. and Baeyens, J. (2005). Heavy metals
in Lake Balaton: water column, suspended matter, sediment and biota.
Science of the Total Environment, vol. 340 (1-3), pp. 213–230.
Niewolak, S. and Opieka, A. (2000). Potentially Pathogenic Microorganisms in water
and bottom sediments in the Czarna Hancza River. Polish Journal of
Environmental Studies, vol. 9 (3), pp. 183-194.
Nobi, E., Dilipan, E., Thangaradjou, T., Sivakumar, K. and Kannan, L. (2010).
Geochemical and geo-statistical assessment of heavy metal concentration in
the sediments of different coastal ecosystems of Andaman Islands, India.
Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science, vol. 87(2), pp. 253–264.
Omiema, S.D. and Ideriah, T.J.K. (2012). Distribution of microorganisms in water
and sediment along Abonnema Shoreline, Eastern Niger Delta, Nigeria.
Journal of Chemical, Biological and Physical Sciences, vol. 2(4), pp. 2114-
2122.
Oslo-Paris Convention (OSPAR) (2009). Guidelines for the Management of Dredged
Material. Retrieved on February 7, 2014 at
http://www.bafg.de/Baggergut/DE/04_Richtlinien/OSPAR_2009.pdf?__blob
=publicationFile
131
Owens, P.N. (2008). Sustainable Management of Sediment Resources Volume
4.Sediment Management at the River Basin Scale.1st ed. The Netherlands:
Elsevier.
Pakzad, H. R., Pasandi, M., and Rahimi, H. (2014). Distribution of heavy metals in
the clastic fine-grainde sediments of Gavkhuni playa lake (Southeast of
Isfahan, Iran). Environ Earth Sci., vol 71, pp. 4683-4692.
Parson, L.E. and Swafford, R. (2012). Beneficial use of sediments from dredging
activities in the Gulf of Mexico. Journal of Coastal Research, vol. 60, pp. 45-
50.
Pebbles, V. and Throp, S. (2001). Waste to Resource: Beneficial Use of Great Lakes
Dredged Material. Great Lakes Comission. Retrieved on November 23, 2012
at glc.org/files/docs/2001-Beneficial-Use-Booklet.pdf
Permanent International Association of Navigation Congress (PIANC) (2006).
Environmental Risk Assessment of Dredging and Disposal Operations.
Retrieved on June 1, 2014 at
http://www.pianc.us/workinggroups/docs_wg/envicom-wg10.pdf
Philips M.C., Solo-Gabriele H.M., Piggot A.M., Klaus J.S. Zhang Y. (2011).
Relationships between sand and water quality at recreational beaches. Water
Research, vol. 45 (20), 6763-6769.
Pinheiro J.P., Mota, A.M. and Benedetti M.F. (1999). Lead and Calcium binding to
fulvic acids: salt effect and competition. Environ Sci Technol, vol.33 (19),
pp.3398-3404.
Praveena, S.M., Radojevic, M., Abdullah, M.H. and Aris, A.Z. (2007). Application
of sediment quality guidelines in the assessment of mangrove surface
sediment in Mengkabong Lagoon, Sabah, Malaysia. Global Journal of
Environmental Research, vol. 1(3), pp. 96-102.
Public Health Agency of Canada (PHAC) (2012). Pathogen Safety Data Sheet and
Risk Assessment. Retrieved on July 8, 2015 at http://www.phac-
aspc.gc.ca/lab-bio/res/psds-ftss/index-eng.php
Ra, K., Kim, E.S., Kim, K.T., Kim, J.K., Lee, J.M. and Choi J.Y. (2013). Assessment
of heavy metal contamination and its ecological risk in thesurface sediments
along the coast of Korea. Journal of Coastal Research, vol. 65, pp. 105-110.
Raes, M. A. M., Ibrahim, A. L. and Rahman, M. Z. A. (2011). Monitoring and
Simulation Assessment for Coastal Reclamation Area Using Remote Sensing
132
Approach. 32nd
Asian Conference on Remote Sensing 2011, ACRS 2011, vol
1, pp. 181-186.
Rajkovic A (2014) Microbial toxins and low level of foodborne exposure. Trends in
Food Science and Technology, vol. 38, pp. 149-157.
Rao, K.D., Anusha, M., Pranav, P.R.T. and Venkatesh, G. (2012). A laboratory study
on the stabilization of mrine clay using saw dust and lime. International
Journal of Engineering Science and Advanced Technology, vol. 2(4), pp. 851-
862.
Rao, K.D., Raju, G.V.R.P., Sowjanya, C. and Rao, J.P. (2011). Laboratory studies on
the properties of stabilized marine clay using from Kakinada Sea Coast, India.
International Journal of Engineering Science and Technology, vol. 3(1), pp.
421-428.
Rathinavelu, S., zavros, Y. and Merchant, J.L. (2003). Acinetobacter lwoffii infection
and gastritis. Microbes and Infection, vol. 5, pp. 651-657.
