DIGGING UPBRITAIN

TEN DISCOVERIES, A MILLION YEARS OF HISTORY

DIGGING UPBRITAIN

MIKE PITTS

Contents

Preface 6

1 AVikingMassacre 11 Weymouth,ad1000

2 TheStaffordshireHoard 36 Hammerwich,ad600–700

3 RomanOccupation 62 London,ad45–400

4 LivinginRoundHouses 87 BlackLoch,450–250bc,and MustFarm,1300–800bc

5 PathsoftheDead 117 CliffsEnd,900–300bc

6 ShapedbyBeliefs 143 Stonehenge,4000–2000bc

7 DeerHunters 169 StarCarr,11,000yearsago

8 Cannibals 195 Gough’sCave,15,000yearsago

9 ElephantHunters 220 Barnham,400,000yearsago

10 Journeys 244 Amillionyearsofhistory Notes 261 FurtherReadingandPlacestoSee 274 Acknowledgments 278 SourcesofIllustrations 280 Index 281

Ifitweren’tforthestronglyheldbeliefthat‘indigenous’Britsareawhiterace,withapristineculturestemmingfromtimeimmemorial,thenthedebatearoundimmigrationcouldconceivablybea

rationalone….Insteadwhatwehaveisanemotional,andemotive,storyofthreatandinvasion.

AfuaHirsch,Brit(ish)London:JonathanCape,2018,p.298

ForMia

Frontispiece:TheWeymouthmass-burial(detail,seep.29)

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Chapter 1

AVikingMassacreWeymouth,ad1000

The2012SummerOlympicswereoftencalledtheLondonOlympics,butnoteverythinghappenedinthecapital.SailingtookplaceoffthecoastofDorset.Amonglocaldevelopmentprojectsthattheattentionmadepossiblewasthelong-awaitedconstructionofabypass,takingtrafficoutoftheseasideresortofWeymouthandnorthtoDorchester.

Followingstandardpractice,archaeologistswereamongthosewhoworkedontheroadatanearlystage,advisingonrouteslessdamagingtoheritage.Theyfoundpreviouslyunknownprehistoricvillagesandgraves,commonfare.Butatonepointtheycameacrosssomethingthatnoneofthemhadeverexperiencedbefore.1

AboveWeymouthisaprotectedlandscapeknownastheDorsetRidgeway,wheregreenhillswanderformilesmoreorlessparalleltothecoast.Therewasanarrowstripofgroundwherethenew,deeperroute,cuttingthroughtheridge,wastomergewiththeoldroad.Forhealthandsafetyreasonsthearchaeologistswereunabletoexcavatethereinadvance,andinstead,whenworkswereinplacethatcon-trolledthetraffic,theysteppedintorecordanythingofinterestthatcouldbeseenasheavy-wheeledmachineryremovedthesoil.

Athickhedgestoodbetweentheoldroadandthenewworks.Asitwasbeingdugoutwithamechanicalexcavator,thealertoperator

highlytechnical.Asarule,thefurtherbackintothepastwego,theslighteristheevidenceandthemoredependentweareonsophisti-catedsciencesandlong-debatedprinciplesofinterpretation.Startingwiththemostrecentremains,wherepreservationisgoodandwehavesomecontemporaryliteraturetohelpus,allowsmetointroduceproceduresatameasuredpacethroughoutthebook.

Finally,conventionalchronologicalhistorycanimposeawayofseeingthepastthat,especiallywiththelongspansofprehistory,isunhelpful.WhenwereadaboutAnglo-SaxonEnglandknowingtheNormanConquestisonthehorizon,it’sverydifficult,evenifunconsciously,nottothinkthattheearlierworldisdoomed;withoutrealizingitwecanendupimaginingthatAnglo-Saxonpeopleknewthattoo.Wejudgethemagainstwhatcameaftertheyweregone.

Thisisespeciallydangerouswithatimelineofmillennia,the‘progression’(see?)oftheagesofStone,BronzeandIron,andthealmostinevitablesenseofthedarkmysteriesofantiquity.WehavetoguardagainstwonderinghowpeopleintheBronzeAgemanagedwithoutwriting,orintheStoneAgewithoutmetals.Bythinkingbackwards,ourperspectiveinaparticularchapterisoursubjects’presentandalessclearideaoftheirpast–whichisexactlyhowtheywouldhaveunderstoodthings,ignorantofwhatwastofollow.

Littleofwhatyouwillreadherecouldhavebeenwrittenevenfiveyearsago.Asajournalistandeditor,Ilearnaboutexcavationsacrossthecountryastheytakeplace.Imeetpeoplewhoareuncover-ingandanalysingthestuffoffuturehistorybooksandexhibitions.Asanarchaeologist,IcancriticallyevaluatewhatIseeandread,andIengageinalittleresearchandexcavationmyself.Thestoriesarenew,andifthediscoveriesaresometimeslessimmediatelyso–theStaffordshireHoard,asweshallseeinChapter2,wasfoundin2009–theiranalysisandscientificpublicationareonlynowbeingcompleted.Studycontinuesatseveralofthelocationsfeaturedinthisbook.

SoitisthatwebeginourexcavationofBritaininViking-ageEngland.Athousandyearsago(foursecondsinthehouroftheentirespanofBritain’shumanoccupation),agroupofpeoplefromacrossEuropegatheredonaDorsethillside.Manyofthemneverleft.

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noticedsomethinginhisgreattoothedyellowbucket:bone.Hemighthaveignoreditandgotonwiththejob,andsomethingextraor-dinarythathadbeenunknownwouldalsohavebecomeunknowable.ButSkanska,thecontractor,andthepeopleatOxfordArchaeologyhadagoodworkingrelationship,andthedriverdidasinstructed.Hephonedforhelp.

Theboneinthebucketwasnotalone.Itwouldbesixmonthsbeforethearchaeologistshadfinished.Theyexposedthetopofalargefilledpit,itssoilshowingdarkagainstthewhitechalkintowhichithadbeenduglikeasmallpond.ItwasMay.Conditionsweregood:dryandnotsowarmthatthegroundturnedtodustbeforeyoucouldseewhatwasthere.Thesitewasinasaginthetopoftheridge,adrawforasuccessionofoldtracksandroads.Thehollowrestrictsviewsalongtheridgetoeitherside.ButtothenorthyoucanseethesprawlingrampartsofMaidenCastle,oneofthegreatwondersofancientBritain,andtothesouthWeymouth,thesmall,cliff-edgedIsleofPortland–alimestoneoutcropthathangslikeadripofice-creamfromtheDorsetcoast–andthesea.

Themechanicalexcavatorhadscatteredandcrushedbones.Butitbecameapparentthatmostoftheremainswerestillintheground.Inonecornerofthepit,whichwassquarishinshape,atightlypackedgroupofnearlyfiftyhumanskullswasrevealed,lookinglikeanestofdinosaureggs.Lowerjawsweremoreorlessinplace,asifstillattached:itwasnotbonesthathadbeenburied,butheads,withhairandflesh.Notskulls,butfaces.Judgingfromtheskullsthatcouldbeseen,theymightallhavebeenmen.Anddeeperacrosstherestofthepitwerethebodies.

