discourse studies 12224

8/7/2019 Discourse Studies 12224

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Discourse StudiesDiscourse Studies

[email protected]@yahoo.com


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DiscourseDiscourse

DefinitionDefinition

Common concern

Common concern

AbstractAbstract

Realised in communicationRealised in communication

Realised by languageRealised by language Realised by texsRealised by texs


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DiscourseDiscourse

DefinitionDefinition

L

anguage use beyond sentenceL

anguage use beyond sentence Language use in contextsLanguage use in contexts

Social practiceSocial practice


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Language ina socialLanguage ina social--semioticsemiotic

perspectiveperspective

Social semiotic as a general ideologySocial semiotic as a general ideology

As an intellectual stanceAs an intellectual stance As conceptual angle of the subjectAs conceptual angle of the subject


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SemioticsSemiotics

A general study of signsA general study of signs

A study of meanings in most general senseA study of meanings in most general sense

Linguistics is a kind of semioticsLinguistics is a kind of semiotics

Culture is a set of semiotic systems, a setCulture is a set of semiotic systems, a set

of systems of meanings, all of whichof systems of meanings, all of which

interrelate.interrelate.


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ExamplesExamples

Traffic lightsTraffic lights

ColoursColours Language (sounds, letters)Language (sounds, letters)

Interpretation of colours (salted eggs,Interpretation of colours (salted eggs,navy blue)navy blue)


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Language as socialLanguage as social

semioticsemiotic Used by a communityUsed by a community

Based on conventionBased on convention

At all levels: word, phrase, sentence,At all levels: word, phrase, sentence,texttext


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TextText

Discourse is realised by textsDiscourse is realised by texts

Communication happens in textCommunication happens in text

Text is central to discourse analysisText is central to discourse analysis

What is text?What is text?


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TEXT

CULTURE

Genre (Purpose)

Situation

Who is involved?

(Tenor)

Subject matter Channel

(Field) (Mode)

Register


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TextText

It is a semantic unit.It is a semantic unit.

Something is called a text when it isSomething is called a text when it ismeaningful.meaningful.

It is spoken and written.It is spoken and written.

It is not a phonological or aIt is not a phonological or agraphological unit.graphological unit.

It occurs in a context of situation.It occurs in a context of situation.


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Context of situationContext of situation

There are three elementsThere are three elements

Subject matter (field)Subject matter (field)

Participants involved (tenor)Participants involved (tenor)

Channel (mode)Channel (mode)


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Context of cultureContext of culture

Every culture produces text types.Every culture produces text types.

A text type is a genreA text type is a genre

Two general purposes: TransactionalTwo general purposes: Transactionaland Interpersonal genresand Interpersonal genres

Transactional: to get something doneTransactional: to get something done

Interpersonal: for differentpurposesInterpersonal: for differentpurposesof communicationof communication


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Basic English genresBasic English genres

ProcedureProcedure

DescriptiveDescriptive

NarrativeNarrative

RecountRecount

reportreport

News itemNews item

DiscussionDiscussion

ExplanationExplanation

ExpositionExposition

ReviewReview


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Text analysisText analysis

Needs linguistic analysisNeeds linguistic analysis

Interpretation is based on linguisticInterpretation is based on linguisticevidenceevidence

Text analysts need the rightknife toText analysts need the rightknife tocut the rightbreadcut the rightbread

Differentknives for differentbreadDifferentknives for differentbread


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Discourse analysisDiscourse analysis

How texts relate to contexts of situation andHow texts relate to contexts of situation and

context of culturecontext of culture

How texts are produced as a social practiceHow texts are produced as a social practice

What texts tell us about happenings, whatWhat texts tell us about happenings, what

people think, believe etc.people think, believe etc.

How texts represent ideology (powerHow texts represent ideology (power

struggle etc.)struggle etc.)


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Text & Discourse AnalysesText & Discourse Analyses

(Nunan, 1993)(Nunan, 1993) Text analysisText analysis is the study of formal linguisticis the study of formal linguistic

devices that distinguish a text from randomdevices that distinguish a text from random

sentences.sentences. Discourse analystsDiscourse analysts study these textstudy these text--formingforming

devices with reference to the purposes anddevices with reference to the purposes andfunctions for which the discourse was produced,functions for which the discourse was produced,and the context within which the discourse wasand the context within which the discourse wascreated. The ultimate goal iscreated. The ultimate goal is to show how theto show how thelinguistic elements enable language users tolinguistic elements enable language users tocommunicate.communicate.


