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Running head: AMERICANISM IN CONTEXT 1

Americanism in Context

Do Scioto County Students Know from Where and How this Country came to Be?

Paula J. Baumgardner

Shawnee State University

Department of Teacher Education

Advisor- Dr. Patric Leedom

March 22, 2011

Candidate for Masters of Education, Curriculum & Instruction

AMERICANISM IN CONTEXT 2

Abstract

This paper explores the concern that many, who graduate from schools in Scioto County

Ohio, are not truly familiar with United States history prior to 1877 and the United States

Constitution. Surveys, tests, and the Academic Standards of the state were evaluated.

The Ohio Graduate Test results of 2010 reflect that 78 percent of participating Scioto

County students was proficient in Social Studies. Through these venues, ran the common

theme of change in Ohio social studies requirements that represent a trend across the

nation. Will we no longer have a common understanding of how this country came to be,

and why we are governed the way we are? By not exposing the next generation to the

Founders’ plan for our country, the very construct of an “American Heritage” could be

lost (Neal, Martin, & Moses, 2000). According to Thomas Jefferson, “apprising

[citizens] of the past will enable them to judge of the future; it will avail them as judges

of the actions and designs of men; it will enable them to know ambition under very

disguise it may assume; and knowing it, to defeat its views” (Spalding, 2002, p. 159).

Keywords: American History, American Government, Ohio Department of Education,

Ohio Gradation Test, social studies standards, American Legion, United States

Constitution, founders, Americanism Test


Table of Contents

Abstract...............................................................................................................................2

Do Scioto County Students Know?..................................................................................4

Overview..........................................................................................................................5

Research Questions..........................................................................................................6

Literature Review..............................................................................................................7

Why Study our National Past?.........................................................................................7

Why Has our Educational System Changed the Teaching of our Nation’s History and

Government?..................................................................................................................11

What Impact Can/Will These Changes Likely Have on the Future of our Nation?......16

Methodology and Research Design................................................................................22

Data Analysis and Interpretation...................................................................................33

Analysis of Ohio Department of Education Social Studies Standards..........................34

Analysis of the Ohio Graduation Test (OGT)...............................................................39

Analysis of the Americanism and Government Program..............................................43

Interpretation of Standards Applicability from the Teachers’ View.............................47

Summary, Discussion, and Application.........................................................................51

Index to Appendices & Tables........................................................................................57


Do Scioto County Students Know?

Each year, schools in the United States graduate a class with less knowledge and

understanding of the founding of this nation. It does not take many years for this

ignorance to have specific consequences for the United States. Without a solid

understanding of the founding factors of this nation, students are likely not to preserve

the elements on which this nation was founded. The critical pieces of the Constitution

and the amendments thereto require continual learning processes. Our youth need to

know from whence they came that they may know to what they may be headed.

Furthermore, the rights of Americans could be usurped if American youth are not

educated in the rights and responsibilities as enumerated in the Constitution.

This generation and subsequent generations need to be educated about the

development of this country and the sacrifices that were made to make it the country that

it was designed to be. Our youth need to be educated in the fundamentals of American

history prior to 1877 and Government, particularly the formation and implementation of

the Constitution. Moreover, students need to be taught about the great accomplishments

and the failures of this nation’s history. Without knowledge, people perish—in this case

our nation will not continue to be a free nation if our present and future generations do

not have a firm foundational understanding of the founding fathers’ principles of the

United States. James Madison, Father of the Constitution, stated the following:

A popular Government, without popular information, or the means of acquiring it,

is but a Prologue to a Farce or a Tragedy; or, perhaps both. Knowledge will

forever govern ignorance: And a people who mean to be their own Governors,


must arm themselves with the power which knowledge gives (Spalding, 2002, p.

150).

Furthermore, students need to understand the relevance of holding onto America’s

founding principles so that this country can remain as one—United States of America. It

is to this end, that all educators need to mold the children into citizens who know from

where they came, to where they are going and the possible implications if they are not

secure in their national heritage.

Overview

The initial purpose of this project was to analyze the possible causes attributing to

students’ lack of knowledge in the area of American History and Government. Upon

conducting an examination of the Ohio Department of Education’s requirements for

students to graduate, a few issues were brought to the forefront. On the surface, it would

appear that students, for the most part, are achieving the required benchmarks according

to the results from the 2009 & 2010 Ohio Graduation Test. However, upon further

investigation, the results are misleading as far as students’ knowledge of American

History and Government.

Additional examination was conducted in regards to students participating in the

Americanism test provided by the local American Legion. The results that were collected

do not correspond with that of the OGT. It appears that there is a vast discrepancy

between the OGT results and that of the Americanism test. Additionally, a web survey

was given to teachers from the schools that participated in the Americanism test and to a

few that did not to garner more information in regards to the curricula that is taught to

Scioto County High School students (Survey Monkey). It was also conducted to analyze


students’ preparation for the Americanism test. Teachers, according to the survey, did

not prepare the students prior to taking the Americanism exam.

Through a review of the literature, this paper will reveal the importance of

teaching and learning American History and Government. In addition, a more

comprehensive investigation and analysis of the Ohio Graduation Test, the Ohio

Department of Education requirements, the Americanism test, and the survey from local

Scioto County teachers will be discussed.

Research Questions

Are Ohio students routinely taught American history prior to 1877?

Are there Academic Content Standards for American History prior to 1877?

Do the questions on the Ohio Graduation Test (OGT) support these standards?

Do Scioto County students reflect a knowledge base of American history prior to

1877?


Literature Review

Articles have been written that expose the lack of education students are receiving

in American History and Government and the effects of this lack of knowledge. In a

study conducted by the American Council of Trustees and Alumni, it was discovered that

many college students graduate without knowing their American heritage (Neal, Martin,

& Moses, 2000). Hess (2009) describes in his article that, “too many young Americans

do not possess the kind of basic knowledge they need. When asked fundamental

questions about U.S. history and culture, they scored a D and exhibited stunning

knowledge gaps” (p. 5).

This literature review will address some of the underlying issues in hopes of

gaining a perspective on this increasing trend.

Why study our national past?

Why has our educational system changed the teaching of our nation’s history and

government?

What impact can/will these changes in education likely have on the future of our

nation?

Why Study our National Past?

Carpenter (2004) points out that Thomas Jefferson, writer of the Declaration of

Independence and third president of the United States, “believed that the main purpose of

an educated citizenry is to serve as the basic line of defense against any encroachment on

their lives by a government” (p. 144). He continues by saying that Jefferson “thought it

important to read such political works as the Declaration of Independence, the Federalist

Papers, and the Constitution of the United States” (p. 145). Nash (2009) concurs by


stating that, “[Thomas] Jefferson, [Benjamin] Rush, and [Noah] Webster represent the

desire to use schooling to create the ‘uniform America’ and ‘to create a new unity, a

common citizenship and culture’ . . . and to create citizens who would be loyal to the new

country” (p. 419).

Though it may be a common knowledge answer, perhaps the best explanation for

studying history was given by the blind Czech historian Milan Hubl to the novelist Milan

Kundera: "The first step in liquidating a people is to erase its memory. Destroy its books,

its culture, its history, Then have somebody write new books, manufacture a new culture,

invent a new history. Before long the nation will begin to forget what it is and what it

was. The world around it will forget even faster." The people of America need to cherish

their history, and not allow for its erasure.

Noah Webster, Father of American Scholarship and Education, had the same

philosophy as the other founders in that he believed “It is an object of vast magnitude that

systems of education should be adopted and pursued which may not only diffuse a

knowledge of the sciences but may implant in the minds of the American youth the

principles of virtue and of liberty and inspire them with just and liberal ideas of

government and with an inviolable attachment to their own country” (Spalding, 2002,

pp. 149-150). James Madison believed that “The best service that can be rendered to a

Country, next to that of giving it liberty, is in diffusing the mental improvement equally

essential to the preservation, and the enjoyment of the blessing” (Spalding, 2002, p. 149).

Neal, et al. (2000) concurs by explaining, “The nation’s past unifies a people and ensures

a common civic identity” (p. 4). She continues that “the importance of a shared memory


appears to have lost its foothold in higher education” and “what happens in higher

education relates directly to what happens in K-12” (2009).

Neal, et al. (2000) further advocates that, “other than our schools, no institutions

bear greater responsibility for the transmission of our heritage than colleges and

universities” (p. 7). Finally, Neal explains that, “citizens who fail to know basic

landmarks of history and civics are unlikely to be able to reflect on their meaning” and

therefore, “fail to recognize. . . the importance of preserving it” (p. 7). Spalding (2002)

discusses that founding father Benjamin Franklin had reservations if the new republic

would be preserved. After the Constitutional Convention, Benjamin Franklin was asked

what kind of government was created. He was quoted, “A republic, if you can keep it”

(p. XIV).