Whowerethesepeople?It’scommonforgravestocontainartefactsaswellashumanremains–sometimesobjectsareallthatsurvive.Suchthingscanbethebestguidetoidentity,whothepeoplewereandwhentheydied.ThepitaboveWeymouth,however,wasnotanormalgrave.

Thearchaeologistsfoundonlyafewpiecesofbrokenpotterytohintatwhenitmighthavebeendugorwhothemenwere.ThesherdsseemedtobeIronAgeorRoman,frompotsmadebetween100 bcand ad 100.Buttheywereaccidentalrubbishratherthangoodsplacedinthegrave.Theonlycertainthingthatcouldbesaidwasthatthedeathshadnotoccurredmuchbefore3,000yearsago.Thereweredeep,cleancutmarksonsomeofthebones

Excavating the Weymouth burials in 2009, with skulls piled on

the southern edge of the pit.

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Excavationcontinued.Thebodieswereentangled,theirlegsandarmsoverlapping.Ribsconcealedfeet.Thehandsofonemanspreadunfeelingfingersoverthecurvedspineofanother.Therewassuchaconfusionofbone,itwasdifficulttomakesenseofwhatwasthere.Thearchaeologistspokedandscrapedandbrushedwithlittlehandtools,toexposeasmuchastheycouldwithoutdisturb-ingtheremains.Thiswaytheycouldidentifyindividualbodiesanddeterminehowonelayoveranother–theorderinwhichtheyhadbeenburied.Carefulrecordingshouldalloweachindividualtobeidentified.

LouiseLoe,headofburialsatOxfordArchaeology(archaeologi-calworkcanbeasboringandbureaucraticasanyotherkind,butyougetgoodjobtitles),4wasatthatverymomentalsooverseeinganexcavationonaFirstWorldWarbattlefield,atFromellesinnorth-ernFrance.BySeptemberthearchaeologistswouldhaveexhumedtheremainsandpossessionsof250men.TheywereAlliedtroops,buriedbyGermansoldiersinlargecommunalpitsholdingasmallproportionofthethousandswhodiedthere,onenightinJuly1916.

LouiseensuredthatthesamerecordingtechniqueswereusedinWeymouthasatFromelles.Everyskullandskeletonwasgivenauniquenumber,anddrawnasitlaybeforebeingremoved.Manyphotographsweretaken.Osteologistsnoteddownwhatcouldbeseen,lookingforindicationsofageandgender,missingbonesanddisease,and,especially,wounds.Foreveryskeleton,thepositionsofforty-fourpointswerepreciselyrecordedwithdigitalsurveyingequipment,sothatthewaythebodieslaycouldberecreatedinthelab.

Thenthearchaeologistsliftedandbaggedthebones,onebyone,totaketoOxford.

Withthebonesgone,thearchaeologistscouldlookmorecloselyatthepit.Ittranspiredthattheburialshadnotlainonitsbase:75–85centimetres(2or3feet)ofsilthadalreadyaccumulatedbeforethebodieswerethrownin.Itwasawidepit,about7metres(23feet)acrossandoriginallyaboutthedepthofastandingperson.Sowhentheexecutionershadlookedforaplacetodisposeoftheirvictims,theyhadchosenagrown-overhollowratherthanfacetheeffortofdiggingamassgrave;perhapsthepititselfhaddeterminedthepreciselocationoftheatrocity.Theboneshadnotbeendisturbedbyanimals,sothebodiesmusthavebeencoveredoverrapidlywithalayerofshovelledchalkandearth.

whereheadshadbeenremoved,whichcouldonlyhavebeenmadewithmetalblades.ThefirstswordsinBritainwerecastinbronzearound1300 bc.

NonethelessitwastemptingtothinkthemenwereRoman.TheroadthatwasnowbeingrebuiltfollowedaRomanroadthatconnectedasmallportinwhatisnowWeymouthwithDorchester.OnthewayitpassedMaidenCastle,whereexcavationinthe1930srevealedaclusterofoverfiftygraves.Thearchaeologist,MortimerWheeler,dubbedthesiteaWarCemetery.Manyofthepeoplehaddiedviolently.InonefamouscaseamanwasburiedwithanironboltfromaRomanspearembeddedinhisspine.Here,saidWheeler,wasevidenceforanassaultbyaninvadingRomanarmyononeofBritain’sgreattribalcentres.Thiswasnomassburial,however:mournershadhadtimetodigseparategravesforeachofthedead,andlaythemdownwithpotsandjointsofmeat.SoperhapsthepitonRidgewayHillwaswitnesstoanevenmorebrutalconfrontationbetweenRomanandnative.2

DorsetCountyCouncilwasthrilled,andinJuneitissuedapressreleasedescribingthefind.TheburialsdatedfromlateIronAgeorearlyRomantimes,saidthestatement,buthowtheygottherewasamystery.‘Itseemshighlylikely’,saidOxfordArchaeology,‘thatsomekindofcatastrophiceventsuchaswar,diseaseorexecutionhasoccurred.’Thecouncilaskedthepublictokeepaway.Thesitewasdangerous,andunder24-hoursecurity.Thiswasawiseprecaution:shortlyaftertheskullshadbeensurveyed,onewentwalkabout,nevertobeseenagain.3

WiththeresearchtoolsavailabletoMortimerWheeler,thatwouldhavebeenprettymuchtheendofit.Butnowwehaveabatteryofforensicsciences.OxfordArchaeologysentasampleofbonetoaradiocarbondatinglabinGlasgow.

TheresultcamebackinJuly.Itshowedtheexecutedmennottobesoancient:theywerealiveinAnglo-Saxontimes,when,asthecouncil’snewpressreleaseputit,therewas‘considerableconflictbetweentheresidentSaxonpopulationandinvadingDanes’.Soweretheyresidentsorinvaders?One’simmediatereactionwastoimagineaVikingmassacre:herewasthegraveofmenslaughteredastheydefendedtheirhomesandfamiliesagainstmaraudersfromacrossthesea.Theshockingdetailsrevealedoverthefollowingtwoyearsoflabwork,however,broughtafurthertwisttothestory.

N

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Forsomeyearsafter,thegrasswouldhavegrownthickerandgreener.Theneverythingthateverhappenedtherewasforgotten.

*

InthecleanstillnessofthelabinOxford,awayfromthenoiseofmachineryandroadtraffic,thedirtofexcavationandtheinterrup-tionsofvisitingfilmcrews,thequestionhadtobefaced.Whoonearthwerethesepeople?