Rezayi, M., Ahmadzadeh, S., Kassim, A., and Heng, L.Y. (2011). Thermodynamic
studies of complex formation between Co (SALEN) ionophore with chromate
(II) ions in AN-H2O binary solutions by the conductometric method. vol. 6,
pp.6350–6359.
Romero, M., Andres, A., Alonso, R., Viguri, J. and Rincon, J.M. (2008)Sintering
behavior of ceramic bodies from contaminated marine sediments. Ceramic
International, vol. 34, pp. 1917-1924.
Romero, M., Andres, A., Alonso, R., Viguri, J. and Rincon, J.M. (2009). Phase
evolution and microstructural characterization of sintered ceramic bodies
from contaminated marine sediments. Journal of the European Ceramic
Society, vol. 29, pp. 15-22.
Saeed, S.M. and Shaker, I.M. (2008). Assessment of Heavy metals pollution in water
and sediment and their effect on Oreochromis Niloticus in the Northern Delta
Lakes, Egypt. 8th International Symposium on Tilapia in Aquaculture. pp.
475-490.
Santoso, M., Phoon, K.K. and Tan, T.S. (2013). Estimating Strength of Stabilized
Dredged Fill Using Multivariate Normal Model. J. Geotech. Geoenviron.
Eng. vol. 139, pp. 1944-1953.
Sany, S. B. T., Salleh, A., Rezayi, M., Saadati, N., Narimany, L. and Tehrani, G. M.
(2013). Distribution and Contamination of Heavy Metal in the Coastal
133
Sediments of Port Klang, Selangor, Malaysia. Water Air Soil Pollut, vol. 224,
pp. 1476-1494.
Sapota, G., Dembska, G., Bogdaniuk, M. and Holm, G. (2012). Environmental policy
and legislation on dredged material in the Baltic Sea Region – analysis. IEEE,
vol. 12.
Sarkar, M.S.K., Begum, R.A., Pereira, J.J., Jaafar, A.H. and Saari, M.Y. (2014).
Impacts of and adaptations to sea level rise in Malaysia. Asian Journal of
Water, Environment and Pollution, vol. 11 (2), pp. 29-36.
Schippers, A., Kock, D., Hoft, C., Koweker, G. and Siegert, M. (2012).
Quantification of microbial communities in subsurface marine sediments of
the Black Sea and off Namibia. Frontiers in Microbiology, vol. 3(16), pp.1-
11.
Sheehan, C., Harrington, J., Murphy, J.D., (2010) „A technical assessment of topsoil
production from dredged material‟, Journal of Resources, Conservation &
Recycling, vol. 54, pp. 1377–1385.
Siddiquee, N. A., Parween, S., Quddus, M.M.A and Barua, P. (2009). Heavy metal
pollution in sediments at ship breaking area of Bangladesh. Asian Journal of
Water, Environment and Pollution, vol. 6, no. 3, pp. 7-12.
Siham, K., Fabrice, B., Edine, A.N. and Patrick, D. (2008). Marine dredged
sediments as new materials resource for road construction. Waste
Management, vol. 28, pp. 919-928.
Singh, K.P., Malik, A., Sinha, S., Singh, V.K., Murthy, R.C., (2005). Estimation of
source of heavy metal contamination in sediments of Gomti river (India)
using principal component analysis. Water Air Soil Pollut, vol. 166, pp. 321–
341.
Sultan, K., and Shazili, N.A. (2009). Distribution and geochemical baselines of
major, minor and trace elements in tropical topsoils of the Terengganu River
basin, Malaysia. J Geochem Explor., vol. 103 (2-3), pp. 57–68.
Szczucinski, W., Kokocinski, M., Rzeszewski, M., Chague-Goff, C., Cachao, M.,
Goto, K. and Sugawara, D. (2012). Sediment sources and sedimentation
processes of 2011 Tohoku-oki tsunami deposits on the Sendai Plain, Japan-
Insights from diatoms, nannoliths and grain size distribution. Sedimentary
Geology, vol. 282, pp. 40-56.
134
Tack F, M. G. (2010) Trace Elements: General Soil Chemistry, Principles and
Processes.In : Hooda Ps (eds) Trace Elements in soils. John Wiley and Sons,
London, pp 9-32.
Taha, M. R. and Kabir, M. H. (2005). Tropical residual soil as compacted soil liners.
Environmental Geology, vol. 47, pp. 375-381.
Takahashi, C., Shirai, T. and Fuji, M. (2013).Electron microscopic observation of
montmorillonite swelled by water with the aid of hydrophilic ionic liquid.
Materials Chemistry and Physics, vol. 141, pp. 657-664.
Tapia, J. Vargas-Chacoff, L., Bertran, C., Pena-Cortes, F., Hauenstein, E., Schlatter,
R., Valderrama, A., Lizana, C. and Fierro, P. (2014) Accumulation of
potentially toxic elements in sediments in Budi lagoon, Araucania Region,
Chile. Environ Earth Sci, vol. 72, pp. 4283-4290.