Hess’s (2009) study seems to articulate the same philosophy as Neal’s. Hess

stated that, “it is vital that schools familiarize students with the history and culture that

form the shared bonds of their national community” (p. 7). Hess continues to address the

issue that our forefathers regarded comprehensive education as the schools purpose. This

is the schools’ primary mission, to “equip every young person for the responsibilities and

privileges of citizenship” (p. 7). In order to achieve this goal one must be taught “with the

historical narrative and cultural touchstones that mark our national experience, schools

provide the vocabulary for a common conversation that can render e pluribus unum” (p.

7). Spalding (2002) agrees by quoting John Adams, “. . . the longest liver of you all will

find no principles, institutions or systems of education more fit in general to be

transmitted to your posterity than those you have received from your ancestors” (p. 159).


Hess stated that, “Absent shared reference points, it may be more difficult for young

Americans . . . to find their common identity as citizens” (p. 7).

Spalding (2002) acknowledged that Thomas Jefferson believed all children should

be provided “with the skills--reading, writing, arithmetic, geography, and history—

necessary to live free and independently as adults” (p. 91). He further states that Jefferson

believed all children “must be given a civic education that instructs them in ‘their rights,

interests and duties, as men and citizens’” (p. 91). Moreover, Noah Webster believed

that, “Every child in America should be acquainted with his own country. He should

read books that furnish him with ideas that will be useful to him in life and practice. As

soon as he opens his lips, he should rehearse the history of his own country” (Spalding,

2002, p. 159). Additionally, Spalding quoted Thomas Jefferson saying, “It is the duty of

every good citizen to use all the opportunities which occur to him, for preserving

documents relating to the history of our country” (p. 159). Gutierrez (2003) emphasized,

In order for people to appreciate the legitimate claim of the polity and the society

from which the government came, they must be knowledgeable about the origins

of its professed values and beliefs. Therefore, as part of a government, civics, and

even history curriculum, the content should include historical study of the origins

of those ideals, especially in order to avoid an inaccurate or distorted

understanding of those origins (p. 221).

Carpenter (2004) quotes Jefferson saying:

For this purpose the reading in the first stage, where they will receive their whole

education, is proposed . . . to be chiefly historical. History, by apprising them of

the past will enable them to judge the future; it will avail them of the experience


of other times and other nations; it will qualify them as judges of the actions and

designs of men; it will enable them to know ambition under every disguise it may

assume, and knowing it, to defeat its views (p. 141).

Carpenter (2004) continues to say, “The ultimate goal of Jefferson’s educational

plan was, of course, effective citizenship education” (p. 142). In addition, “. . . all

citizens regardless of educational background, would be effective defenders of the new

republic against threats to their personal liberty” (p. 142).

President George Washington summed the Americanism ideology during his

farewell address:

. . . you should properly estimate the immense value of your national Union to

your collective and individual happiness; that you should cherish a cordial,

habitual and immovable attachment to it; accustoming yourselves to think and

speak of it as of the Palladium of your political safety and prosperity; watching

for its preservation with jealous anxiety; discountenancing whatever may suggest

even a suspicion that it can in any event be abandoned, and indignantly frowning

upon the first dawning of every attempt to alienate any portion of our Country

from the rest, or to enfeeble the sacred ties which now link together the various

parts (Spalding, 2002, p. 302).

Why Has our Educational System Changed the Teaching of our Nation’s History

and Government?

According to Neal, et al. (2000), “The abandonment of history requirements is

part of a national trend” (p. 6). She supports her statement by including a 1988 study

completed by the National Endowment for Humanities. This study indicated “that more


than 80 percent of colleges and universities permitted students to graduate without taking

a course in American history while 37 percent of those institutions allowed students to

avoid history altogether” (p. 6). Neal further explains that thirteen years later, the

percentage increased to “One hundred percent do not require American history and 78

percent require no history at all” (p. 6).

Even though Neal’s primary focus was the college level, she stated that few

students who leave high school have adequate knowledge of American history and that

“colleges and universities do nothing to close the ‘knowledge gap’” (p. 6). Robelen

(2010) concurs with Neal in that “efforts to rewrite social studies standards come as

concerns persist . . . getting squeezed out of the classroom because of the federal No

Child Left Behind Act’s emphasis on reading and math” (p. 18). In his study, Levine

(2007) found that by “ . . .limiting and sometimes eliminating civic education in schools

and concentrating primarily on marketable and measurable skills in reading, math, and

science, U.S. educators are failing to ‘prepare the next generation of citizens with

appropriate knowledge, skills, and values’” (Bole & Gordon, 2009).

On the other hand, the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP), as

of 2006, claims “America’s twelfth, eighth, and especially fourth-graders know more

U.S. history now than in the past” (U.S. Dept of Education, 2007, p. 1). Ohio appears to

be an exception to this situation when the Ohio Department of Education assessment

results are analyzed from various years (ODE, 2010). Furthermore, the analysis reported

from the NAEP may change in the future if students nationwide are given the same

guidelines of needing “. . . a half unit of credit in American History and a half unit of

credit in American Government” (p. 1) in order to graduate high school. The requirement


from ODE specifically states that the “course examines the history of the United States of

America from 1877 to the present” (p. 3).

Lynne Munson, President and Executive Director of Common Core said, “Scaling

back the breadth of American history coverage in high school is a bad idea” (p. 19). Ms.

Munson continues, saying, “I do think once you’re in high school and your intellectual

development and background knowledge [have expanded], . . . you can restudy the

American past in a way that will bring more meaning than you might have been able to

glean at earlier grades” (Robelen, 2010).

In addition, the ODE, as other “proponents of the spiral curriculum, suggested

that the fifth grade go from 1492 to the War of 1812 . . .” (Stotsky, 2004, p. 27). Stotsky

continues to imply that “the average fifth grader is incapable of bringing much depth of

understanding to our basic political principles” (p. 27). Stotsky’s reasoning is supported

by the fourth component of psychologist Jean Piaget’s theory. Piaget’s fourth stage,

formal operational level of thinking, begins when children are ten or eleven. The formal

operational stage is when children have the ability to think abstractly (Byrnes, 2008,

p. 21). The entire construct of a spiral allows for some fundamental concepts to be

introduced many times over, adding more details gradually (Stotsky, 2004, p. 7).

In their studies, Brophy & VanSledright, 1997; Hallden, 1986; McKeown &

Beck, 1990, (as cited in Byrnes, 2008) have found, “the essence of a comprehensive

historical perspective is being able to understanding why certain events took place and

how these events affected the course of history” (Byrnes, p. 340). Furthermore, “Given

the abstract and sophisticated nature of these principles, it should not be surprising to

learn that, despite the best efforts of teachers, students often simplify the causes of events


. . .” In addition, “students historical knowledge is often characterized by simple

associations and unconnected structures” (p. 340).

Hess’ (2009) article indicated that the change to students’ knowledge of American

history is three-fold. First, he stated, “The nation is in thrall [sic] with testing and basic

skills. We think this is a mistake” (p. 6). Hess’s concern with the Title I legislation was

that, “Congress required all states to create standards and testing, but only in reading and

mathematics” (p. 6). This new policy meant an increase in instructional time to those

areas of testing and a decrease in instructional time for history (p. 8). The second issue is

that “some children grow up in homes . . . in which parents are not conversant in

questions of history and culture . . . and that schools are especially crucial” (p. 7). Lastly,

Hess emphasizes the change in our youth’s culture. He stated, “American youth have

more schooling, money, leisure time, and information than any previous generation, yet

they devote enormous quantities of time to social networking websites, television, and

video games” (p. 7). It is a known fact that “children learn what they live.” Therefore, if

students are absorbed in social networking, and science fiction gaming, they are unlikely

to be dwelling on the homework required for eighth grade American history that is to

ensure their knowledge at Graduation test time.

Waters (2005), on the other hand, believes the changes are not only due to what

students are taught, but their perception of American history is different depending on the

grade level (p. 11-12). Secondly, Waters stated that curriculum changes occur in the K-

12 level because of political correctness and that this correctness changes over time (p.

13-14). Waters concludes by stating, “Today’s textbooks will be criticized for having

omitted issues which do not seem important today” (p. 13). DeRose (2009) concurs with


Waters, stating there are “some factors affecting historical interpretation” (p. 233). For

example, “emotion and feeling can influence our perceptions of current individuals and

events” (p. 233). However, with some distance, our memories of the past will change (p.

233). While Waters may be absolutely correct about tomorrow’s textbooks, the concern is

not so much one of political correctness, but in the sorrowful omissions of basic

fundamentals of government and the establishment of America as a nation. However,

Spalding (2002) reiterates Washington’s Farewell address stating,

For this you have every inducement of sympathy and interest. Citizens by birth or

choice, of a common country, that country has a right to concentrate your

affections. The name AMERICAN, which belongs to you, in your national

capacity, must always exalt the just pride of Patriotism, more than any appellation

derived from local discriminations (p. 303).