ItwasthesamequestionthathadmotivatedtheexcavationatFromelles.There,OxfordArchaeologyhadsetupforensiclabsbesidethepitsinwhichtheyhadfoundthesoldiers’remains.Thesewerereburiedinamilitarycemetery,andby2014,whenanidentifica-tioncommitteemetforthelasttime,anunexpectednumberofmenhadbeennamed.Archaeologistsandscientistsbuiltupapictureofeachindividualfromtheirphysicalremainsandpossessions.Thelatterwereoftenjustscrapsofbootsanduniform,theinsigniaofsoldiery,butsomeweremorepoignant.Aleatherheartcontainedalockofhair;asecond-classreturntrainticketfromFreemantletoPerthhadbeensecretedinsideagasmask,unused.Withsuchinformationpointingtoknowncasualties,DNAwascollectedfrombonesandfromlivingdescendants.Eventually144menwereidenti-fied,allAustralian,andtheirnameswereengravedonstonesinthecemetery.Oftheothers,seventy-fivehadalsoservedintheAustralianArmy,andtwoforBritain.Justtwenty-nineremained,alone,‘knownuntoGod’.5

NoneofthemenintheWeymouthpitcouldbenamed,andanydescendantswouldforeverremainunidentified.Theyhaddiedtoolongago.Buttherewasanotherproblem,resultingfromtheirmannerofdeath.

Muchbonehadbeendamagedbythemechanicalexcavator,includingmostoftheskulls.Manyotherpieceshadbeenseparatedfromthebodies,sothattherewasasubstantialcollectionofdisar-ticulatedbonethatcouldnotbeallocatedtoanyoneperson.Asaresult,aftermonthsofstudythearchaeologistswereunabletosayexactlyhowmanypeoplehadbeenburied.Therearevariouswaysofcalculatingfromexcavatedremainswhatarchaeologistscallthe‘minimumnumberofindividuals’.Eachmethodcameupwitha

The pit above Weymouth as excavated, with all human remains plotted,

showing bodies in the centre and heads to the south. All pit plans adapted

from Loe et al. 2014.

damaged by mechanical excavator

2 m

6 ft

N

1918

Chapter 1

slightlydifferentresult:theonethearchaeologistspreferredsug-gestedfifty-twoskeletons–andforty-sevenskulls.Iffifty-twomenhadbeenexecutedthatdayonthehill,fiveoftheirheadshadnotbeenburiedinthepit.

Bytheendoftheproject,onlyoneskullhadbeenlinkedtoitsskeleton.Weshallseethatthisparticularmanwasquitesignificant.Butfortherestofthevictims,identityremainsanebulousconcept.Thusitisintheancientpast.Withoutwrittenrecords,notonlycanwenotnameanyone,butwecannotseepersonalities.Theindividualminds,voicesandexperiencesofpeoplewhomadeupprehistoricandthegreatbulkofearlyhistoriccommunitiesareallirretrievablylost.Ontheotherhand,theWeymouthremainsrepresentanarrowrangeofhumanity.Itmakessensetoconsiderthemasagroup,alive,astheydied,together.Inthiswaywecanhopetoapproachsomeformofcommunalidentity.Andmorewidely,bystudyingbothhumanremainsandthedebristhatpeopleleftbehind,wecanfollowthechangesincultureandidentitythathaveoccurredthroughthehundredsofthousandsofyearsinwhichpeoplehavelivedintheseislands.

Ofthefifty-twoDorsetskeletons,itprovedpossibletojudgethesexofthirty-six,mostofthem‘stronglymale’.Oftheskulls,forty-threeweredefinitelymale,andtheremainingfouryoungheads,stillgrowing,werejudgedprobablyso.Withoutasinglefemalesug-gested,it’sastrongbetthatallfifty-twoindividualsweremen.

Theagerangewaslimited,too.Whilebyandlargeit’spossibletosayifaskeletonismaleorfemale,agecanonlybeestimatedalongacontinuum.Archaeologiststalkofagecategories,suchasyoungadult(eighteentotwenty-fiveyears)orolderadult(overforty-five–osteologycanbecruel).TheheadsintheWeymouthpithadrestedonyoungshoulders.Nearlyhalfwereundertwenty-five,andofthese,sevenmighthavebeenadolescent.Nomorethantwowereoverforty-five.Thebodiestellthesamestory:halfwereadolescentsoryoungadults,andjustthreewereoverforty-five.

Sothesewerefitmen,agangofyoungwarriorsperhaps,buttheywerenotthestuffofromanticfiction.Theyhadmisshapentoes,brokenbonesandmissingteeth.Ontheonehand,theywerewellexercised,witharelativelyhighoccurrenceofsmallinjuriescommonlycausedbyphysicalstress.Thiswassupportedbytheappearanceofmuscleattachmentsites.Bonegrowsandstrengthens

totheextentthatconnectedmusclesareused:twelveoftheskel-etonsshowedstrongchangesofthistype,someofthemofyoungoradolescentage.Overall,theosteologistsdescribethemasagroupofathleticmen,averaging1.72metrestall–5feet8inches–whohadbeenperformingrepetitivestrenuousactivitiesfromayoungage.

Ontheotherhand,lifeseemsnottohavetreatedthemwithequalgenerosity.Onemansufferedfromabadcaseofosteomyeli-tis,withaninflamedthighbonecausedbyaninfectionthatbeganinchildhood,andwhichwouldhaveoozedfoul-smellingpus–tosaynothingofthediscomfortandimpairedmobilityitwouldhavecaused.Anotherhadasizeablestoneinhiskidney,bladderorgall-bladder.Aboutathirdofthemenhadatleastonehealedfracture,mostcommonlyintheirlegsandfeet.Inoneinstanceabrokenthighbonehadshortenedby4or5centimetresasithealed–about2inches–leavingamanwithalimp.Eightmensufferedfromosteo-arthritis.Twohadbunions.

Thoughseveralhadmissingormalformedteeth,dentalhealthwasgenerallygood.Justonemansufferedseverelyfrombonelosscausedbygumdisease,andperhapsnotsurprisinglyhewasoneoftheoldest;hewasalsooneofthefewwithacavity,andhehadlostsixofhisteeth.Atleastoneman,however,hadreceivedtheattentionofasortofdentist,andherewemoveintoanewarea.

Whowere thesemen?Were they local,nativebutpassingthroughfromelsewhere,ordistantmigrants–oramixedbunchofoutcastsandtravellersfromallover?Andifnotlocal,whereweretheyfrom–andwhatweretheydoinginDorset?

Theanswer–towheretheyhadcomefrom,atleast–sooncame,clearandstrong,fromavarietyofscientificdata.Butthereisonefindthatbringshometherealitymoreimmediatelythananythingelse.Ithastodowiththemanwho,aloneamongallthefifty-twoindividualsfromthepit,isrepresentedbyacomplete,identifiableskeleton,fromheadtofeet.Inparticular,itconcernshisfrontteeth.

Skullnumber3736layface-upinthemiddleoftheheapofheads.Thebodyfromwhichithadbeendetached,numbered3806,wassprawledonitsfrontnearthepitcentre,feettothenorthandshoulderstothesouth,flexedarmsseemingtoreachtowardstheskullalittleoverametreaway.Theskeletonwasamongahandfulcompletelycoveredbyothers,sothebodywasamongthefirsttobethrownin.