Terzaghi, K., Peck, R.B. and Mesri, G. (1996). Soil Mechanics in Engineering
Practice. 3rd
ed. United States of America: John Wiley and Sons, Inc.
Thiyyakkandi, S. and Annex, S. (2011). Effect of Organic Content on Geotechnical
Properties of Kuttanad Clay. EJGE, vol. 16. pp. 1653-1663.
Turekian, K.K. and Wedepohl, K.H. (1961). Distribution of the Elements in some
major units of the Earth‟s crust. Geological Society of America Bulletin, vol.
72(2), pp. 175-192.
United State Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) and United State Army
Corps of Engineers (USACE) (2007). Identifying, planning and Financing
Beneficial Use Projects Using Dredged Material. Washington, D.C.
United State Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) and US Army Corps of
Engineers (USACE), (2004). Evaluating Environmental Effects of Dredged
Material Management Alternatives-A Technical Framework. Washington
D.C.
Vlasblom, W.J. (2003). Introduction to dredging equipment. Retrieved on December
15, 2015 at www http://www.dredging.org/
Veerasingam, S., Venkatachalapathy, R. and Ramkumar, T. (2014). Historical
environmental pollution trend and ecological risk assessment of trace metals
in marine sediments off Adyar estuary, Bay of Bengal, India. Environ. Earth
Sci., vol. 71, pp. 3963-3975.
135
Verma, H. R. (2007). Atomic and Nuclear Analytical Methods: XRF, Mossbauer,
XPS, NAA and Ion-Beam Spectrometer Techniques. Springer: Berlin,
Heidelberg, New York.
Wan Mohd Khalik, W.M.A., Abdullah, M.P. and Sani, N.A.A. (2013). Preliminary
Studies on Sediment Characteristics and Metals Contaminants of Temenggor
Lake, Malaysia. Journal of Sustainability Science and Management, vol. 8(1),
pp. 80-86.
Wan Salim, W.S., Sadikon, S.F., Salleh, S.M., Noor, N.A.M., Arshad, M.F. and
Wahid, N. (2012). Assessment of physical properties and chemical
composition of Kuala Perlis dredged marine sediment as a potential brick
material. 2012 IEEE Symposium on Business, Engineering and Industrial
Applications. 23-26 Sept. 2012. Indonesia: IEEE. 2012. Pp. 509-512.
Wang, I. K., Kuo, H. L., Chen, Y. M., Lin, C. L., Chang, H. Y., Chuang, F. R., and
Lee, M. H. (2005). Extraintestinal manifestations of Edwardsiella tarda
infection. International Journal of Clinical Practice, vol. 59(8), pp. 917-921.
Whitlow, R. (2001). Basic Soil Mechanis.4th
ed. London: Pearson Hall.
Winfield, L.E., and Lee, C.R. (1999). "Dredged material characterization tests for
beneficial use suitability," DOER.Technical Notes Collection (TN DOER-
C2), U.S. Army Engineer Research and Development Center, Vicksburg, MS.
Yap, C.K., Ismail, A., Pang, B.H., Yeow, K.L., Tan, S.G. and Siraj, S.S. (2006).
Elevated heavy metal concentrations in surface sediments collected from the
drainages of the Sri Serdang Industrial Area, Malaysia. Malays Appl. Biol.,
vol. 35(2), pp. 35-40.
Yi, Y., Yang, Z. and Zhang, S. (2011). Ecological risk assessment of heavy metals in
sediment and human health risk assessment of heavy metals in fishes in the
middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River basin. Environmental
Pollution, vol. 159, pp. 2575-2585.
Yin, K., Giannis, A., Wong, A. S.Y. and Wang, J. Y. (2014). EDTA-Enhanced
Thermal Washing of Contaminated Dredged Marine Sedimnets for Heavy
Metal Removal. Water Air Soil Pollut. vol. 225, pp. 2024-2035.
Zentar, R., Wang, D., Abriak, N.E., Benzerzour, M. and Chen, W. (2012). Utilization
of siliceous-aluminous fly ash and cement for solidification of marine
sediments. Construction and Building Materials, vol. 35, pp. 856-863.
136
Zhang, C., Yu, Z.G., Zeng, G.M., Jiang, M., Yang, Z.Z., Cui, Y., Zhu, M.Y., Shen,
L.Q. and Hu, L. (2014). Effects of sediment geochemical properties on heavy
metal bioavailability. , vol. 73, pp. 270–281.
Zoubeir, L., Adeline, S., Laurent, C.S., Yoann, C., Truc, H.T., Benoit, L.G. and
Federico, A. (2007). The use of the Novosol process for the treatment of
polluted marine sediment. Journal of Hazardous Materials, vol. 148, pp. 606-
612.
Zulkifli, S.Z., Ismail, A., Mohamat Yusuff, F., Arai, T. and Miyazaki, N. (2010)
Johor Straits as a hotspot for trace elements contamination in Peninsular
Malaysia. Bull Environ Contam Toxicol, vol.84, pp.568–573.