DeRose recognized that, “As society places greater or less emphasis on certain issues or

becomes more accepting or even less tolerant of various groups or conditions, we might

reinterpret the past to conform to these new social standards” (p. 233).

On the other hand, Stotsky (2004) presented that, “The history of Western

political thought is diminishing because of the comparative sociocultural approach now

frequently used for the study of history” (p. 28). She continues, saying, “In effect,

sociocultural approaches tend to obliterate the origins and development of our civic

culture, to devalue the groups that advanced individual rights and to create sympathy for

cultures, extinct or not, that don’t value individual rights” (p. 28).

Another concern Stotsky (2004) addresses is that teachers are not adequately

trained. She states that:


In an application for a Teaching American History (TAH) grant from one of the

wealthiest counties in the country, school officials provided a chart showing that

52 percent of its eighth grade U.S. history teachers have neither a history nor a

social studies license, that 38 percent of its ninth grade U.S. history teachers have

neither a history nor a social studies license, and that a whopping 86 percent of

the English as a Second Language teachers who teach U.S. history classes for

ESL students at eight county high schools have not had a single course in U.S.

history (p. 21).

What Impact Can/Will These Changes Likely Have on the Future of our Nation?

Neal, et al. (2000) addresses three issues that these changes can have. First, “As

we move forward into the 21st century, our future leaders are graduating with an alarming

ignorance of their heritage—a kind of collective amnesia—and a profound historical

illiteracy which bodes ill for the future of the republic” (p. 4). Secondly, if these

“graduates leave school without knowing the foundations of American society, children

they teach will certainly do no better” (p. 7). Lastly, Neal quotes novelist Milan Kundera

stating, “If you want to destroy a country, destroy its memory. If a hostile power wanted

to erase America’s civic heritage, it could hardly do a better job—short of actually

prohibiting the study of American history” (p. 6). Samuel Adams, Founding Father,

projected a similar thought. He stated:

No people will tamely surrender their Liberties, nor can any be easily subdued,

when knowledge is diffused and Virtue is preserved. On the Contrary, when

People are universally ignorant, and debauched in their Manners, they will sink


under their own weight without the Aid of foreign Invaders. (Spalding, 2002, p.

150)

Novak (2002) supports Neal by stating, “People are willing to kill us just for

being Americans. So we ought at least to know what being American is. Yet many of

our students have been taught painfully little about our nation’s history, purposes, or

achievements” (p. 32).

Hess (2009) made an interesting discovery. He conducted a telephone survey

asking simple multiple-choice questions of 1,200 17-year-olds about United States

history. Hess discovered that, “teens on the cusp of adulthood earned a D overall” (p.

16). He further states, “A deep lack of knowledge is neither humorous nor trivial . . . also

affects our contribution as a democratic citizen” (p. 6). He continues by saying, “Any

reform idea that diminished the ability of schools and teacher to provide students with

such an education is narrowing children’s futures, not expanding them” (p. 6).

Alabama Senator Jeff Sessons agrees by saying, “At the root of this despicable

failure to grasp the ‘unique . . . blessings we experience as Americans,’ is mass ignorance

about the American Constitution and the Founding Fathers, encouraged by insufficiently

patriotic educators” (Street, 2003, p. 282). Sessons supports this claim by citing the

Department of Education’s report , “sixty percent of U.S. high school students lack ‘basic

knowledge of American history’ and ‘two thirds don’t even know that the first ten

amendments to the U.S. Constitution are called the Bill of Rights’” (Street, 2003, p. 283).

Kovacs (2009) wrote about a survey conducted by the John S. and James L. Knight

Foundation. “The project surveyed more than 100,000 high school students, nearly 8,000

teachers and more than 500 administrators and principals” (p. 14). The results were


astounding. “Given that the First Amendment is one of the bedrocks of U.S. democracy,

their report is not encouraging: 49% of students believed that the government should

regulate newspapers; 35% of students believed that the First Amendment goes too far in

the rights it guarantees; an additional 21% did not know enough about the First

Amendment to state an opinion” (p. 14).

Shenkman (2008) states that, “Polls over the past three decades measuring

Americans’ knowledge of history show . . . dismal results” (p. 20). He gave a few

staggering numbers that emphasized the grave reality of this increasing trend. For

example, “In 1991, Americans were asked how long the term of U.S. senator is. Just 25

percent correctly answered six years” (p. 20). He furthers this point by emphasizing that

“only 20 percent know that there are 100 senators” (p. 20). Amazingly, only 40 percent

of “Americans . . . can correctly identify and name the three branches of government” (p.

20).

Shenkman indicated, “What is needed is specifically an emphasis on civics.

Studies show that people who know civics are less easily manipulated by politicians”

(p. 177). He further emphasizes that “The time has arrived when we need to restore

civics to school curricula.” He continues saying, “This is an argument in favor of doing

more civics, not less” (p. 178). Bole & Gordon (2009) concur by “Calling for renewed

attention to civics in public education and informed access to the democratic practice of

deliberative democracy, a case is made for developing the kind of democratic minds

capable and confident in engaged citizenship” (p. 274). Levine (2007) believes that “at

the core of civil society is the art and practice of participation” (p. 21). Bole & Gordon

agree “The kind of participation that nurtures a sense and vision of shared purpose”


(p. 274).

“In the country that gave birth to Jefferson’s conception of an educated citizenry,

[schools], colleges and universities are failing to provide the kind of general education

that is needed for graduates to be involved and educated citizens” (Neal, et al. 2000, p. 6).

Thomas Jefferson’s quote, “If a nation expects to be ignorant and free, in a state of

civilization, it expects what never was and never will be” (Shenkman, 2008, p. 13) is very

profound considering the future of America.

Conclusion

The articles’ common theme in regards to American History and Government is

the fact that many Americans are not firmly grounded in their American heritage and

governmental foundations. Several factors contribute to these deficiencies in the

educational system. However, two things are certain, America had an influential past and

American history is always changing. Every day historical events occur. The challenge

arises when we have to decide what is significant enough to place in American history

curriculum, what is to be removed, and what is to be tested. We are made up of a diverse

people, ideologies, and preexisting beliefs of our American history. It will always be a

battle among those in charge of our curriculum and who presents the material as to how

our children will learn and to what extent the material will influence them. According to

Neal (2000), “The most direct solution is a strong curriculum, with a broad-based

rigorous course on American history required of all students. The course should include

the breadth of American history, from the colonial period to the present” (p. 8). This will

not only give the students a “sense of where the country has been, but what it has meant”

(p. 8).


“Our first task is to return to teaching Americans about America and teaching

immigrants how to become Americans. Until we re-establish a legitimate moral and

cultural standard, our civilization is at risk” (Nash, 2001, p. 42). Stotsky (2004) concurs

by stating, “No student should graduate from an American high school without an upper-

high-school level understanding of such basic political principles as limited government,

consent of the people, checks and balances, and an independent judiciary” (p. 30).

Gutierrez (2003) also agrees that it is important to “teach the constitutional foundations

of the American people as defined by the founding generation” (p. 236). In addition,

Gutierrez believes, “. . . a theoretical foundation that is part of our political and cultural

heritage seems to be worthwhile place to start in building a renewed commitment to our

commonwealth” (p. 240). Levine (2007) said that “. . . the most viable potential

approaches for maintaining unity in diversity in the US are crystallized in the call for

reawakening civic engagement and the return to teaching the responsibilities of

citizenship in democracy” (p. 21).

Spalding (2002) quoted Joseph Story’s urgency of passing the American legacy to

the next generation:

Let the American youth never forget, that they possess a noble inheritance, bought

by the toils, and sufferings, and blood on their ancestors; and capable, if wisely

improved, and faithfully guarded, of transmitting to their latest posterity all the

substantial blessings of life, the peaceful enjoyment of liberty, property, religion

and independence. The structure has been erected by architects of consummate

skill and fidelity; its foundations are solid; its compartments are beautiful, as well

as useful; its arrangements are full of wisdom and order; and its defenses are


impregnable from without. It has been reared for immorality, if the work of man

may justly aspire to such a title. It may, nevertheless, perish in an hour by the

folly, or corruption, or negligence of its only keepers, THE PEOPLE (p. 231).


Methodology and Research Design

The purpose of this research was to garner evidence of students’ knowledge of

America’s foundation. This research was conducted from diversity of venues. This paper

is designed to analyze data collected from the Ohio Department of Education (ODE)

website, data collected and analyzed from the Americanism and Government Test

Program and an analysis of surveys from local Scioto County and ODE Social Studies

Educators. The sources played into the analysis via the four questions using a crossover

method.


o ODE Website

o Surveys from Social Studies Educators


o ODE Website


o ODE Website



1877?

o ODE Website – OGT


o Americanism Test

Many facets of the Ohio Department of Education’s website were explored. First,

a search was conducted by analyzing the social studies standards for Ohio students. As is


written in the Social Studies Model Curriculum Development (ODE, 2010), the social

studies standards were organized into seven strands as of 2002. These seven strands

consisted of History, People in Societies, Geography, Economics, Government,

Citizenship Rights and Responsibilities, and Social Studies Skills and Methods (2010).

