document resume ed 323 989 ir 014 639 author alexander, … · 2014-03-24 · document resume. ed...

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DOCUMENT RESUME

ED 323 989 IR 014 639

AUTHOR Alexander, John B., Comp.; And Others

TITLE Distance Learning Conference Proceedings (Ruidoso,New Mexico; October 1989).

INSTITUTION Los Alamos National Lab., NM.

REPORT NO LA-11883-C

PUB DATE Jun 90

NOTE 61p.

PUB TYPE Collected Works - Conference Proceedings (021)

EDRS PRICE MF01/PC03 Plus Postage.

DESCRIPTORS Cooperative Learning; *Distance Education;Educational Media; *Educational Needs; *EducationalStrategies; *Educational Technology; EvaluationCriteria; Group Discussion; Instructional Design;Interaction; Learning Strategies; *National Programs;Program Implementation; Student Evaluation

ABSTRACTThe declining emphasis on science, mathematics, and

engineering education in the United States together with thenecessity of the nation to ensure a continuous supply of trainedpractitioners in those fields was the consideration that prompted theconference reported in this document. The conferenceparticipants--who were representatives of the military, thegovernment, industry, and academia, analyzed the pocential ofdistance learning to deal with common educational problems andrecommended a national initiative to implement distance learning inthe United States. They also agreed that such an initiative wouldhelp to alleviate current global education and training problems.Seven presentations make up the major part of this publication: (1)

"The Distance Learning Problem" (Andrew E. Andrews); (2) "Media"

(John W. Keller); (3) "Interactivity" (Andrew E. Andrews); (4)"Instructional Strategies" (Mary S. Trainor); (5) "Collective

Learning" (Andrew E. Andrews); (6) "Student Performance Evaluation"(Norman D. Hamer); and (7) "Implementation" (John Alexander). It isnoted that the results of the conference demonstrated the need tobegin leveraging technology to improve learning. A prologuedescribing the conference and summarizing the results of groupdiscussions is also provided, as well as a brief epilogue, a list ofconference participants, brief biographies of the presenters, and a

44-item bibliography. (DB)

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* from the original document. *

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U.S. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONOffice or Eduestanal Researth and Improvement

EDuCATIONAL F(C.SOURCES INFORMATIONCENTER (ERIC)

This document has been reproduced asreceived from the person or organization

originating it.0 Minor Changes have been made to improve

reproduction quality

Points ol view co opnions stated in t his docu-

mem do not necessarily represent officialOERI position or policy

Distance Learning

Conference Proceedings

Compiled by

John B. Alexander

Andrew E. Andrews

Norman D. HamerJohn W. Keller

Mary S. Trainor

LccDg

LA-11883-CConference

UC-700Issued: June 1990

(7.A Los Alamos National Laboratorynft.Q:._.) Los Alamos.New Mexico 87545

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

An A-6 team effort produced the conference and these proceeding& The author identifiedfollowing each major heading presented the topic at our conference and wrote fhe article. Confer-ence participants spent hours brainstorming the issues, yielding volumes of information. To pre-pare these proceedings, small-group facilitators, note takers, and administrative staff reviewed andcondensed the small- and large-group discussions. This staff included Ann Cernicek, John deVries,Jay Fries, David Hudson, Phyllis Idar, Carol Ann Martz, Liz Montoya, Jerome Morzinski, LindaNonno, Jennifer Pratt, and Charles Thorn. I acknowledge their fme support in addition to the helpprovided by Steven Brown and Heidi Hahn to review the content of the material. Special thanksand recognition are in order for David Hudson and Carol Ann Martz. He provided the effort,enthusiasm, and dedication that made the actual conference a tremendous success. Subsequently,he and Carol Ann Martz had the task of ensuring that the documentation was complete. To bothof them, thank you for a job well done.

Distance Learning Conference Proceedings, Pall 1989

Andrew E. And wsGroup 'LeaderCognitive Systems Engineering Group (A-6)

iv Los Alamos National Laboratory

3

ContentsAcknowledgments iv

Director's Statement vii

Prologue ix

Abstract 1

The Distance Learning Problem 3

Media 7

Interactivity 11

Instructional Strategies 17

Collective Learning 23

Student Performance Evaluation 31

Implementation 37

Epilogue 49

Biographies 50

Participants 51

Bibliography 53

Distancc Learning Conference Proceedings, Fall 1989 v Los Alamos National Laboratory

4

Director's Statement

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Siegfried S. Hecker, Director

Distance Learning Conference Proceedings, rail 1989

Recent reports have indicated a decliningemphasis on science, mathematics, and engi-neering education in the United States. In con-trast, other industrialized nations are providingrigorous technical training for their youth.This situation presents a serious threat to theDepartment of Energy's (DOE) ability tomaintain a supply of highly educated andtrained scientists, engineers, and technicians tocarry out DOE's mission in energy and defenseresearch and development. To ensure the fu-ture economic competitiveness of this nation,we must strengthen our national technicalcompetence.