A Viking Massacre

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Dependingonwherethecutshadbeenmade,differentneckboneshadstayedattachedtotheheadortheshoulders.Manysplin-teredvertebraewerefoundscatteredlooseinthepit,keyevidencetoshowthatthemenhadbeenbeheadedonthespot,andnotcarriedinhavingbeenkilledelsewhere.Inthecaseof3736and3806,notonlydotheybringtogethertherightnumberofvertebrae,butthereconnectedbonesfiteachotherwell,andsharesimilarsignsofjointdisease–bonylumpsthatindicateosteoarthritis.

Thisman,then,wasinhislaterforties–oneofthemoreexpe-riencedinthegroup–andstrongandtall.Hehadgoodteeth.Threearechipped,probablycausedbythesuddenclenchingofhisjawsatthemomentofdecapitation,afeatureseeninmorethanhalfthemen.Twootherteeth,however,hadbeenmarkedbeforehedied.Theyaretheonlysuchteethinthepit;indeed,todatetheyareuniqueinBritain.HisjawshavebeendisplayedintheBritishMuseum,andarenowinthemuseuminDorchester,nearthemanfromMaidenCastlefelledbyaRomanspear.Theseareteethdemandingtobeseen.

Whenwemovedatawirelesslyovershortdistances,weuseatechnologynamedafteraViking;thelogoisacombinationoftheinitialrunelettersofaDanishkingnamedHaraldBluetooth.Wedon’tknowhowhegotthatname.Themostpopularideaisthathehadarottentooth–‘blue’meaning‘dark’.Butthereisanotherexplanation,morerespectfulperhapsofhisroyalstatus:histeethhadbeendeliberatelymarked.

ThatVikingsdidsuchathinghasonlyrecentlycometolight,beforewhichitwasthoughtofasapracticefoundonlyoutsideEurope.TwodozenteethhavebeenexcavatedinDenmarkandSwedenwithgroovesfiledacrossthefrontwithcareandskill.Allarefromthetopofthemouth,allfromtheheadsofmen,andallfromVikingcemeteries.Thegroovesarenotobviousfromadistance,soitmaybetheywerefilledwithpigmenttocreatedarkstripes.Andeventhen,toshowofftheirfiledfangs,theseVikingmen,theseBluetooths,wouldhavehadtohaveopenedtheirtattooedmouthsinawidesmile…oragreatscream.

Thetwodecoratedteethinskull3736–liketheothers,centralupperincisors–eachhavetwofiledandpolishedhorizontalgroovesinthecrownenamel.TherecouldhardlybeaclearersignthatthismanwasaViking,and–thoughwehavenoideawhatthegrooves

Skeleton of a man aged 25–44, on the west side of the heap

above five others, one of the last to be placed in the pit.

Skeleton of a man aged 20–30; his body lay on the east side of the

heap, above four others and under four.

Skeletons 3806 (left), with fitting skull in the pit, and 3804,

lying on the pit bottom.

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includeformsofstrontium,oxygen,carbon,nitrogenandlead.Aspeopleate,drankandbreathed,theirskeletonsabsorbedthesecommonelements.Thebodytakesnonoticeofisotopes,butwecanseehowtheyvariedbyextractingthemfrombonesandteeth.Akeydeterminantofsuchvariationisthelocalenvironment–geology,climateandgeography.Therelativeamountsofstrontium-87andstrontium-86,forexample,reflectthetypeandgeologicalageofrocks(absorbedindirectlythroughfoodandwater).Thequantityofoxygen-18(acquiredthroughdrinkingwater)isparticularlyrelatedtotemperature,altitudeanddistancetothecoast.Andsoon.

Youcanseethatthiscangetquitecomplicated.Firstweneedtodeterminetheamountofrelevantatomicisotopesinanindividual’sskeleton.Thisisdonebycarefullygrindingupasmallsampleofboneortooth,andtreatingthesamplewithchemicalprocessesthatwillallowisotopicvaluestobemeasured.

Thesefiguresthenneedtobecomparedtomapsofwhatwouldbeexpectedfortheisotopesindifferentregions.Modernground-water,forexample,hasmoreoxygen-18inthewestofBritainandIrelandthanintheeast.AmapofBritishvariationinstrontium-87/strontium-86isamapofBritain’sgeology:thereisrelativelymorestrontium-86inthesoutheastthaninthenorthwest,thoughwithconsiderablelocalvariation.

Typicallyanisotoperesultwillpointtoabroadarearatherthanapreciselocation,andallowformorethanonesource.AgreatswathefromnorthwestFrancetosouthernScotlandhasverysimilarstron-tiumvalues.Anothercomplicationistime.Asoxygen-18isaffectedbythingsliketemperatureandrainfall,you’dexpectthemaptolookdifferentwhentheclimatewasdifferenttotoday’s.Anestimatedmapofoxygen-18ingroundwater10,000yearsagoshowslowervaluesacrosstheboard.Furthermore,suchanalysesdependonthemapsbeingavailable.NoteverypartofEuropeisaswellstudiedasBritain.

Isotopescansometimespointtosignificantjourneysbetweenthetypeoflandscapeinwhichpeoplegrewupandtheplacewheretheydied.Theydonotprovidedetaileditinerarieswithpreciseroutes.Itcanbeeasy–asconfusedpressstoriestestify–tomisun-derstandtheresults.However,whencombinedwithothertypesofevidence,suchasskeletalcharacteristicsorassociatedartefacts,thesciencecanbeextremelypowerful.Andthereisafurtherclevertwist.

actuallymeant–insomewaydistinguishedfrommostothermen.Takinghisageandphysiqueintoaccount,onenaturallywondersifhemighthavebeenthegangleader.ForitseemstheothermeninthepitwereprobablyNorthmentoo.

Weknowthisprincipallyfromascientificprocessknownasisotopeanalysis.Appliedtohumanbonesandteeth,itisaningen-iouswayofinvestigatinghowpeoplemighthavemovedaboutduringtheirlives.Wewillcomeacrossitoftenaswepursueourjourneybackintothepast.Itisstillarelativelynewtechnique,accountingforcontinuingsurpriseswhenitisapplied.Dominantideasaboutearlymigration,laiddowninthesecondhalfofthelastcentury,weredevelopedbeforeisotopeanalysisbecamecommonplace.Theseideas–intheabsenceofclearevidencetothecontrary–emphasizedlocalpopulationstability.Isotopesarerevealingaverydifferentworld.

Agoodstartingpointtounderstandthetechniqueisradiocar-bondating,afundamentaltoolforarchaeology,whichdependsontheexistenceofaparticularcarbonisotope.Elementsaredefinedbyhowmanyprotonstheyhaveintheirnucleus.Carbonhassix,nitro-genhasseven,andifthereareeightprotonstheelementisoxygen.Thenumberofneutronsinthenucleusisusuallythesameasthenumberofprotons,butitcanvary,anddifferentatomicvarietiesareknownasisotopes.

Therearethreecarbonisotopes.Mostcarbonhassixprotonsandsixneutrons,andisthusknownascarbon-12,whichmakesup99percentofallthecarbononEarth.Almostalltherestiscarbon-13,whichhasanextraneutron.Carbon-12and-13arestable:theydon’tspontaneouslybecomesomethingelse.Butthereisanother,relativelyextremelyrarecarbonisotope,whichisradioactive.