The focus of this study will be confined to History and Government that intertwine

amidst the seven strands. Further, this study is limited to events and documents which

pertain to American history prior to 1877.

Next, an analysis of the Academic Content Standards Revision of High School

[and Pre-Kindergarten through Grade Eight] Social Studies Course Syllabi (ODE, 2010)

was conducted. In Ohio, the Academic Content Standards are broken by subject. For this

analysis, the Social Studies subject Standards were considered. Within the Social Studies

Standards are the seven previous enumerated strands: History, People in Societies,

Geography, Economics, Government, Citizenship Rights & Responsibilities, and Social

Studies Skills & Methods. The strands are addressed both as Benchmarks, detailed by

bands of grades and specific Indicators which demonstrate abilities within those grades

(ODE, 2002).

The History and Government Standards were analyzed for content and for the

historical timeframe that was applicable to this study. It was relevant to this research to

determine the Benchmarks for the areas of concern, as well as the grade levels which

Indicators directed when students are required to take lessons in American history prior

to 1877.


A further examination consisted of determining the number of credits students

need for American history prior to 1877 to graduate high school. First, one must

understand what a ‘credit’ measures. The Carnegie Unit

was developed in 1906 as a measure of the amount of time a student has studied a

subject. For example, a total of 120 hours in one subject—meeting 4 or 5 times a

week for 40 to 60 minutes, for 36 to 40 weeks each year—earns the student one

"unit" of high school credit (Carnegie Institute, 2010).

The Ohio Department of Education responded to the Governor’s Commission for

Student Success of 1999 with a testing program for Ohio High School students which

would be precedent to graduation. As the “No Child Left Behind” (NCLB) Act of 2001

became Federal Law, this action put Ohio at the forefront of the requirement. The kind

of “high stakes testing” required by NCLB was being implemented across the state that

year. Legislation being what it is, it was not until 2004 when the state of Ohio actually

passed the pertinent requirements into law. Title 33 of the Ohio Revised Code published

section 3301.0710 in June of 2004, and has updated it routinely since. This section

requires the passage of the Ohio Graduation Test (OGT) by every student in Ohio, with a

myriad of exceptions (ODE, 2010). The Ohio Department of Education (ODE) maintains

the use of evidence for testing the hypothesis:

H0: The processes used in developing the OGT program and scoring tests result

in an instrument suited for making valid inferences about the abilities of 10th

grade examinees against Ohio’s Academic Content Standards.

The evidence to be presented include the following:


1. Alignment studies: tests of whether the OGT’s are an accurate reflection of

Ohio’s Academic Content Standards

2. A congeneric analysis of strands and a 2nd order factor analysis to show the

internal consistency of strands. Both the congeneric analysis and the 2nd order

factor analyses test whether the items found in a typical test covary in a manner

that one might conclude that they are all related to an underlying construct (such

as the mathematics ability a 10th grade student should have)

3. Structural equation regression models (Moore, 2008)

However, Dr. Randy Hoover (2008) of Beegly College of Education,

Youngstown State University, presents a contrary perspective. The Lived Experience

Index (LEI) is a trend which indicates the OGT is biased against those with limited life

experience. Using Pearson’s correlations, Hoover concludes that “The correlation of

district test performance with the lived experience of the child still provides the evidence

for the complete lack of academic validity on the part of Ohio's achievement tests”

(Hoover, 2008, p. 16).

Using the 2006 test as an exemplar, the Hoover study presented by Terrence

Moore (2008), indicates that the OGT is reliable in all areas except writing standards.

The Cronbach’s Alpha scale was used to establish reliability, and the borderline results of

the writing standard (7.7 as opposed to 8.0 or higher) was attributed to the small question

set (only 14 questions). The Hoover study shows a comparative analysis to the ACT test

for the same year to equal or higher degree via Cronbach’s Alpha scale.

The social studies portion of the Ohio Graduation Test (OGT) was collected and

analyzed from the years 2005 through 2010. For this analysis, the focus was on schools


located within Scioto County Ohio. These schools included: Bloom-Vernon, Clay, East

(Sciotoville Community), Green, Minford, New Boston (Glenwood), Northwest,

Portsmouth, Valley, West (Portsmouth West) and Wheelersburg. Average scores were

taken from the item analysis portion pertaining to social studies for each year from 2005-

2010. Percentages of passage rates are located in table 3.1 for reference to highlight the

issues of concern within Scioto County. Individual school charts are available in

Appendix B.


Table 3.1


A detailed analysis was conducted within the OGT results. Questions significant

to this study were collected and analyzed from the OGT from the years 2005-2010. The

Ohio Department of Education publishes the OGT questions and its results on a yearly

basis. It is important to note that this portion of the analysis pertains to all students

tested in the state of Ohio. ODE did not conduct an item analysis per question for each

school district. The analysis of the OGT reflects that the questions are accounted as

Citizenship, Government, and History among other sections. Since the concerns of this

study were relevant to American history prior to 1877, those three areas were culled for

review and analysis. As the questions were analyzed, the percent responding correctly

per question was documented and collect cumulatively for further evaluation. Table 3.2

represents this information in that the five years considered reflected varying percentages

of achievement within the state of Ohio. Perhaps more relevant to this study, is that the

years 2006, 2007, and 2008, indicated no questions related to the “History” standards for

Social Study were even asked.


Table 3.2

After the initial investigation into the Ohio Department of Education website,

further queries were raised. An email was sent in mid-January to all social studies

coordinators for clarification about the OGT and American History/Government

requirements. This email included the requirements of a survey to determine their

knowledge and understanding of the OGT question patterns, the allocation of time in

their classrooms for founding issues, and attitudes regarding the Americanism test. A

copy of the survey questions are in Appendix D. The email was sent to the five social

studies coordinators indicated on the Ohio Department of Education Website as being

information sources for this issue. Of those, one responded directly to the questions.

Two indicate the request was referred to someone else who was better able to answer the

questions, and none were returned, indicating that two did not answer for whatever

reason.

Another approach to finding students’ knowledge of American history prior to

1877 was a review of the 2010 Americanism and Government Test. The Americanism

and Government Tests have been provided by local American Legion Post

representatives every year. It is given to over 90,000 students in Ohio. The American

Legion provides “an opportunity for the high school student to evaluate himself, or

Note: In the years, 2006, 2007, and 2008, no questions specific to the History category in the timeframe pertinent to this study were offered. Percents represent questions answered correctly by Ohio high school students.


herself, in American government and history” (American Legion, 2010). It has been

consistently offered in Scioto County for many years.

The purpose of the National Americanism Commission of the American Legion is

to “realize in the United States the basic ideal of this Legion of 100 per cent Americanism

through the planning, establishment and conduct of a continuous, constructive

educational system designed to:

(1) Combat all anti-American tendencies, activities and propaganda;

(2) Work for the education of immigrants, prospective American citizens and

alien residents in the principles of Americanism;

(3) Inculcate the ideal of Americanism in the citizen population, particularly the

basic American principle that the interests of all the people are above those of

any special interest or any so-called class or section of the people;

(4) Spread throughout the people of the nation the information as to the real

nature and principles of American government;

(5) Foster the teachings of Americanism in all schools (American Legion,

1997).”

The American Legion publishes a Manual that defines Americanism as: “[the]

love of America; loyalty to her institutions as the best yet devised [by] man to secure life,

liberty, individual dignity, and happiness; and the willingness to defend our country and

Flag against all enemies, foreign and domestic” (1997). The test is designed to

determine awareness and knowledge among the youth of the nation regarding issues

pertinent to the founding and establishment of this nation. Questions were established

within the framework of the American Legion by a national council appointed to do so.


While this method does not provide statistical validity to the test, it provides a reasonable

expectation of general knowledge. However, there is no indicated evidence that this

information was validated by a professional within the field of social studies. Each

year’s test is provided to local representatives for administration. One consequence of

participating in the exam program is competition for scholarship. Because the program is

voluntary, and scholarship funds may be involved, it can be presumed that students who

participate have a general desire to move forward with education into the college level.

In the fall of 2010, an interview was conducted with Susan Frasher. Ms. Frasher

is the Scioto County district representative of the American Legion. She explained the

process of how the Americanism and Government Test is distributed and collected. In

that no student personal identification was disclosed, confidentiality was not an issue.