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CommunicationCommunication

Exchange of meaningsExchange of meanings

Happens in textsHappens in texts

See the following diagram onn stratificationSee the following diagram onn stratification

and metafunctionsand metafunctions


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Ideational

Interpersonal

Textual

Discourse Semantic Level

Lexicogrammatical

Level

Phonology/

Graphology

Level

CULTURAL LEVEL


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StratificationStratification

Discourse semantic levelDiscourse semantic level

LeexicoLeexico--grammatical levelgrammatical level

Phonological / graphological levelPhonological / graphological level

All of these are related by realisationAll of these are related by realisation


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MetafunctionsMetafunctions

(Abstract Meanings)(Abstract Meanings) Ideational meaningsIdeational meanings

Interpersonal meaningsInterpersonal meanings

Textual meaningsTextual meanings

Logical meaningsLogical meanings


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IdeationalMeaningsIdeationalMeanings

Meanings aboutphenomenaMeanings aboutphenomena

About things and goings onAbout things and goings on

About circumstances surrounding theAbout circumstances surrounding thehappenings and doingshappenings and doings

Realised in wordings through Participants,Realised in wordings through Participants,

Processes and CircumstanceesProcesses and Circumstancees Centrally influenced by the field of discourseCentrally influenced by the field of discourse


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ExamplesExamples

Polar bearsPolar bears eat eat fishfish

Participant:Participant:ActorActor

Process:Process:MaterialMaterial

Participant:Participant:GoalGoal

Polar bearsPolar bears areare good huntersgood huntersParticipant:Participant:

CarrierCarrier

Process:Process:

AttributiveAttributive

Participant:Participant:

AttributeAttribute


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The MountainThe Mountain

Long ago, a great mountainLong ago, a great mountain began to rumble andbegan to rumble andshakeshake. People. People camecame from far and nearfrom far and nearto seeto see whatwhat

would happen.would happen.A great river will beA great river will be bornborn, said one., said one.

A mighty dragon willA mighty dragon willcome outcome out, said another., said another.

A god himself willA god himself willspringspring from these rocks, said afrom these rocks, said a

third.third.Finally, a small crackFinally, a small crackappearedappearedin the mountainside.in the mountainside.

And outAnd outpoppedpoppeda mouse.a mouse.


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Interpersonal meaningsInterpersonal meanings

Express a speakers attitudes andExpress a speakers attitudes and

judgementsjudgements

For acting upon and with othersFor acting upon and with others

Realised in wordings through MOOD andRealised in wordings through MOOD and

modality.modality.

Most centrally influenced by tenor ofMost centrally influenced by tenor of

discoursediscourse


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ExamplesExamples

(Gerot and Wignell 1995:13)(Gerot and Wignell 1995:13)

Declarative:Declarative:

We inspect the growing plants every weekWe inspect the growing plants every week

Imperative:Imperative:

Brock, get those plants inspected right now!Brock, get those plants inspected right now!

Consider the interpersonal relations betweenConsider the interpersonal relations betweenspeakers.speakers.


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examplesexamples

Brock, do you really expect me to believeBrock, do you really expect me to believe

this crap?this crap?

Mr. Brock, Ifind your position unatenableMr. Brock, Ifind your position unatenable

Consider the degree of informality or formalityConsider the degree of informality or formality


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ExamplesExamples

Mr. Brock is aMr. Brock is a fine, upstanding employee.fine, upstanding employee.

Brock is aBrock is a lazy, incompetent foollazy, incompetent fool..

Consider theConsider the attitudinal lexisattitudinal lexis which expresswhich express

affect, the degree of like and dislikeaffect, the degree of like and dislike


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Examples: ModalityExamples: Modality

UnfortunatelyUnfortunately, Brock is an inspector., Brock is an inspector.

FortunatelyFortunately, Brock is an inspector., Brock is an inspector.

Consider theConsider the Mood AdjunctMood Adjunctwhich reveal attitude orwhich reveal attitude orjudgment.judgment.

The cropThe crop mightmightbe inspected.be inspected.

The cropThe crop shouldshouldbe inspectedbe inspected

The cropThe crop mustmustbe inspectedbe inspected

ConsiderConsidermodal operatorsmodal operators revealing the speaker certainty.revealing the speaker certainty.