Knownascarbon-14,ithaseightneutrons.Itdecays,turningintonitrogen-14(withsevenprotonsandsevenneutrons)ataknownrateoverthousandsofyears.Thereiscarbonineverylivingthing,withtheproportionofisotopesreflectingtheirrelativeoccurrenceintheatmosphere.Atdeath,anorganism’scarbon-14continuestodecay,butisnolongerreplacedasitwasduringlife.Anybitsofpre-servedplantoranimal(orhuman)excavatedbyarchaeologistscanbeageddirectlybyfindingouthowmuchoftheoriginalcarbon-14isstillthere.

Littleradioactivityisinvolvedinlookingatwherepeoplegrewup:theisotopeswewillbeconsideringherearemostlystable.They

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wascompletingthisbook,Carolyn,JaneEvansandtheircolleaguespublishedafurtherstudy,focusingonleadisotopesandusinganewwayofanalysingthedata.Leadmostlyreflectstheamountofmetalincirculationinthingslikewaterpipes.TheleadlevelsinthebonesoftheWeymouthmenarecomparabletothoseseeninprehistoricpeople,andmostlyfarbelowthenormallevelinBritainatthetimeoftheirdeath–consistentwiththemhavingoriginselsewhere.Butatafinerresolution,theisotopeshadmoretosay.

Combinedwiththeearlierdataonstrontiumandoxygen,theleadoutlinedarestrictedzonewithinwhichtwentyofthemenwerelikelytohavegrownup.Surprisingly,perhaps,thisexcludesnotjustBritain,butallofIceland,Norway,Denmark,SwedenandFinland,leavingawidebandfromthesouthernBalticSeadowntotheBlackSea,takinginallofPolandandRomania,andpartsoftheCzechRepublicandUkraine.Theothersofthethirty-oneanalysedseemtohavecomefromfurthernorth:threemenperhapsfromDenmark,threefromRussia,ArcticScandinaviaorIceland,andfivewhoseoriginsareunclearbutareunlikelytolieinWesternEuropeortheBalticstates.7

Femursthrowlightonwherethemenspentthedecadeorsobeforetheirdeaths.Iffiveofthemhadbeenbornintheverycoldnorth,evenmorehadsubsequentlylivedthere–twenty-sixinnorth-ernScandinaviaoreastRussia,ofwhomsixwereinextremelycoldArcticregions.Interestingly,theribs,whichreflectwherethemenhadbeenforthelastfewyearsoftheirlives,describeadifferentstory.NoonehadspenttimeintheArctic(nor,forthatmatter,hadanyofthemlivedinBritain),andmostofthemhadbeeninlesscoldpartsofScandinavia.

Changesinthemen’sdietcanbemappedinthesameway,bycomparingnitrogenandcarbonisotopesinteethandbonesthatgrewatdifferenttimes.Nitrogen-15increasesasapersonconsumesmoreanimalprotein,fromfish,meatanddairyproducts,whilecarbon-13increaseswiththeconsumptionofmarinefoods.ThevariedfiguresfromtheWeymouthmenshowdiversediets,consist-entwiththemhavinggrownupindifferentplacesandmovedaboutduringtheirlives.ThescientistscomparedtheirnitrogenandcarbonfigurestothoseobtainedinotherstudiesforgroupsofpeopleinEnglandontheonehand,andinIceland,SwedenandDenmarkontheother.TheseconfirmtheWeymouthmen’snorthernorigins:

Variouspartsoftheskeletongrowatdifferenttimesoflife.Mostpermanentteethformbetweenbeforebirthandaroundnineyearsold.Bonesgrowandremodelcontinuously,butnotallatthesamespeed:muchofthechemistryofathighboneislaiddowninado-lescence;ribsremodeleverytwotofiveyears.Soit’squitepossible,iflongjourneysweretakenattherighttime,forsomeone’steethtoshowthattheygrewupinoneplace,theirlegsthattheyspenttheirearlyadultyearssomewhereelse,andtheirribstopointtoathirdlocation–allofwhichcouldbesomedistancefromwheretheywerefinallylaidtorest.

Whatstory,then,didtheWeymouthisotopestell?Inaword:Vikings!WhenitcomestotravellingaboutEurope,fewpeopleinhistorycanclaimasmuchenterpriseastheVikings.Themenburiedinthepitcamefromallovertheplace,butnone–withafewpossibleexceptions–fromDorset.6

Samplesweretakenfromtheribsorfemurs(thighbones)offorty-fiveskeletons,andtheteethofthirty-oneskulls.The‘skele-tons’includedisolatedlimbsandotherpart-bodies,andderivedfromaminimumoffortypeople.Sointheory,becausewedon’tknowwhichheadcamefromwhichbody,thesesamplescouldrep-resentanythingfromfortyofthemen(ifalltheanalysedheadsarefromthebodies)toallfifty-two–ifnotcertainlyeveryonewhodiedatthepit,thelargemajority.

A team led by Carolyn Chenery, who works at the BritishGeologicalSurvey,lookedforisotopesofoxygen(reflectingdrinkingwater)andstrontium(geology),and,toconsiderdiet,carbon(plantfoods)andnitrogen(meatandfish).Ontheevidenceofoxygenandstrontium,mostoftheteeth,whichformedwhenthemenwereagedsixorseven,couldonlyhavegrowninpartsoftheworldcolderthanWeymouth.Forsome,thepossibilitiesrangedfromIcelandandArcticNorwaytofurthereastintheBalticsorRussia.Afurthertwenty-onemenhadtheirhomesinplacesnotquitesocold,butstillfarfromsouthernEngland,fromdifferentpartsofSwedenandDenmarktoeasternGermanyortheCzechRepublic.TheremainingfivemencouldhavebeenborninBritain,twoofthemlocally–buttheymightalsohavebeenborninDenmarkor,intwocases,ScotlandorNorway.

Itwasclearfromthisthatthemenwerenotlocal,andbroadlyfittedapictureofVikingsscatteredoverawidearea.In2018,asI

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theymapclosetothelattergroup,andshowsignificantlymorenitrogen-15thantheEnglish.Thesemen,itseems,atebetterthanthepeoplewhoselandstheyinvaded,growinguponahigh-proteinterrestrialdiet,andseveralofthemincreasingtheirconsumptionofmarinefoodslateinlife.

Yetmorelinesofevidenceconfirmthemen’snorthernorigins.Onlyoneskullwassufficientlycompleteforitsancestralfeaturestobeassessed.Comparedtoexistingsetsofmeasurements,theclosestfitwaswithagroupofprehistoricskulls–fromDenmark.Likewise,theheightsofthemenwerecomparedtomedievalgroupsfromBritainandScandinaviancountries,andtheclosestmatchturnedouttobewithDanishVikings.