Further, students who participated gave permission for their scores to be used for analysis

without identification. She further explained the purpose of the exam and the benefits of

student participation. In November 2010, she distributed the Americanism and

Government Test to the following schools: East (Sciotoville Community), Green, New

Boston (Glenwood), Northwest, Notre Dame, Portsmouth, Valley, West (Portsmouth

West), and Wheelersburg. Minford, Bloom-Vernon, and Clay had chosen not to

participate. There were a total of 523 participants. The students represented 79 ninth

graders, 80 tenth graders, 81 eleventh graders, and 283 twelfth graders. This provided a

convenient sample of the population for review.

In December 2010, the Americanism and Government Tests were collected and

analyzed. The first factor was to examine the test for content. Each question was

analyzed for relevance to this project – specifically those which corresponded to the OGT


categories of Citizenship, Government, and History (selecting the Colonial and

Revolutionary periods and Constitutional elements specifically). Only eleven of the fifty

questions were collected for data analysis. Categories for review and comparison were

established along the same lines of Citizenship, Government and History. For purposes

of analysis, a document was generated recording the data, to include students’ school

district, grade level, gender, and response to each question. Tally marks were placed in

the correct or incorrect column per question. These tally marks were then converted to

percentages per question. This method provided the data for this aspect of the analysis.


Data Analysis and Interpretation

This study is using a “triangulation” approach incorporating three diverse sources

of data which when viewed collectively; support the hypothesis that indeed, while

meeting established requirements, Ohio students are still largely ignorant of American

history prior to 1877. The three prongs are: Ohio Department of Education, recent

results of the Americanism test sponsored by the American Legion, and a survey of

Scioto County teachers on the extent of teaching American history prior to 1877. As

previously indicated, the original research questions used all these methods to find

answers.


o ODE Website



o ODE Website


o ODE Website



1877?

o ODE Website – OGT


o Americanism Test


Analysis of Ohio Department of Education Social Studies Standards

The primary element of the analysis was to determine the content standards for

American History and American Government. In addition to the content standards, an

inquiry was made into how many credits of social studies one needed for graduation and

when the students take American History and American Government. This review

incorporated the assets on the Ohio Department of Education (ODE) website and was

conducted between the months of June 2010 to January 2011.

At the time of this research, the ODE was in the process of revising the standards

for social studies requirements. It is important to define and interpret these changes for

the benefit of this study. The 2002 standards will be discussed in this part of the analysis.

The 2010 Academic Content Standards Revision will be discussed in the Summary,

Discussion, and Application section of this paper. See Appendix A for the 2002

Academic Content Standards for social studies grades 9-12.

According to the 2002 Academic Content Standards, the content for grades 9-12

was organized into grade bands. Grades 9-10 were a band and grades 11-12 were a band.

Within each band, these academic content standards direct the overarching goals and

themes. The seven standards include: History, People in Societies, Geography,

Economics, Government, Citizens Rights and Responsibilities, and Social Studies Skills

and Methods. Under each was a list of benchmarks students needed to achieve. These

benchmarks were to monitor progress toward the academic content standard. Lastly,

indicators were included within each benchmark. The indicators determined what

students should know and be able to do at each grade level. History and Government

benchmarks were analyzed in this study. As much of the High School Standards seemed


vague on the topic, further investigation led to the Standards for Grade Eight in this area,

also included in Appendix A. See table 4.1 for reference.

Table 4.1

Continued on next page . . .


(ODE, 2002)


It is interesting to note that neither grades 9-10 benchmarks nor grades 11-12

benchmarks specifically discuss American history prior to 1877. In Grade Nine, the

“connections among Enlightenment ideas, and the American Revolution, the French

Revolution and Latin American wars for independence” (ODE, 2002) are required. Only

the connecting ideas are addressed, not the foundational construction of the developing

American national government. Nowhere do the benchmarks discuss the discovery of the

United States, the Revolutionary War, the Founding Fathers, or the struggles of

implementing the United States Constitution. However, elements E, F, and G, of Grade

Eight History, and element B of Grade Eight Government directly address these periods.

Further, the benchmarks indicate that while that Standard applies in grades six through

eight, this knowledge is directed during Grade Eight. It appears students are taught

American history beginning with the Industrial Revolution during High School.

A Center on Educational Policy (CEP) collected surveys from all fifty states

which showed that, “Thirty-three percent of the districts . . . reported reducing social

studies in response to high-stakes testing” (Au, 2009, p. 47). It is probable that this

reduction in American History content in the classroom is directly attributable to OGT

standards and constraints.

After collecting the data from ODE in regards to the social studies content, further

clarification was needed. As indicated above, an email was sent to all Social Studies

Consultant of the ODE in mid-January 2011. Asked to clarify information in regards to

the Ohio Graduation Test (OGT) and more specifically American history prior to 1877,

the queries were re-directed to a Mr. Muthig, one of the Consultants. While other

provided some general input, Mr. Muthig was apparently designated for the most


complete response. The first inquiry was why high school students learn American

history beginning with 1877. According to Mr. Muthig:

While Ohio’s 2002 social studies academic content standards include the study of

American history from 1877 to the present, local districts are not obligated to

have their local curricula conform to this time period. However, local districts

should be cognizant of the requirements for passing the OGT when designing

local curricula and be satisfied that their instructional programs will prepare

students for success on the state assessments. It behooves districts to provide

instruction about American History from 1877 to the present since the OGT is

based upon that time period (Muthig, 2011, Personal Communication).

Further inquiry persisted about the required social studies credits students need

for graduation. Mr. Muthig (2011) replied, “The decision as to the length of instruction

beyond what is necessary to earn the state-mandated credits in social studies is left up to

the local districts. Districts must offer at least one-half credit of American history and

one-half credit of American government for students to graduate.” Mr. Muthig did say

that local districts could offer more credit if more instruction is provided.

Another area of needed clarification was to determine when students learn about

the foundation of America – this was a composite question, which was defined as the

period of American history prior to 1877. Mr. Muthig (2011) responded by stating:

The decision about when to teach students about the foundation of America is left

up to local districts. In the 2002 social studies academic content standards this

topic is addressed in grades five and eight. Once again, school districts need to be


cognizant of the state’s assessment program, which includes assessments

addressing this topic at grades five and eight.

When asked about students learning the U.S. Constitution, he explained, “In the

2002 social studies academic content standards, this topic is addressed in grades five and

eight” (2011). Lastly, Mr. Muthig clarified when most high school students take

American History and Government as being “. . .tenth, eleventh, and twelfth grades

depending on local district programs” (2011).

Analysis of the Ohio Graduation Test (OGT)

The Ohio Graduation Test (OGT) was analyzed for results from the years 2005

through 2010. The Ohio Department of Education (ODE) website provides the test

questions and the results. The focus of this study was isolated to the social studies

component. Three elements of the exam were specifically analyzed. First, the scores for

each school district in Scioto County were extracted. Second, questions pertaining to the

U.S. Constitution and questions specifically designed toward American history prior to

1877 were culled for evaluation. Third, student responses to those specific questions

were collected for study. The ODE provides an item analysis that reports how students

score on each question. This item analysis is not broken apart for each school district. It

is a collection of scores from all students tested in Ohio.

Scioto County has eleven school districts that partake in the Ohio Graduation Test

(OGT). It is important to reiterate that the social studies portion of the Ohio Graduation

Test is comprised of various questions that pertain to the different courses of social

studies. For example, students were tested on material relevant to history, government,

economics, geography, people in societies, citizenship rights and responsibilities, and


social studies skills and methods. A comparison of the OGT results from Scioto County

schools from various years will be discussed. See Appendix B for OGT by school, year,

and passage rates. While general passage rates may not seem to be particularly relevant

to the question at hand, they do indicate a cognizant effort to provide the students with

the materials on the test as a whole.

OGT results per school district from various years.

Bloom-Vernon school district, located in South Webster, Ohio, averaged 78.2%

between the years 2005-2010. In 2006, they averaged 74.7%. However, the school

district scored better on the March 2010 test; they scored 82.9%, this is a slight increase

from the year before which was 81.7%.

Clay school district, which is located in Portsmouth, Ohio, averaged 82.4%

between the years 2005-2010. In 2007, the OGT score was 75.4%. However, in 2009

Clay rebounded to 88.9%. On the March 2010 test, Clay dropped ten percent to 78.9%.

Sciotoville Community School (East), located in Sciotoville, Ohio, averaged, 74%

on the OGT between the years 2005-2010. March 2005 was the highest scoring year,

which was 79%. However, in March 2006, the average score for East was 68%.

Green Local school district, located in Franklin Furnace, Ohio, averaged 78%

between the years 2005-2010. The highest scoring year was March 2006 in which the

OGT score was 86%. The OGT result from 2005 was much lower. Green scored 71.7%.

Minford Local school district, located in Minford, Ohio, averaged 78% between

the years 2005-2010. Minford’s highest scoring year was March 2010; the score was

80.6%. On the other hand, they scored 69.4% in March 2008.


