development of the concept
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Development of the concept
Medieval writers divided history into periods such as the "Six Ages" or the "Four Empires", and considered their time to bethe last before the end of the world.
[3]When referring to their
own times, they spoke of them as being "modern".[4] In the
1330s, the humanist and poet Petrarch referred to pre-Christian times as antiqua (or "ancient") and to the Christianperiod as nova (or "new").[5] Leonardo Bruni was the firsthistorian to use tripartite periodization in his History of theFlorentine People (1442).[6] Bruni and later historians arguedthat Italy had recovered since Petrarch's time, and thereforeadded a third period to Petrarch's two. The "Middle Ages" firstappears in Latin in 1469 as media tempestas or "middle
season".[7]
In early usage, there were many variants,including medium aevum, or "middle age", first recorded in1604,[8] and media saecula, or "middle ages", first recorded in1625.[9] The alternative term "medieval" (or occasionally"mediaeval") derives from medium aevum.[10] Tripartiteperiodization became standard after the Germanhistorian Christoph Cellarius (1638 –1707) divided history intothree periods: Ancient, Medieval, and Modern.[9] English is the
only major language that retains a plural form of the term.[11]
In European history, the Middle Ages, or Medieval period,lasted from the 5th to the 15th century. It began withthe collapse of the Western Roman Empire, and wasfollowed by the Renaissance and the Age of Discovery. The Middle Ages is the middle period of the traditionaldivision of Western history into Antiquity, Medieval, andModern periods. The period is subdivided into the Early, the High, and the Late Middle Ages.
Depopulation, deurbanization, and barbarian invasions,which had begun in Late Antiquity, continued in the EarlyMiddle Ages. The barbarian invaders formed newkingdoms in what remained of the Western Roman Empire.
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In the 7th century, North Africa and the Middle East, oncepart of the Eastern Roman Empire (the Byzantine Empire),became an Islamic Empire after conquest by Muhammad'ssuccessors. Although there were substantial changes insociety and political structures, the break with Antiquity wasnot complete. The still sizeable Byzantine Empire survived
and remained a major power. The empire's law code,the Code of Justinian, was widely admired later in theMiddle Ages. In the West, most kingdoms incorporatedextant Roman institutions, while monasteries were foundedas Christianity expanded in Western Europe. The Franks, under the Carolingian dynasty, established an empirecovering much of Western Europe; the CarolingianEmpire endured until the 9th century, when it succumbed tothe pressures of internal civil wars combined with externalinvasions—Vikings from the north, Magyars from the east,and Saracens from the south.
Temples
The Kandariyâ Mahâdeva Temple (Devanagari:
, IAST: Kandariyā Mahādeva) is the largest and most
ornate Hindu temple in the medieval temple group foundat Khajuraho in Madhya Pradesh, India. It is consideredone of the best examples of temples preserved from themedieval period in India.[1]Khajuraho was once the religiouscapital of the Chandela Rajputs and today is one of themost popular tourist destinations in India. The KandariyaMahadeva temple is the largest of the Western group of temples and was built by Vidyadhara[citation needed ], arguablyone of the greatest Chandela kings. The temple was builtaround 1050 on Hindu beliefs dating back to 1000 BC; Themain spire or sikhara rises 31 m to depict Mount Kailash,the Himalayan mountain abode of Shiva and is surroundedby 84 miniature spires (or Urushringas). Inside the sanctum
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is a marble linga representing Shiva.[2] The ArchaeologicalSurvey of Indiaprotects the temple, which is part of the UNESCO World Heritage site at Khajuraho.
Monuments
Monuments of India's Medieval Period1
The Taj Mahal is a stunning example of India's Mughal-eraarchitectureIndia's Medieval period is generally known as the MughalEmpire, a period that lasted from 1525 to 1860 A.D. Duringthis era, India became united as a single nation and began toflourish economically and culturally. Builders and craftsmen,
working on orders from the emperors of the era, expanded ontraditional Persian styles to create palaces, mausoleums andfortresses made from gleaming white marble and and redsandstone. Today, these architectural masterpieces still havethe power to leave visitors in awe of their beauty and design.
Including
Synonyms: include, comprise, comprehend, embrace,
involve These verbs mean to take in or contain as part of somethinglarger. Include often implies an incomplete listing: "Throughthe process of amendment, interpretation and court decision I have finally been included in 'We, the people'" (Barbara C.Jordan).Comprise usually implies that all of the components arestated: The book comprises 15 chapters.
Comprehend and embrace usually refer to the taking in of subordinate elements: My field of study comprehends several disciplines. This theory embraces many facets of humanbehavior. Involve usually suggests inclusion as a logical consequence
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or necessary condition: "Every argument involves someassumptions" (Brooke F. Westcott).