Aremarkableresult,then,thatpaintsavividpictureofmengrowingupandmovingaboutinawideareaof,perhaps,PolandandthecoldnorthofEurope,farfromwheretheydied.Butifwedigintothepagesoffiguresandtablesinthescientificstudies,wecanfindsomethingelse.Somethingthatremindsusthatthiswasnotjustafacelesscrowd,butagroupofindividuals,eachwiththeirownhopesandstories.

Differencesbetween themen’s isotopevalues for ribs andfemursconfirmthatsixofthemhadmovedfromverycoldtolesscoldregionsbeforereachingBritain–thesearethesixnotedabovewhohadearlierlivedinextremeArcticconditions.Theyallseemtohavemovedtoenjoysimilarandsignificantlywarmertemperaturessometwotofiveyearsbeforetheirdeaths,mostlikelysomewhereinsouthScandinavia(butnotthefarsouth),Belarus,westernRussiaornorth-ernIceland.Fiveofthemhadreturnedtowheretheyhadbegun.8

Carolynandhercolleaguesnotedsomethingaboutthesesixmen’sages.Thegroupincludestwoofonlythreeoldermeninthewholepit(perhapstheoldest),andrangedowntowhatmighthavebeentheyoungest,agedpossiblynomorethaneleven.Couldtheyhavemovedtogether?Weretheyrelated?Thesequestionsbecomemorepertinentwhenwerealizethattheonemanagedfortytoforty-five–agroupleader,perhaps,drawingonthewisdomoftwoeldersandresponsiblefortwoyoungteenagers–isskeleton3806:Bluetooth.

Whatelsedoweknowaboutthesesixmen?Oneofthem,anelderagedoverfifty,layapartontheedgeofthepit,wherehisremainshadbeenbadlydisturbedbythemechanicaldigger.Wecan

The ten more or less complete bodies on the pit bottom, the first to be thrown

in (some on the north side were partly removed by the mechanical excavator).

3806 (Bluetooth) and 3804, one of the oldest men in the pit, lying beside each

other with their feet to the north, may have spent much of their lives together.

N

3804

3806

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downtothewater,andtriedtopersuadetheuninvitedstrangerstoseehisking.Theymurderedhimandhismen.

CouldtheexecutedmenonthehillaboveWeymouthhavecomefromthosefirstthreeships,thefirstVikingattackersbecomingthefirstVikingstodieinbattleoverseas?Itwouldbeagoodstory:fiftymencouldcrewalongship,soperhapstheremightbetwoothergruesomepitsoutthere,waitingtobediscovered.Butarchaeologytellsusotherwise.Theoriginalradiocarbondatewasconfirmedbytwomore.Togethertheysuggestthat,almostcertainly,theexecutionsoccurredatapointbetween ad 970and1025,sometwocenturiesafterthatfirstDanishvisit.

Thesewereanxioustimes.Thecarbondates’fifty-fiveyearsspanthereignsofsixkings:EdgarthePeaceful(whodiedin975);EdwardtheMartyr;EthelredtheUnready;SweynForkbeard(HaraldBluetooth’sson,whobattledtoreplaceEthelredbutdiedalmostassoonashe’dsucceeded,allowingEthelredtoreturnfromexile);EdmundIronside(whosurvivedsevenmonthsbefore,accordingtoonestory,beingmurderedwhilehesatonthetoilet);andCanute,whocametopowerin1016.

Withinthatperiod,however,thereisagreaterradiocarbonprob-abilitythattheexecutionstookplacebetween980and1020.Bythistime,thenorthandeastofEnglandwereruledbyScandinavians;Vikingsweresettlingdownandbuildingupbusinesses.ThankslargelytoKingAlfred(r.871–99),southernEnglandremainedinAnglo-Saxonhands,andwasagreaterdrawforoverseasraidersseekingbootyandlandoftheirown.Vikingsresumedtheirattacksinthe980s,havingnotbeenseeninsouthernEnglandforfiftyyears;theycontinueduntiltheDanishkingCanuteconqueredEngland.Radiocarbon and history, then, point to the reign of EthelredtheUnready(978–1016)asthelikelycontextfortheWeymouthexecutions.

Noteveryskirmishorattackduringthosefourdecadeswasrecorded.Evenwhentheywere,wearegivenfewdetails.Butsur-vivingtextsdodescribewarfare,violenceanddestruction.Thefragmentaryhistoriesshowusthesortofworldinwhichthefifty-twomenonRidgewayHilllivedanddied.

Ethelred’sreignwasplaguedbypoliticalconfusion,inwhichbothkingandrebelliouscompatriotssoughtstrengthinallianceswithVikings.Peoplechangedsidesatthedipofanoar.Norse

saynomoreabouthim.Therestaremostlytypicalofthewholegroup.Theolderadolescenthadaminorelbowinjury.Atwenty-five-tothirty-five-year-oldhadparticularlystronglegsandbunionsonbothbigtoes.Bluetooth,whowehavealreadynotedwastallerandstrongerthanmostofthosefoundinthepit,hadrobustshouldersandupperarmsandlegs,andhealedfracturesinbothfeetandoneofhisshinbones.Therearetwothings,though,ofparticularinter-est,giventhepossibilitythemenmighthavebeenhangingaroundtogetherforsometime.

Twoofthem,thebetterpreservedolderadultandtheolderado-lescent,sufferedfromScheuermann’sdisease,aspinaldeformitythathadcausedtheoldermantolosealittleheight.Thediseaseisnotfullyunderstood,butitisthoughttohaveasignificanthereditarycomponent.Nooneelseinthepitshowedthiscondition.

ThesameoldermanandBluetoothhadbothsurvivedbrucel-losis.Thisisaninfectiousdiseasepickedupfromanimals.Itmightbeacoincidence,buttheyweretheonlytwointhegroupwithrea-sonablyclearsignsofbrucellosis,anditcouldbetheycontracteditatthesametime.Signsofthediseaseoccuronthebonesofonlyoneothermaninthepit.

Thesixbodieswerescatteredthroughoutthepit,suggestingthemenwerenotexecutedanddisposedoftogether.Two,however,laysidebyside,feettothenorth,onthebottomofthepitbeneathamassofcorpses.Onewastheoldmanwhosurvivedbrucellosis.Theotherwashisfellowsufferer,Bluetooth.Here,perhaps,arethetwomentheotherslookedupto,whowererecognizedbytheirkillersasleaders,andwhowereamongthefirsttodieinalongparadeofslaughter–theolderman,uniquely,takingastabtohisbuttockssodeepthatthearchaeologiststhinkatthatpointhemusthavebeenflatontheground.

*

Remarkably,thisstretchofDorsetcoastiswherethefirstVikingattackinWesternEuropeoccurred–orat least,thefirsttoberecorded.Aroundtheyear789,threeDanishshipsappearedoff-shore,ataplacethoughttohavebeennearPortland.Beaduheard,aroyalofficial,wasinDorchesterwhenheheardthenews.Herode

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Scandinavian,andsomeofthebonesshowedsignsofburning.LikethoseinDorset,thesemen–young,tallandstrong–hadbeenthrownintoanoldhollow,inthiscaseaprehistoricditch.Thedeposithadbeenpartlyremovedbylaterbuilding,sowedon’tknowthefullscaleoftheatrocity,buttherewereatleastthirty-fivedeaths.