New Boston school district, located in New Boston, Ohio, averaged 77.9%

between the years 2005-2010. New Boston scored 88.5% March 2009 and 65.6% March

2007.

Northwest school district, located in McDermott, Ohio, averaged 70.1% between

the years 2005-2010. Northwest scored 84.8% in March 2009; however, dropped almost

ten percent the following year. March 2005 was their lowest scoring year, which was

60.2%.

Portsmouth school district, located in Portsmouth, Ohio, averaged 60% between

the years 2005-2010. The highest scoring year for Portsmouth was 2006, which was

73.9%. Portsmouth’s lowest scoring year was 2008 in which the OGT score was 54.8%.

Valley local school district, located in Lucasville, Ohio, averaged 80.1% between

the years 2005-2010. Their highest scoring year was March 2006 with a 91.2% average.

In March 2005, Valley scored 69.4%.

Portsmouth West, located in West Portsmouth Ohio, averaged 71.8% between the

years 2005-2010. West scored their highest (81.7%) in March 2009 and their lowest

(63.3%) in March 2005.

Wheelersburg local school district, located in Wheelersburg, Ohio, averaged 86%

on the OGT between the years 2005-2010. Wheelersburg scored its highest, 90.7%, for

the year 2008 and 76.9% for its lowest in 2007.

Selected questions from the OGT pertaining to this study.

There are approximately 135,000 students who take the Ohio Graduation Test

(OGT) in the state of Ohio on a yearly basis. This exam is given to all sophomores and to

those who did not pass certain portions of the test on prior attempt(s). The social studies

portion of the exam consists of 44 questions. “Of these items, 38 are counted as part of a


student’s test score and six are included for field testing purposes. Of the scored items,

there are 32 multiple-choice items, four short-answer items, and two extended-response

items” (Muthig, 2011). On the reports of the tests themselves, the Field Test Items are

not reported.

Questions relevant to American history prior to 1877 and specifically the United

States Constitution were analyzed between the years of 2005-2009. The 2010 OGT

questions were not published at the time of this research.

The March 2005 OGT had four questions applicable to this study. Students were

asked questions about restrictions against free speech, authority in government, voting

rights, and Rousseau’s Social Contract in which he examined ideas about majority will

and the common good. In the 2006 OGT, students were asked about the branches of

government and their relationships, another question about Locke and Rousseau, voting

rights, and freedom of the press. On the March 2007 OGT, there was only one question

pertinent to this study. This question related specifically to the 1st amendment. The

March 2008 OGT had four questions relevant to this study. These questions dealt with

the 14th amendment and different forms of government -- theocracy, democracy,

constitutional monarchy, and a dictatorship. Students also needed know how citizens

could achieve governmental change.

The March 2009 OGT had five questions applicable to this study. Freedom of the

press, governmental change, and forms of government were queried. Further, Plessy v.

Ferguson and the 14th Amendment, the Enlightenment thinkers and the leaders of the

American Revolution and.


As is common with any standardized test, the student response varied greatly

year-to-year and question-by-question. Probably some of the more significant concerns

from the evaluation include student ignorance on rights enumerated in the 1st

amendment, and the focus on court cases and the enlightenment thinkers. One must

wonder if students are supposed to recall the details of the Enlightenment from Eighth

Grade Social Studies if American History is not taught prior to the Industrial period in

High School.

Analysis of the Americanism and Government Program

The Americanism test is a product of the American Legion. It was created in

Ohio in 1963 as an expansion of the American Legion Essay Contest (American Legion,

2010). The Americanism Test is given to participating public, private, and parochial high

schools during the first week of November. The test is given to grades 9, 10, 11, & 12;

however, grade 9 is excluded from winning the contest (American Legion, 2010). There

are six state winners, one boy and one girl each in grades 10, 11, & 12. The winners have

the opportunity to take an all expense paid, five-day trip to Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, and

Washington, D.C. Furthermore, students who score a 100% will receive a United States

Savings Bond. Once a student has been selected as a winner, he/she will be ineligible to

take the test in the future (American Legion, 2010).

Each student participating in the Americanism and Government Program takes the

same test. While this is not a mandatory testing, it does provide a convenient sample of

the population to evaluate the general knowledge of the subject. Students are given one

hour to complete the exam. The test is comprised of five true or false questions and 45

multiple choice questions pertaining to the United States Flag, United States Constitution,


Declaration of Independence, federal government, state government, county government,

city government, township government and school government. In addition, there is a

300-word essay that is used in case of a tie (American Legion, 2010).

For this paper, questions pertaining to the United States Constitution, Declaration

of Independence, and the federal government will be discussed. There were twelve

questions that were analyzed for this study. For simplification, these questions were

categorized into three areas. There were three questions pertaining to the amendments,

four questions about the founding documents, and eight questions concerning the three

branches of the federal government.

The schools and number of participants from Scioto County, Ohio were: East-19

(Sciotoville Community School), Glenwood-16 (New Boston), Green-31, Northwest-4,

Notre Dame-21 (parochial school), Portsmouth-80, Portsmouth West-15, Valley-13,

Wheelersburg-84. It is important to note that Minford Local Schools, Clay Local

Schools, and South Webster School (Bloom-Vernon) chose not to participate in the test.

There were 79 freshmen, 80 sophomores, 81 juniors, and 283 seniors that participated in

the 2010 Americanism Test. The responses from the seniors will be the focus of this

paper as it gives a larger sample of the population and the standards did not vary from

their sophomore through their senior year. The descriptors of the population tested are

contained in Appendix C. Specifically, the numbers of senior participants by school and

percentage of the whole are detailed in Appendix C, page C3.

The first category of questions was relevant to the amendments of the United

States Constitution. The students were asked about minorities’ right to vote that is

protected by the 15th Amendment. Only thirty-five percent of the students answered


correctly. The school scoring the highest was Valley; they scored 77%. Northwest came

in a close second at 75%. All other schools scored 43% and below.

The second category was pertinent to the founding documents. Only 74% of the

students knew that Thomas Jefferson was the author of the Declaration of Independence.

Northwest and Valley were the only schools that scored 100%. Wheelersburg, Green,

and Portsmouth West scored an average of 83%. Glenwood and Portsmouth averaged

66%. East and Notre Dame scored a 50.5% average. Only 61% of the students were able

to recognize the Preamble to the Constitution. Northwest, East, and Wheelersburg were

the highest scoring schools. Their combined score was 73%. Portsmouth West and

Glenwood had a combined average of 61%. The other scores were in the 50-percentile

range.

The third category pertained to first three articles of the United States Constitution

—the legislative, executive, and judicial branches of government. Three questions

pertained to the legislative branch. On the first question, seventy-three percent of the

students knew that the U.S. House of Representatives could change as a result of the

2010 U.S. Census. Northwest, again, scored 100%. Portsmouth West, Valley, and

Wheelersburg averaged 86%. East, Glenwood, Green, and Portsmouth averaged 67%.

Notre Dame scored 38%.

The next question pertained to how many senators Ohio has. Seventy-three

percent answered correctly. Once again, Northwest had a perfect score. Notre Dame,

Portsmouth West, Valley, and Wheelersburg averaged 86%. Portsmouth scored 66%.

Glenwood, Green, and East scored below 56%. When the students where asked what

branch the U.S. Senate and the U.S. House of Representatives forms, amazingly, only


76% knew that it is the legislative branch of the government. Northwest, once again,

answered perfectly. Valley and Wheelersburg had an 85% average. East, Green and

Notre Dame averaged 75%. Glenwood, Portsmouth, and Portsmouth West scored 68%.

There were three questions relevant to the executive branch. The first question

implied that the first lady had some prescribed duties that are outlined in the Constitution.

Interestingly, 56% of the students believed she has responsibilities in the executive

branch. Northwest and Valley scored 100%. Portsmouth West had a score of 87%. All

other schools scored 65% and below.

On the second question relevant to the executive branch, students did not score as

well. The questioned asked: By virtue of the office, the vice president of the United

States also serves as . . . . For this, 38% knew that the vice president also serves as the

president of the senate. Northwest school district was the only school to score 100%.

East, Portsmouth West, and Valley averaged 64%. Portsmouth and Wheelersburg

averaged 35%. Glenwood, Green, and Notre Dame averaged 22.9%. On the last

question, students had a better score. The students were asked how many years a

president can serve in a term. Eighty-four percent of the students were able to correctly

answer four years. Three schools had a perfect score—East, Northwest, and Portsmouth

West. Green and Valley had the lowest score, which was a 77%.

Students were then asked two questions pertinent to the judicial branch. The first

questioned asked how long justices serve on the U.S. Supreme Court and 60% knew it is

for life. Northwest scored perfectly. Portsmouth West and Valley scored an average of

92.5%. East scored 84%. The other schools scored 61% and below. The last question

asked: The final authority to determine the constitutionality of the laws of the United


States is vested in the . . . and, 62% of the students knew that the U.S. Supreme Court is

the final authority. Portsmouth West and Valley scored the highest at an average of

82.5%. Northwest and Wheelersburg averaged 74%. East, Glenwood, and Notre Dame

had the lowest average score of 45%.