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The PrayerThe Prayer

Ipray you'll be our eyesIpray you'll be our eyesAnd watch us where we goAnd watch us where we go

And help us to be wiseAnd help us to be wiseIn times when we don't knowIn times when we don't know

Let this be our prayerLet this be our prayer

As we go our wayAs we go our wayLead us to a placeLead us to a placeGuide us with your GraceGuide us with your GraceTo a place where we'll be safeTo a place where we'll be safe


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Love Changes EverythingLove Changes Everything

Love, love changes everythingLove, love changes everythingHands and faces, birds and skyHands and faces, birds and skyLove, love changes everythingLove, love changes everythingHow you live and how you dieHow you live and how you die

Love can make the summer flyLove can make the summer flyOr anight seem like alifetimeOr anight seem like alifetime

Yes, love, love changes everythingYes, love, love changes everythingNow I tremble at your nameNow I tremble at your nameNothing in the world will ever beNothing in the world will ever bethe samethe same

Love, love changes everythingLove, love changes everythingDays are longer, words mean moreDays are longer, words mean moreLove, love changes everythingLove, love changes everythingPain is deeper than beforePain is deeper than before

Love will turnyour world aroundLove will turnyour world aroundAnd that world would last foreverAnd that world would last foreverYes, love, love changes everythingYes, love, love changes everythingBrings you glory, brings you shameBrings you glory, brings you shameNothing in the world will ever be theNothing in the world will ever be the

samesame

Love, into the world we goLove, into the world we goPlanning future, shapingyearsPlanning future, shapingyearsLove does its acts suddenlyLove does its acts suddenly

All our wisdom disappearsAll our wisdom disappears

Love makes moves on everyoneLove makes moves on everyoneAll the rules we make are brokenAll the rules we make are broken

Yes, love, love changes everythingYes, love, love changes everythingLive or perish in its nameLive or perish in its nameLove willnever, never let you be theLove willnever, never let you be the

samesame


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TextualMeaningsTextualMeanings

Express the relation of language to itsExpress the relation of language to its

environment (including what has beenenvironment (including what has been

spoken or written before).spoken or written before).

Realised through patterns of Theme andRealised through patterns of Theme and

cohesion.cohesion.

Most centrally influenced by mode ofMost centrally influenced by mode ofdiscoursediscourse


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The linguistic differences between the following spoken andThe linguistic differences between the following spoken and

written texts below relate primarily to differences in thematicwritten texts below relate primarily to differences in thematic

choices and patterns of cohesion.choices and patterns of cohesion.

This is yer phone bill and you hafta go toThis is yer phone bill and you hafta go to

the Post Office to pay itthe Post Office to pay it uh, by nextuh, by next

MondayMonday thats what this box tells yathats what this box tells ya orortheyll cut yer phone off!theyll cut yer phone off!

All phone bills must be paid by the dateAll phone bills must be paid by the dateshown or service will be discontinued.shown or service will be discontinued.


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The relationship between context,The relationship between context,

meanings and wordingsmeanings and wordingsContext TextContext Text

Semantics LexicogrammarSemantics Lexicogrammar

(meanings) (wordings)(meanings) (wordings)

Field Ideational TransitivityField Ideational Transitivity(what is going on) (Processes, Participants,(what is going on) (Processes, Participants,

CircumstancesCircumstances

Tenor Interpersonal Mood andTenor Interpersonal Mood and

ModalityModality(Social relations) (Speech roles, attitudes)(Social relations) (Speech roles, attitudes)

Mode Textual Theme, CohesionMode Textual Theme, Cohesion(Contextual coherence)(Contextual coherence)


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GenreGenre

It has communicative purposeIt has communicative purpose

It has generic structure (particular stages;It has generic structure (particular stages;

distinctive beginnings, middles and endsdistinctive beginnings, middles and ends

It has linguistic featuresIt has linguistic features


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ProcedureProcedure

Tujuan Komunikatif Teks:Tujuan Komunikatif Teks:

Memberi petunjuk cara melakukanMemberi petunjuk cara melakukan

sesuatu melalui serangkaian tindakansesuatu melalui serangkaian tindakanatau langkah.atau langkah.

Struktur Teks:Struktur Teks:

Tujuan kegiatan atau judul;Tujuan kegiatan atau judul;

BahanBahan--bahan;bahan; LangkahLangkah--langkahlangkah..


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ProcedureProcedure

Ciri Kebahasaan:Ciri Kebahasaan:

pola kalimatpola kalimatimperativeimperative,, misalnyamisalnya, Cut, Dont mix,, Cut, Dont mix,

dsbdsb.. action verbsaction verbs, misalnya, misalnya turn, put, dont, mixturn, put, dont, mix, dsb., dsb.

connectivesconnectives untuk mengurutkan kegiatan,untuk mengurutkan kegiatan,

misalnyamisalnya then, while,then, while, dsbdsb..

adverbialsadverbials untuk menyatakan rinci waktu, tempat,untuk menyatakan rinci waktu, tempat,cara yang akurat, misalnyacara yang akurat, misalnya for five minutes, 2for five minutes, 2

centimetres from the topcentimetres from the top, dsb., dsb.