SeanWallis,thearchaeologistwhodirectedthedig,isconvincedthemenwereStBrice’sDayvictims.TheywerelesssystematicallydispatchedthantheirWeymouthcontemporaries.Swordwounds,notablyinthehead,back,sidesandlegs,werefarinexcessofanythingneededtokillthem,buttheywerenotbeheaded.Theremainssuggestmenfleeingamurderousmobmorethanasystematicexecution.It’spossiblebodieswerecollectedfromvariousplacesanddumpedfromacart;intheditch,armsandlegslaystraight,inlinewithtorsos.9

Thereissomethingelsethatdistinguishesthetwoincidents.WhiletheisotopedataseemunequivocalabouttheDorsetmen’sscat-teredEuropeanorigins,theindicationsfromOxfordarelessstrong.Ofthirteensampledindividuals,atmostsix,butpossiblyonlyone,haveoxygenisotopespointingtoaclearoriginoutsideBritain.Fiveofthesameindividuals’teethwereanalysedforstrontiumisotopes.ThissuggestedthatnonewaslocaltoOxford;butwhileonemightwellhavebeenScandinavian,theotherscouldhavecomefromBritain.

Which brings us to the other explanation for the Dorsetmurders:thatthemenwereagangofVikingraiderswhoseplanhadgonedisastrouslywrong.Wehaveasceneofcomposedhorror.Nooneflees.Thebodieslieinalldirectionsandpositions,armsandlegsflungoutorflexed.ThearchaeologistssawthesamethinginFrance,attheFirstWorldWarFromellesgraves.There,theythought,bodieshadbeenthrowninbypairsofGermansoldiers,oneholdingeachend.Ivisitedthatdig,andwasstruckbythecurioussenseoffreedomconveyedbythebodies:nothunchedinfear,butexpansiveandopen,limbsspinninglikefallingangels.

OnRidgewayHillmostbodiesappeartohavebeenswungintothepitfromthesouthwest,southeastornortheastsides.Thissug-geststomethreeexecutioners,perhapseachassistedbytwomen,whodeliveredandheldthevictims,thenslungthecorpsesontothegrowingheap.Thiswasnoeasytask.Decapitationtookuptosevenblows,aboutthreeonaverage.Theyhadbeendeliveredfromalldirections,aroundhalffrombehind,othersfromthesidesandfront.Thereweremanyothercutsacrossthebottomsofjawsand

bravado,interpretedinpopularmoderncultureasnobleandheroic,seemsoftentohavebeennomorethanmaleswaggerinaworldwherehollowboastwasfollowedbybacktrackingandbetrayal.AScandinavianinEnglandathousandyearsagocouldbeattackedbyanotherScandinavian(aconceptthatembracedawiderangeofgeographicorigins),andboththeyandEnglishpeoplemighthavemixedancestriesthatwithinonlyafewgenerationsreachedbackintoeachothers’territories.

Thescientificevidencefromthepit,however,leavesuswithtwoprobableexplanationsforwhythemendied.Inboth,Anglo-SaxonsorderedthedeathofNorthmen.Perhaps,wemightthink,oneofthefewskeletonsnotyetanalysedcamefromaWelshman–atermorigi-nallyappliedto‘native’Britons.Butthattakesspecialpleading.WeassumethatallthemeninthepitwereVikings,andthatleavesroomonlyfornativeEnglishattackers–if,atanunlikelystretch,joinedbytheoddmercenaryaccomplicefromelsewhere.

Onepossibilityisquitespecific:thatthemendiedin1002,on13November–aSaturday.OnthisdaydedicatedtotheotherwiselittlecelebratedStBrice,Ethelred,forreasonsunknown,fearedanattemptonhislifeandkingdom,andorderedthedeathofallScandinavianslivinginEngland–moreblusterthanpracticalreality.Danes,saidtheking,had‘sprungupinthisisland,sproutinglikecocklesamongthewheat’(areferencetoanowrareagriculturalweedwithaprettylittlepurpleflower).Theyshouldbe‘exterminated’.

Ifthe‘Danes’targetedbyEthelredwereallsoldierswhohadrecentlysettledinEngland–assomehistoriansargue–thoseintheWeymouthpitmightqualify(thoughonlyasingleadolescenthadawoundthatmighthavecomefromanearlierfight).ButevidencesuggestsEthelredhadalooserfocusinmind.Lookingbackfromlessthanacenturylater,historians(admittedlywritinginwhatbythenwasaNorman,orquasi-Scandinavian,kingdom)condemnedthemassacrefortargetinginnocentmen,womenandchildren;theNorwegianqueenGunnhildandheryoungsonweresaidtobeamongthevictims.

Followinghisclaimtobejustlyexterminatingcockles,EthelreddescribedanincidentinOxford:Danessoughtsafetyinachurch,onlytofindthemselvesburnttodeathalongwitheverythingaroundthem.Remarkably,recentexcavationsinOxfordfoundacompactmassofmalehumanskeletonsidentifiedbyisotopestudiesaspossibly

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900s,writtendownsometwocenturieslater.Historiansdebatehowmuchofitisrecordandhowmuchentertainment.Itisrichintreachery,heroicsandsorcery,andOldTestament-stylevisionsandprophecies.Itsinteresttousnowliesinthesaga’sunusualending:amassbeheading.

Ifthereisfantasyinthesaga–onewarriorturnsintoagold-hoardingserpent–thereisalsoverisimilitude.Youngmenformgangsofwarriorsandgoonsummerraidingexpeditions(thisistherealmeaningoftheword‘viking’;itwasadoptedtorefertoearlyScandinaviansasawhole,ratherthanaparticularactivity,onlyinrecentcenturies).Athelstan,anotherAnglo-Saxonking,HaraldBluetoothandSweynForkbeardmakeappearances.Finally,along-brewingconfrontationwithagroupoftroublingfighters,theJómsvíkings,occursinthesouthBalticSea,withmuchlossoflife.ThebattleendswiththeNorwegianarmytakingseventyJómsvíkingsprisoner.

Themenareropedtogetherandtheirpossessionsseized.TheNorwegianssitdowntoeat,andbragabouttheirvictorybeforereturningtothecaptives.Theybeheadthreebadlywoundedwar-riors.Thentheyworktheirwaydowntherope,untyingthemenonebyone,challengingthemtoexpresstheirlackoffear,holdingtheirheadsbytwistingsticksintheirhair,andexecutingthemwithasword.

Eachdeathisastory.Onemanaskstotakeapiss.Ashedoesuphisflies,hesayshe’dhopedtosleepwiththeNorwegianearl’swife–withthepredictablerapidresult.Anothersayshewantstobeexecutedfromthefront,sohecanseetheblowandshowhistruebravery.Hedidnotblanch,saysthesaga,buthiseyesclosedatthemomentofdeath.