The fact that this test is optional and garners a scholarship prize no doubt weighs

heavily into the decision of the participants. Students who have no desire to attend

college are less likely to participate. Those who seek scholarship funding, are more

likely to prepare for this exam. A study guide is available online from the American

Legion though not specifically for the state of Ohio. Ms. Frasher indicated that a study

guide for Ohio students was available, but had no knowledge of whom or how many had

received it if any. The skewed numbers from the huge variance in participants is a

severe limitation of this test as a statistical norm. However, it does convey some

information regarding the knowledge base of the student populace in the area. The

percentages are listed by school simply as a matter of interest.

Interpretation of Standards Applicability from the Teachers’ View

An informal survey of Scioto County Social Studies teachers was conducted via

Survey Monkey, as variance in program by school became apparent. Details of this

survey are listed in Appendix C. Teachers were asked when most of their students take

American History and/or Government. Direct response from the teachers indicated that

seventy-three percent of the students in Scioto County take American History during their

sophomore year. As for Government, 82% of the students take the class during their

senior year.


I furthered my investigation by asking when do their students learn about the

founding of our nation. The responses varied. Thirty-four percent responded that

learning about the foundation begins from 1800-present. Another 33% responded that

learning begins from the time period of 1492-1620. It is interesting to point out that 17%

of the teachers were not sure when their schools taught about the founding of our nation.

This can possibly be attributed to the variance in focus of the teachers, i.e. government,

economics, history, citizenship, etc. It could also depend on the teacher’s understanding

of founding. Alternatively, in that the period covering the Revolution largely precedes

High School these teachers may simply be unaware of which prior grade includes that

requirement.

The second question was to find out how many credits each school offered for

American History and Government. The participants of the survey said that their schools

offer one credit for American History and one credit for Government. It was interesting

to discover that 80% of those who responded said that their students take American

History and Government for a full year. The other 20% said their students take the two

courses for half a year each.

When the teachers were asked if the changes that ODE has made in regards to

teaching students American History from 1877-present, would have an impact on future

generations, surprisingly, only 67% said that yes, it would have an impact. The response

to the next question was just as intriguing. Participants were asked how many questions

were on the OGT in regards to the United States Constitution and American history prior

to 1800. Five teachers said there are between 0-5 questions pertaining to the Constitution

and the other five teachers said there are 6-10 questions about the Constitution.


According to Mr. Muthig (ODE), the kinds of Constitutional questions vary from year to

year. Eight teachers said there are between 0-5 questions pertaining to American history

prior to 1800 and two teachers said there are 6-10 questions on the 2010 test. According

to Muthig, there are no questions on the OGT pertaining to American history prior to

1800 (2010). Teachers varying understanding of the inclusion of the issues on the tests

can be reflected in the amount of class time dedicated to those issues. Since class time is

a priority, the majority of it is dedicated to those issues which are most prevalent on the

test.

The next question was in regards to how much time is dedicated to the study of

the United States Constitution. Forty-five percent said they devote 3-4 weeks. Thirty-

three percent said they spend 1-2 weeks and twenty-two percent said that 5+ weeks were

devoted to the study of the constitution.

Teachers were then asked if their students participated in the Americanism test. If

so, did their students have prior knowledge to the questions. One teacher said, “The

students were given study questions, which are provided by the American Legion. The

studying that they were to do was completed on their own time. Therefore, I do not know

how long students studied.” It is important to point out that this teacher is from

Northwest school district. A teacher from Portsmouth responded by saying, “No, the

students did not have prior knowledge of the types of questions on the test. The students

did not study or review for the test.”

Questions from the survey with the responses are located in Appendix D.

Furthermore, the study guide to the Americanism test is located at

http://www.indlegion.org/?page_id=252 . The study guide is from the website of the


American Legion in Indiana. A study guide from the American Legion in Ohio could not

be found via website. However, the questions on the Ohio Americanism test are similar

to those asked on the study guide from the Indiana American Legion.


Summary, Discussion, and Application

John Adams once said, “Wisdom and knowledge, as well as virtue, diffused

generally among the body of the people, being necessary for the preservation of their

rights and liberties, and as these depend on spreading the opportunities and advantages of

education . . .” (Retrieved, 2011). With the establishment of the No Child Left Behind

Act and the structure of the Ohio Social Studies Standards, the preservation of the

peoples’ rights and liberties are being squeezed out of classrooms and eventually out of

what unites us as Americans.

As the research has shown, Scioto County students are meeting the standards that

the Ohio Department of Education has implemented in order for one to graduate high

school. See Appendix A for details in regard to social studies standards per grades 9-12.

However, Ohio students are not required to learn about the founding of America in high

school. To restate Mr. Muthig (2011), “The decision about when to teach students about

the foundation of America is left up to local districts. In the 2002 social studies academic

content standards this topic is addressed in grades five and eight.” The critical period of

American History cannot be learned analytically in grades five and eight. Piaget has held

that students in these pre-teen years do not have the ability to make the needed

inferences. At the Grade Eight level, the inferences are starting to form as the neurons

connect, however, the entire body of neuro-biology and cognitive learning is complicated

at that time by puberty. The combinations of declarative and conceptual questions for

which answers are desired on the OGT are simply beyond these students. However, the

Americanism test is largely declarative questioning, and may explain the discrepancy

between these tests to some degree.


On the other hand, if a high school teacher wanted to and had time to incorporate

history lessons prior to 1877; he or she needs to be mindful of students passing the Ohio

Graduation Test (OGT). To emphasize Mr. Muthig’s statement, “ . . .local districts

should be cognizant of the requirements for passing the OGT when designing local

curricula and be satisfied that their instructional programs will prepare students for

success on the state assessments” (2011).

Moreover, Scioto County students are meeting the ODE requirements for passing

the social studies portion of the Ohio Graduation Test (OGT). The scores are average.

However, considering the content of the OGT in regards to American History and

Government, students may be lacking the knowledge of our foundational principles of

democracy. To reiterate Mr. Muthig’s statement, “None of the items on the social studies

component of the OGT directly pertain to American history prior to 1877. The items are

developed to assess the benchmarks included as part of the social studies academic

content standards . . .” Furthermore, Muthig said, “It behooves districts to provide

instruction about American History from 1877 to present since the OGT is based upon

that time period” (2011). The circular reasoning from this ODE consultant is part of the

concern of the issue.

According to Savage (2003), “many social studies educators have conceded the

debate and are willing to accept high-stakes testing. Their reasons are understandable; if

social studies is not tested, it is likely that it will not be taught” (p. 201). It is obvious

that students in Scioto County are not learning about the critical time of American

History during high school. The requirements for teaching American History prior to


1877 to high school students and test questions relevant to this time period are

nonexistent according to the Ohio social studies standards and the OGT.

The scores obtained from the 2010 Americanism test further confirm that our

Scioto County students are, indeed, unaware of many aspects of American history prior

to 1877. The scores indicate that students are not learning about the founding of this

country during those high school years when they should have the capacity to make the

inferences needed to understand these complex issues. It is apparent that Scioto County

teachers conformed to the Ohio standards in order for the students to succeed on the

OGT.

According to Thomas Jefferson, we need to educate students in “ History by

apprising [citizens] of the past [which] will enable them to judge of the future; it will

avail them of the experience of other times and other nations; it will qualify them as

judges of the actions and designs of men; it will enable them to know ambition under

every disguise it may assume; and knowing it, to defeat its views.” However, if students

are not being educated in the events of America’s past, they will not be able to judge

future events. It is a concern that we are allowing “more instances of the abridgement of

the freedom of the people by the gradual and silent encroachment . . .” (Jefferson).

Abraham Lincoln once said, "America will never be destroyed from the outside.

If we falter and lose our freedoms, it will be because we destroyed ourselves." We are in

a national crisis. Because our educational institutions do not implement the importance

of teaching the future generations about the founding of this great nation, we will be

destroying ourselves.


References

Adams, John. Retrieved quote March 13, 2011 from

http://www.freerepublic.com/focus/fr/1643194/posts.

American Legion. (2010). “Americanism and Government test.” In The Chronicles of the

American Legion.

American Legion. (1997). “Americanism Manual.” The National Americanism

Commission. The American Legion. Indianapolis, IN.

Au, W. (2009). Social Studies, Social Justice: W(h)ither the Social Studies in High-

Stakes Testing? Teacher Education Quarterly.

Bole, B. & Gordon, M. (2009). E Pluribus Unum: fostering a new era of citizenship by

teaching civic engagement and healthy civic discourse. Journal of Public Affairs,

9, 273-287. doi: 10.1002

Byrnes, J. P. (2008). Cognitive Development and Learning in Instructional Contexts.