Usage Note: Some writers insist that include be used onlywhen it is followed by a partial list of the contents of thereferent of the subject. Therefore, one may write New
England includes Connecticut and Rhode Island, but onemust use comprise or consist of to provide fullenumeration: New England comprises (not includes) Connecticut, Rhode Island,Massachusetts, Vermont, New Hampshire, and Maine. Thisrestriction is too strong. Include does not rule out thepossibility of a complete listing. Thus the sentence Thebibliography should include all the journal articles you have
used does not entail that the bibliography must containsomething other than journal articles, though it does leavethat possibility open. The use of comprise or consist of, however, will avoid ambiguity when a listing is meant to beexhaustive. Thus the sentence The task force includes all of the Navy units on active duty in the region allows for thepossibility that Marine and Army units are also taking part,where the same sentence with comprisewould entail that the
task force contained only Navy forces. See Usage Noteat comprise.
medieval period stupas
goes up in shelves with Stupa 2 situated on a lower shelf,
Stupa 1, Stupa 3, the 5th century Gupta Temple No.17 and
the 7th century temple No. 18 are on the intermediate shelf
and a later monastery is on the crowning shelf. Thebalustrade surrounding Stupa 2, carved with aniconic
representations of the Buddha, was added in the late 2nd
century BC under the Satavahanas.
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The adjacent Gupta temple no.17 was hailed by Sir John
Marshall as one of the most rationally organized structures in
Indian architecture. Though small, it was a herald of all the
principles which went into the engineering of an Indian temple
in the early medieval period. The Buddhas in the
perambulatory surrounding Stupa 1 are not contemporary with
the Stupa but belong to the Gupta period in the mid-5th
century AD. The monastery and the temple with the tall pillars
adjacent to Stupa 1 and the temple near the monastery on the
crowning shelf illustrate the evolution of the architectural form
after the 5th century Gupta temple.
Facts / Did you know?
A Chunar sandstone pillar fragment, shining with the
proverbial Mauryan polish, lies near Stupa I and carries the
famous edict of Ashoka warning against schism in the
Buddhist community. Stupa 1 was found empty, while relics of
the two disciples of Buddha enshrined in the adjacent Stupa 3were carried away to England. The nearby modern temple
has a reliquary containing the remains of a Buddhist teacher
from another Stupa outside Sanchi.
Forts
The capital of each raja or chieftain was a fort around which atownship grew and developed; this pattern can be seen in
many South Asian cities suchas Delhi, Agra, Rajasthan,Lahore, Pune, Calcutta and Mumbai. Two forts in India are UNESCO world heritage sitesthe Agra fort and the Red fort. The oldest surviving fort inIndia is the Qila Mubarak atBathinda which had it origins in
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100 AD during the Kushan empire, The KangraFort in Kangra believed to have been built by the stillsurviving Katoch dynasty after the battle of Mahabharta. Thefort was written about by the scribes of Alexander the Great,thus making it the oldest fort in India .
Medieval Delhi developed around Chandni Chowk, thetownship adjoining the Red Fort while and Kolkata cameabout around Fort William built by the British. Many smalltowns ranging from Jhansi to Chandragiri grew around forts.Some towns even acquired the names from the forts. Durg isfort in Hindi. Satara was so named because of the seventeenwalls of the fort. Then there are famous monuments in certaincities and towns that overshadow the importance of the
forts. Agra Fort pales into comparative insignificance againstthe glory of the Taj Mahal. Khajuraho temples overshadowRajgarh Fort.
The conquest of, or battles for the forts of India have beensignificant occasions in Indian history. The capture of QilaMubarak (Bathinda) in 1004 AD by Mahmud of Ghazniheralded the advent of Islamic rule in India. Thestruggle of Shivaji against the Mughals in the seventeenth
century and his reign occur against the backdrop of forts inthe Deccan. The capture of Seringapatam and death of TippuSultan in 1799 cemented British rule in South India. Thecapture of Gawilghur by Arthur Wellesley, later Duke of Wellington, ended the Maratha threat to British rule in CentralIndia at the time of the Second Anglo-Maratha War .
Prime Minister of India hoists the Indian flag on the rampartsof the historical site, Red Fort, Delhi, On August 15th.
The flag of independent India was first unfurled from theramparts of the Red Fort by none other than Jawahar Lal
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Nehru, first Prime Minister of India on the morning of 15 August 1947. This practice of unfurling of flag followed by aspeech by the Prime Minister continues each year onIndependence Day. Just after World War II, the Red Fort hadbeen the scene of the famous trial of the Indian National
Army.
remains of buildings
What has archaeology got to do with buildings?
Archaeology is the study of the material remains andenvironmental effects of human behaviour: evidence
can range from landscapes to microscopic organisms
and covers all periods from the origins of human life
to the remains of 20th-century industry and warfare.Standing buildings, as much as the remains of theirburied counterparts, are witnesses to that past andcan tell us much about the technology, social
organisations, aspirations and everyday life of theirinhabitants.