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Tujuan Komunikatif :Tujuan Komunikatif :

Mendeskripsikan ciriMendeskripsikan ciri--ciri seseorang, suatu benda atau tempatciri seseorang, suatu benda atau tempattertentu.tertentu.

Struktur Teks:Struktur Teks:**Pengenalan bendaPengenalan benda, orang atau sesuatu yang akan, orang atau sesuatu yang akan

dideskripsikandideskripsikan..

** DeskripsiDeskripsi:: menggambarkan cirimenggambarkan ciri--ciri benda tersebut,misalnyaciri benda tersebut,misalnyaberasal dari mana, warnanya, ukurannya, kesukaannya dsb.berasal dari mana, warnanya, ukurannya, kesukaannya dsb.Deskripsi ini hanya memberikan informasi mengenai benda atauDeskripsi ini hanya memberikan informasi mengenai benda atau

orang tertentu yang sedang dibahas saja, misalnya deskripsiorang tertentu yang sedang dibahas saja, misalnya deskripsitentang tentang My DogMy Dog. Ciri. Ciri--ciri anjing saya tersebut dapat berbedaciri anjing saya tersebut dapat berbedadengan anjing yang laindengan anjing yang lain..


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Ciri KebahasaanCiri Kebahasaan::

nounsnouns tertentu, misalnyatertentu, misalnya teacher, houseteacher, house,,mymyrabbitrabbit,, dsb.dsb.

simple present tensesimple present tense.. detailednoundetailednounphrasephrase untuk memberikanuntuk memberikan

informasi tentang subjek, misalnyainformasi tentang subjek, misalnya SheShe a sweeta sweetyoung lady.young lady.

berbagai macamberbagai macam adjectivesadjectives, yang bersifat, yang bersifatdescribing, numbering, classifying,describing, numbering, classifying, mis:mis: twotwostrong legs, twowhite fangs,strong legs, twowhite fangs, dsb.dsb.

relating verbsrelating verbs untuk memberikan informasiuntuk memberikan informasitentang subjek, misalnya,tentang subjek, misalnya, My mum is realy coolMy mum is realy cool,,It has very thick fur,It has very thick fur, dsbdsb..


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RecountRecount

Tujuan komunikatifTujuan komunikatif::

Melaporkan peristiwa, kejadian atau kegiatanMelaporkan peristiwa, kejadian atau kegiatan

dengan tujuan memberitakan atau menghibur.dengan tujuan memberitakan atau menghibur.

Struktur teks:Struktur teks:

**PendahuluanPendahuluan (orientasi)(orientasi), yaitu memberikan, yaitu memberikaninformasi tentang apa, siapa, di mana daninformasi tentang apa, siapa, di mana dankapan;kapan;

** Laporan (rentetan) peristiwaLaporan (rentetan) peristiwa, kegiatan yang, kegiatan yangterjaditerjadi, yang biasanya disampaikan secara, yang biasanya disampaikan secaraberurut;berurut;

** KomentarKomentar pribadipribadidan/atau ungkapan penilaiandan/atau ungkapan penilaian(jika ada(jika ada


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RecountRecountCiri kebahasaanCiri kebahasaan::

** nounsnouns dandan pronounspronouns sebagai kata ganti orang, hewan atausebagai kata ganti orang, hewan atau

benda yang terlibat, misalnyabenda yang terlibat, misalnya DavidDavid,, the monkeythe monkey,, wewe dsbdsb..

** actionaction verbsverbs atau kata kerja tindakan, misalnyaatau kata kerja tindakan, misalnya go, sleep, rungo, sleep, run

dsbdsb..

** pastpast tensetense,, misalnyamisalnya WeWe wentwent to the zoo; She was happyto the zoo; She was happy dsb.dsb.

** conjunctionsconjunctions dandan timetime connectivesconnectives yang mengurutkan peristiwa,yang mengurutkan peristiwa,

kejadian atau kegiatan, misalnyakejadian atau kegiatan, misalnya andand,, but,but, then, after that,then, after that, dsb.dsb.

** adverbsadverbs dandan adverbadverb phrasesphrases untuk mengungkap tempat, waktuuntuk mengungkap tempat, waktudan cara, misalnyadan cara, misalnya yesterdayyesterday,, at my house, slowlyat my house, slowly dsb.dsb.