Moremendie.Thenthingsstarttounravel.Theeleventhturnshisheadastheswordswingsandtheexecutionerremovesthearmsofthemanholdinghishair.Theearltalkstotheprisoner,findsoutheisseventeen,andtakeshimintohisownarmy.Thereisascufflewhenthenextmanisapproached,andtheerrantbladecutstherope.Theintendedvictimgrabstheswordandexecutestheexecutioner.Theearl,impressedagain,takesonasecondDane,andthenreleasesthemall.

InAnglo-SaxonEnglandyoucouldbesentencedtodeathfortreason,theft,trespass,dishonestpropertydealsandmore.Legal

intoshoulders.Therewerealsoseveralinhands,wristsandlowerarms,wherevictimshadtriedtodefendthemselves;oneman’swristandallfivedigitsinhislefthandhadbeenslicedthrough.Thissug-geststheirarmswerenottied,whichisconfirmedbythesprawlinglimbsinthepit.

Fiveofthemenhadotherswordcutsinthehead.Perhapstheyfought.One,agedtwenty-fivetothirty-five,sufferedfoursuchinju-ries.Threeofthesecouldhavebeendeliveredfrombehindbyaright-handedexecutioner,butthefourthimpliesattackfromtheleftside–anotherassailant,perhaps.Thisblowcutcleanthroughthesideofhisskull.Brainwouldhaveoozedfromthegapinghole,butitwasprobablyaswordthroughtheneckthatkilledhim.

Vikings,nolessthananyotherpeople,likedtotelleachotherstories.Severalsurvive,writtendowninlatercenturiesandknowntousassagas.ThoughnothinglikethesystematicexecutionsseenintheWeymouthpithasyetbeenfoundanywhereelseinearlyMedievalEurope,thereis,inonesaga,adescriptionofaneventthatsoundseerilyclosetowhatmighthaveoccurredonRidgewayHill.

TheincidentappearsintheJómsvíkingasaga,acompilationofanecdotesaboutScandinaviankingsreachingbacktothelate

A large cut to the top of a skull.

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tobeattheDanes.Vikingsloomdarkly,‘fiercesea-raidersfromtheNorthwhocameintheirlongblackshipsandattackedthepeace-fulEnglishfarmers’.ButAlfredbeatstheminagreatvictory,and‘Englandbecameafreecountry’,where‘EnglishlawandEnglishjusticeareknownandrespectedthroughouttheworld’.11

TheatrocitiesonthedownsaboveWeymouthandinthestreetsofOxforddon’tfitthatnarrative.Weseethevillainsabusedbythegood.Butthatsimpleinversionmayitselfbetoopat.TheEnglish–dependingonhowyoureadhistory–hadperhapsthemselvesonlyrecentlyinvadedBritain.Britons,Angles,SaxonsandVikingswerenotsodifferent,intheircultures,theirlanguagesandtheirhistories,fromeachother.SchoolcurriculacelebratetheNormanConquest,aVikinginvasionunderanothername(theNormans–menfromthenorth–wererecentlysettledScandinaviansinFrance).AmongthemassacredmeninOxford,however,it’snotobviouswhowasAnglo-SaxonandwhowasViking.

OnRidgewayHill,thenewthree-lanebypasssweepsbelowmeinthesummerheat.Whitechalkshowsthroughslowlyspreadingscrubonthesteepestsidesofthecutting,butotherwisetheworksarenowovergrown.Grassesthatbindnew,thinsoilsfadefromgreentobrown.Delicatedownlandflowers–mostlyabsentfromtheoldergrazedturf–areeverywhereinthedisturbedground,spattersofredandmauve,white,yellow,orangeanddeeppurple.Thenamesareasrichasthecolours:corky-fruitedwaterdropwort,commonknap-weed,horseshoevetchanddyer’sgreenweed.

Thelanguageofthiscelebrationofreturningpeace,issuedfromtheearthwiththebonesofthedead,reachesbacktotheworldofEthelred,SweynandCanute.‘Wort’isOldEnglishforrootorplant;itisalsofoundinOldNorse,DanishandOldHighGerman.‘Weed’isanOldSaxonword,and‘knap’,aknob,isfoundinOldEnglishandOldNorse.‘Vetch’comesfromtheLatinviaAnglo-NormanFrench.Athousandyearsafterthetragedy,rivalriesareforgotteninajumbleofflowerytongues.Wildthyme,restharrow,pyramidalorchidandclusteredbellflower–otherwiseknownasDane’sblood.

execution burials are not uncommon, and the location of theWeymouthpitwouldbetypical:thesiteisbesideamajorroadnearanadministrativeboundary,awayfromsettlementandamongpre-historicburialmounds,highandremote,allfeaturesthatattractedgallowsthroughoutAnglo-SaxonEngland.Missingheadsarealsoseenatlegalexecutionsites,andarethoughttoindicatethepres-enceofheafodstoccan–headsonstakes,fly-blownremindersofthepenaltyfortransgressions.

ButsuchcemeteriesarenotliketheWeymouthpit.Individualshavetheirowngraves.Hangingismorecommonthanbehead-ing.OnRidgewayHill,bycontrast,fittingthenarrativeof theJómsvíkingasaga,removaloftheheadinitselfseemstohavemat-tered.Intherainsofblows,severalofthemenwouldlikelyhavediedwithoutbeingdecapitated.Theseparateheapingofheadsontheshallowsouthsideofthepitemphasizesthistheftofperson,ofisolationofwillfrombodilyaction,inlifeanddeath.PerhapsupthereonRidgewayHill,ordowninWeymouthbytheshore,alocal,vindictivetriumphoverthecontinuousfearofthieving,murderingyoungmenfromoverseaswasmarkedbythenowmissingfiveheadsraisedintheair.

It’spossiblethatthefifty-twomenwerekilledbyanotherVikinggang,butthatseemsunlikelyonEnglishsoil.Theycouldhavecrewedamiddlingwarship.TheAnglo-SaxonChronicles,keyhis-torictextsforthesetimes,arepackedwithincidentsofraidingfleets,sometimesnumberinghundredsofships.Therearebattles,betray-alsand‘greatslaughter’,andoccasionaldescriptionsofcrews’fates.In992ashipwascapturedintheThamesEstuary,andthecrewallslain.In897,afterabloodybattleinwhichsixty-twoAnglo-Saxonswerekilled,twomaraudingVikingshipswerewreckedontheSussexcoast.ThecrewswereseizedandtakentoWinchester–agoodtwodays’walk–wherethekingorderedthemtobehanged.Bycompari-son,themarchinguphilloffifty-twomenfromWeymouth,inthreeorfourhoursperhaps,wouldhavebeennothingmuchtorecord.10

WhenIwasinDorsettowalktheRidgeway,downbytheseainaBridportstreetmarketIfoundachildren’spicturebookaboutAlfredtheGreat.Ittellsthestoryofaherokingrepellinginvaders,buildingaBritishnavy,writingbooksandmappingouttheoldshires–theschool-historysaga,completewiththemomentwhenAlfredwasscoldedbyawomanforlettinghercakesburnwhileheplottedhow