Boston, MA. Pearson Education, Inc.

Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching (2010). Retrieved from

http://www.carnegiefoundation.org/faqs

Carpenter, J. J. (2004). Jefferson’s Views on Education: Implications for Today’s Social

Studies. The Social Studies, 140-146.

DeRose, J. J. (2009). Back to the Future with Textbooks: Using Textbook Passages

from the Past to Help Teach Historiography. The History Teacher, 42(2), 229-

237.

Gutierrez, R. (2003). Our Federalist Roots: A Neglected Past? National Council for the

Social Studies, 31(2), 218-242.

http://www.freerepublic.com/focus/fr/1643194/posts


Hess, F. M. (2009). Still At Risk: What Students Don’t Know, Even Now. Arts

Education Policy Review, 110(2), 5-20.

Hoover, R. L. (2008). A Re-Examination of Forces and Factors Affecting Ohio School

District OAT and OGT Performance. Youngstown State University,

Youngtsown, Ohio.

Jefferson, T. Retrieved quote March 13, 2011 from

http://www.marksquotes.com/Founding-Fathers/Jefferson/index3.htm

Kovacs, P. (2009). Education for Democracy: it is Not an Issue of Dare; It Is an Issue of

Can. Teachers Education Quarterly, 36(1), 9-23.

Levine, P. (2007). The Future of Democracy: Developing the Next Generation of

American Citizens. Tufts University Press: Lebanon, NH.

Lincoln, A. Retrieved quote March 14, 2011 from

http://www.concernedforliberty.com/blog/?page_id=469

Moore, T. (2008). Validity Study: A collection of evidence about the Ohio Graduation

Tests. Ohio Department of Education: TR 2008-01, Columbus, OH.

Muthig, W. (2011). January 18, 2011.

Nash, G. B. (2001). The History Standards Controversy and Social History. Journal of

Social History, 29(1), 41-49.

Nash, M. A. (2009). Contested Identities: Nationalism, Regionalism, and Patriotism in

Early American Textbooks. History of Education Quarterly, 49(4), 417-441.

Neal, A. D., Martin, J. L., Moses, M. (2000). Losing America’s Memory: Historical

Illiteracy in the 21st Century. American Council of Trustees and Alumni, 4-32.

Novak, M. (2002). A Reckoning. Academic Questions, 16(1), 32-38.

http://www.marksquotes.com/Founding-Fathers/Jefferson/index3.htm


Ohio Department of Education. (2010). Academic Content Standards Revision High

School Social Studies Course Syllabi, 1-21.

Ohio Department of Education. (2010). OGT Results 2005-2010. Retrieved October 14,

2010 and January 21, 2011 from

http://webapp1.ode.state.oh.us/proficiency_reports/ogt/csvtoasp.

Robelen, E. W. (2010). Rewriting of States’ Standards on Social Studies Stirs Debate.

Education Week, 29(27), 18-19.

Savage, T. V. (2003). Assessment and quality social studies. The Social Studies, 94(5),

201-206.

Shenkman, R. (2008). Just How Stupid Are We? New York, NY: Basic Books.

Spalding, M. (2002). The Founders’ Almanac. Washington, D.C. The Heritage

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The Review of Education, Pedagogy, and Cultural Studies, 25, 281-301. doi:

10.1080/10714410390251093

Stotsky, S. (2004). When History Teacher Forget the Founding. Academic Questions,

17(3), 21-31.

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http://www.surveymonkey.com/MySurveys.aspx.

U.S. Department of Education. (2007) The Nation’s Report Card. U.S. History. National

Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP). 2006. 1-32.

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The History Teacher, 39(1), 11-21.


Index to Appendices

Appendix A – ODE Social Studies Content Standards ........................................58

Appendix B – OGT Questions & OGT by school, year, and passage rates..........70

Appendix C – Americanism Elements...................................................................78

Appendix D – Survey Information and Results.....................................................87

Index to Tables

Table 3.1 – Six years of OGT Social Studies Passage Rates.................................27

Table 3.2 – OGT Item Analysis.............................................................................29

Table 4.1 – Academic Content Standards Benchmarks.........................................35


Appendix A – OGT social studies content standards – A1


Appendix B – OGT Questions & OGT by school, year, and passage rates – B1


Appendix C –

Americanism participation – C1


Appendix C – Americanism participation – C2



7. The right of minorities to vote in the 2010 November general election in Ohio is protected by the _____ amendment to the United States Constitution.

Right

35%

Wrong

65%

Q7

9. The individual credited with being the chief author of the Declaration of Independence:

Right74%

Wrong

26%

Q9



10. “We the people of the United States, in order to form a more perfect union...” is the opening statement from the:

Right61%

Wrong

39%

Q10

11. The State of Ohio may gain or lose a _____in the Legislative branch of the United States government based on the 2010 U.S. Census:

Right73%

Wrong

27%

Q11



12. The voters of Ohio will elect a new United States Senator in the 2010 November general election. How many United States Senators does the State of Ohio have?

Right73%

Wrong

27%

Q12

13. The U.S. Senate and the U.S. House of Representatives form the ___ branch of the United States government.

Right76%

Wrong24%

Q13



16. The most recent Associate Justice confirmed to the U.S. Supreme Court in 2010 may serve on the bench for:

Right60%

Wrong

40%

Q16

19. The final authority to determine the constitutionality of the laws of the United States is vested in the _____.

Right

62%

Wrong

38%

Q19



20. In January 2009, by the Constitution, President Barack Obama began a ____ year term as President of the United States.

Right84%

Wrong16%

Q20

21. First Lady Michelle Obama, the President’s wife, is, by law:

Right56%

Wrong

44%

Q21



24. By virtue of the office, the vice president of the United States also serves as the:

Right38%

Wrong

62%

Q24


Appendix D – Survey Information and Results – D1

Survey questions were devised as a direct consequence of the OGT analysis specifically

to provide information for this research. Of the 17 queried, 10 responded. While

acknowledging the lack of statistical validity of this survey, it nonetheless gave the grass

roots response desired. The responses were to the following questions.

1. In what school district do you teach?

2. Please mark the classes you are currently teaching.

U.S. Government

U.S. History

World History

Geography

Others

3. When do most students in your school district take American History and/or Government?

9th 10th 11th 12th

American History

When do most students in your school district take American History and/or Government? American History American History

American History

American History

American History

Government Government Government Government Government Government


4. What time period does your district or curriculum require students to begin learning about the founding of our nation?

1492-1620

1621-1700

1701-1800

1801-1886

1887-present

Not sure

5. Please mark the credits your district requires for the following courses:

1/2 credit 1 credit Other

American History

Please mark the credits your district requires for the following courses: American History American History

American History American History

Government Government Government Government Government

World History World History World History World History World History

Geography Geography Geography Geography Geography


6. ODE recently changed the standards for American History. Students in high school will be taught American History from 1877-present. Will this change have an impact on future generations in regards to knowing America's heritage?

Yes

No

7. How long are students in your school district required to take American History and Government class?

1/4 year 1/2 year 3/4 year Full year

American History

How long are students in your school district required to take American History and Government class? American History American History

American History

American History

American History

Government Government Government Government Government Government

8. Approximately how many questions does the state test ask in regards to:

0-5 6-10 11-15 16+ Not sure

The United States Constitution

Approximately how many questions does the state test ask in regards to: The United States Constitution The United States Constitution






0-5 6-10 11-15 16+ Not sure

American history prior to 1800

American history prior to 1800 American history prior to 1800





9. In your school district, how much time is specifically dedicated to the study of the U.S. Constitution?

not covered

less than a week

1-2 weeks

3-4 weeks

5+ weeks

10. Did your school district participate in the Americanism test that was provided by the American Legion November 2010? Please mark yes or no. If yes, did the students have prior knowledge to the questions that are on the test? If they did not have prior knowledge, how long did students study or review prior to taking exam? Please use the comment box to explain.

Yes

No



Survey questions for ODE Social Studies Consultants

1. Is the standard practice to have 44 questions for the Social Science pat on the OGT?

2a. Of those 44 questions, how many pertain to American history prior to 1877?

2b. How many pertain to American Government?

2d. How many pertain specifically to the U.S. Constitution?

2c. Can one obtain the scores for each question? I have the overall scores per school

district for last year; I would like to see the responses to the individual questions if that is

possible.

3. I read that students need ½ credit of American History and ½ credit of Government to

graduate. Do instructors teach these subjects for ½ a year or a full year?

4. I also read that high school instructors are to teach American History from the 1877

time period to the present.

4a. When do students learn about the foundation of America?

4b. When do students learn about the U.S. Constitution? Are the instructors required to

go into depth about the Constitution or are they required to at least introduce the

Constitution?

5. What grade level do most students take American History and Government?

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