Historic buildings are also essential components of our
everyday surroundings. They are part of the familiarand cherished local scene and, together with streetpatterns and open space, define both the historic
development of a settlement and the way we livetoday.
Legislation, archaeology and buildings
A small percentage of buildings is protected by listingbecause of special architectural or historic interest,
while some unoccupied buildings are scheduled asancient monuments (under the Planning (ListedBuildings and Conservation Areas) Act 1990 and theAncient Monuments and Archaeological Areas Act
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1979 respectively). Currently about 500,000individual buildings are listed – a tiny numbercompared to the total stock. Buildings can be listed atGrade I (of exceptional interest: about 2%); II* (of more than special interest: about 4%) and II (of
special interest: 94%). The protection offered by listing is universal and covers the whole building,including the interior – it does not differ with thelisting grade.
Listing a building does not prohibit change. Instead it
seeks to manage change by requiring owners to applyfor listed building consent for demolition or for works
of alteration or extension which would affect thebuilding’s character. Unlike planning permission nofee is payable, and the process of making a listedbuilding consent application gives an owner ordeveloper access to expert conservation advice fromthe local authority, national and local expert societies
and English Heritage.
The local planning authority is required to notify thenational amenity
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The structure of the human alimentary canal
The alimentary canal is a long hollow tube which runs from the mouth to
the anus .Together with several other organs, including the liver and the
pancreas, it makes up the digestive system.
The total length of the human alimentary canal is between 5 and 6 m, fromanus to mouth. To fit this considerable length into body, parts of the canal
are folded and coiled inside the abdomen .The mucus is a substance
secreted along the tube by cells lining its walls .Mucus helps food to slide
through the canal without doing too much damage to the lining. It also
forms a protective covering which keeps the digestive juices, which are
inside the lumen of the canal, from coming into contact with the living cells
of the walls. Along the whole length of the alimentary canal there are
muscles in the walls. These produce waves, of
Contraction and relaxation called peristaltic waves, which move food along
the alimentary canal and help to mix the contents. Each region of the
alimentary canal has it own function and different structure. There are 4
basic layers in the wall of the alimentary canal. Working from the inside
these are: a) the mucosa b) the submucosa c) the muscularis externa d)
the serosa. Many of this names came from Latin origin.
The mucosa is made up of 3 layers. The innermost layer is the epithelium.
The structure of the epithelium varies in different parts of
the alimentary canal, but it always contains cells which secrete mucus.42833iem24lnq9k
Beneath it is a layer of connective tissue called lamina propria, which
means 'closest layer'. And beneath that is a layer of smooth muscle called
the muscular is mucosa.
The sub mucosa is made up of areole connective tissue. This is an open-
textured stretchy tissue, containing many elastic fibred and collagen fibres.
Running through it are numerous blood vessels and nerves.
The muscularis externa ia made of two layers of muscle. The innermost
layer has fibres running around the tube, and is called circular muscle. The
outermost layer has fibres running along the tube and it is called
longitudinal muscle.
The serosa is a very thin layer, made up of connective tissue covered with
a single layer of thin, smooth closely fitting cells. en833i2424lnnq
We can observe in detail each part of the human alimentary canal structure
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in this diagram.
The mouth:
Taking food into the mouth is called ingestion. We use lips, tongue and
teeth. The tongue is also important in tasting food, to tell you whether it is
good to eat; if not it will be ejected from the mouth rather than swallowed.
The main purpose of the human teeth is to break up large pieces of food,
thus beginning the process of the mechanical digestion. This is done bychewing, or mastication. Strong muscle is the jaws move the lower jaw up
and down from side to side, grinding the teeth in the lower jaw against
those in the upper jaw.
The premolar and molar teeth have ridges and grooves, which trap food
between them and crush it as chew. Mastication greatly increases the
surface area of the food, bringing more of it into direct contact with
enzymes in the digestive juice and so speeding up chemical digestion.
Three pairs of salivary glands secrete watery liquid saliva, which pours
along ducts into the mouth. Like all secretions along the alimentary canal,
saliva is mostly water. It contains mucus, which mixes with the food as it is
chewed, helping to glue it loosely together into a ball called a bolus. The
mucus also makes the bolus slippery, so that is easier to swallow.
Saliva contains the enzyme amylase, which catalyses the hydrolysis of
starch. .
Thus, digestion by amylase produces maltose and small chain made up of
three, four or more glucose molecules on the end of a chain . Thus ,
digestion by amylase produces maltose and small chains made up three,four or more glucose molecules linked together, but it does not produce
individual glucose molecules.
Saliva also contains an enzyme called lysozyme. This enzyme, which is
also found in tears, can destroy several types of bacteria which can cause
infection in the mouth and throat, including Staphylococcus and
Streptococcus. The lysozyme,
together with a general 'washing' action of saliva, and a small amount of
hydrogen carbonate ions in it ( which partly neutralizes acids on teeth )
appear to
help reduce the incidence of tooth decay.