** adjectivesadjectives untuk menerangkanuntuk menerangkan nounsnouns, misalnya, misalnya beautifulbeautiful,, funny,funny,

dsbdsb


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CohesionCohesion

Resources within language that provideResources within language that provide

continuity in a text over and above thatcontinuity in a text over and above that

provided by clause and clause complexprovided by clause and clause complexstructurestructure

Cohesive relations are nonCohesive relations are non--structuralstructural

relations which work to help a text hangrelations which work to help a text hangtogether.together.


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Kinds of relationshipKinds of relationship

ReferenceReference

Lexical cohesionLexical cohesion

ConjunctionConjunction


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ReferenceReference

Refers to systems which introduce andRefers to systems which introduce and

track the identity of Participants throughtrack the identity of Participants through

texttext

Related to textual meaning, and thus toRelated to textual meaning, and thus to

modemode

Displays different patterns between spokenDisplays different patterns between spokenand written textand written text


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Two Aspects of ReferenceTwo Aspects of Reference

Systems ofreferenceSystems ofreference

RetrievalRetrieval


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System of ReferenceSystem of Reference

There are three main distinctions to make:There are three main distinctions to make:whether thewhether the

Participant is being mentioned for the firstParticipant is being mentioned for the firsttime in the text (presenting), or whether it istime in the text (presenting), or whether it isa subsequent mention (presuming)a subsequent mention (presuming)

Reference is to a generic class or toReference is to a generic class or tospecific individualspecific individual

Reference is comparative or not.Reference is comparative or not.


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Systems of ReferenceSystems of Reference

genericgeneric

specificspecific

presentingpresenting

presumingpresuming

+ comparison+ comparison-- comparisoncomparison


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RetrievalRetrieval

AnaphoraAnaphora: points the reader or listener backwards to a: points the reader or listener backwards to a

previously mentioned entity, process or state of affairs.previously mentioned entity, process or state of affairs.

Homophora

Homophora: retrieval of identity with reference to the: retrieval of identity with reference to thecontext of culture / situation, or from within or outside thecontext of culture / situation, or from within or outside the

text. E.g.text. E.g. When Iwoke up, the sun was shiningWhen Iwoke up, the sun was shining. The sun. The sun

is a culturally shared knowledge.is a culturally shared knowledge.

Exophora:Exophora: retrieval from outside the text. E.g.retrieval from outside the text. E.g. That koalaThat koala

over there is really sleepy.over there is really sleepy. Esp. in spoken text.Esp. in spoken text.

Endophora:Endophora: Retrieval from within the text. There are twoRetrieval from within the text. There are two

types: anaphora and cataphora.types: anaphora and cataphora.


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EndophoraEndophora

Anaphora:Anaphora:

Some snakes, though not venomous, are still deadly. TheySome snakes, though not venomous, are still deadly. Theysqueeze their victim to death.squeeze their victim to death.

Cataphora:Cataphora:It was a venomousIt was a venomous oneone,, thatthatsmall green snake.small green snake.

Bridging:Bridging:We walk towards the kioskbut the windowswere boltedshut.We walk towards the kioskbut the windowswere boltedshut.


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LexicalCohesionLexicalCohesion

Refers to the relationships between and amongRefers to the relationships between and among

words in a textwords in a text

Primarily related to fieldPrimarily related to field Field tends to have specialised vocabularies andField tends to have specialised vocabularies and

tends to engage in specialised activities.tends to engage in specialised activities.

Reveals interpersonal meanings through use ofReveals interpersonal meanings through use of

attitudinal lexis and qualitative attributes.attitudinal lexis and qualitative attributes.


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Categories of LexicalCohesionCategories of LexicalCohesion

RepetitionRepetition

SynonymySynonymy:: leave, departleave, depart

AntonymyAntonymy:: leave, arriveleave, arrive

HyponymyHyponymy (superordination):(superordination): flower,rose; roseflower,rose; rose--daffodildaffodil

MeronymyMeronymy (whole(whole--partrelation):partrelation): flower,petalsflower,petals

EquivalenceEquivalence:: the sailor was theirthe sailor was theirdaddy.daddy.

NamingNaming: Theycall their: Theycall theirpuppyFluffy.puppyFluffy. SemblanceSemblance:: Theycouldsee theirTheycouldsee theirwhite capswhite caps

lookinglikelookinglike seahorses.seahorses.


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ConjunctionConjunction

Conjunction is the semantic systemConjunction is the semantic systemwhereby speakers relate clauses inwhereby speakers relate clauses in

terms of temporal sequence,terms of temporal sequence,consequence, comparison andconsequence, comparison andaddition.addition.

discourse studies 12224

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