Los Alamos National Laboratory's (LANL)interest in education is prompted by the neces-sity of our nation to provide a continuous sup-ply of qualified scientists, engineers, and tech-nicians. Therefore, I was pleased to have theCognitive Systems Engineering (CSE) Groupof the Analysis and Assessment Division hostthe Distance Learning Conference at the Innof the Mountain Gods in Ruidoso, New Mex .ico, in October 1989.

The strengths that the DOE laboratoriesbring to education are a wealth of unduplicatedscientific resources and a collective experiencewith successful science education activities.

In the decades since the war, our primarymission has been to apply science and technol-ogy to national security problems, ranging fromdefense to energy research. The nation hasexpected the Laboratory to provide creativebut practical solutions to complex problems.The results of the distance learning conferencehave demonstrated the need to begin leveragingtechnology to improve learning now.

Los Alamos National I.aboratory

PrologueL. Andrc4; E. AAdrews

In October 1989, the Cognitive Systems Engineering Group of the Analysis and AssessmentDivision of the Los Alamos National Laboratory hosted a distance learning conference at the Innof the Mountain Gods in Ruidoso, New Mexico. The conference participantshighly respectedrepresentatives of military; government, industry, and academiaanalyzed the potential of distancelearning to deal with common educational problems. The group explcred the distance learningproblem, media, interactivity, instructional strategies, collective learning student performanceevaluation, and implementation of a national distance learning strategy. The figure below illus-trates the order in which the various conference topics were addressed.

Media

(Introduction interactivity

DistanceLearning

instructionalStrategies

rCollectiveLearning

(Performance}...Evaivation

Implementation

Review andDiscussion

ConferenceWrap-Up

The assembled participants scrutinized ways that distance learning advocates could communi-cate the concept to the public. They also sought acceptance of distance learning as a recognized,effective delivery system for enhancing current education and training systems and implementinglifelong learning strategies. Participants acknowledged that distance learning forces us to return todesign and consider how technology can help us improve the status of education. The attendeesagreed that distance learning should be a national priority and could be applied to nationalproblems at all levels.

For the brainstorming sessions, the participants were arbitrarily assigned to four small groups(A, B, C, and D), which included people from varying discipline& A two-column format has beenused in each article to denote these small-group sessions, and the reader should not infer LANLendorsement of the material included. The small-group membership changed once during the con-ference.

The Cognitive Science Engineering Group members opened each large-group sessk,n .iith abrief presentation, the essence of which is included in the proceedings. The author n. identified ireach document, but readers should he aware that the conference participants and note takers ineach session were responsible for the small-group session input and results.

Distance Learning Conference Proceedings, Fall 1989 ix Los Alamos National Laboratory

These proceedings include not only the basic text of the presentations but also an account ofthe large- and small-group sessions. The individual session reports read more like log books thanscholarly papers because they document what actually happened in the small-group sessions. Aparticipant who has been conducting a distance learning project for many years saie that by read-ing thece proceedings, you will learn more than you could by doing a year's worth of literature re-view. This section summaiizes the entire conference.

BackgroundThe idea of holding a distance learning conference originated in March 1989. We identified

potential participants (see page 51 for attendee list). We realized that witnout a national orga-nization dedicated to distance learning some everts would be missed. Subsequent to the con-ference, Michael Moore of Pennsylvania State University initiated the creation of such an organi-zation.

The national education crisis encompasses declining standardized test performance, the num-ber of functionally illiterate people in the nation, and a perceived apathy toward learning in gen-eral. In addition, a major concern prevails regarding rising educational costs. These expenses in-clude the fixed costs of the institutions, the salaries of the teachers and administration, and thevalue of depreciable and expendable educational materials. In short, we need to raise the equalityand quality of American education while limiting escalating costs. Therefore, distance learning is apotentially attractive alternative to supplement traditional forms of l.:arning.

The ConferenceThe conference was held over a three-day period and followed a rigid, predetermined program.

Attendees, other than Los Alamos participants, were not obligated to make advance preparations.This approach was taken to enhance participation in this first conference. Instead, Los Alamospersonnel prepared remarks for each session to introduce topics for discussion. These remarks of-

ten contained premeditated, pejorative statements to stimulate debate.

For this conference, distance learning was defined as learning that takes place without thephysical presence of an instructor. We felt a broad definition was important to preclude focusingon a specific medium. Indeed, based on their experiences, many participants arrived with nar-rower interpretations of distance learning, but they readily accepted the broader defmition.

The Distance Learning ProblemThe central theme to this discussion was distance learning. What problems can it help solve?

What are the problems associated with effecting the solution? Smail groups identified problemson a national level and within the educational, military, and industrial communities. The single,common theme was the necessity to instill a lifelong learning attitude or value. This poiiu is sig-nificant because no group specifically addressed kindergarten through twelfth rade education, yeteach identified a value that should be ingrained in those years As a nation, we are entering an ageof constant learning and changing technology.

At the national level, priorities were identified for the emergence of distance learning as a vi-able alternative to traditional classroom instruction. Distance learning causes the emergence ofnew concepts of educational and training institutions. If distance learning is to fulfill its potential,the nation needs to be enlightened about all distance learning technologies.

Among the education, military, and industrial groups, additional common themes emerged: toprovide quality learning to physically and geographically dispersed personnel, to remotely accesslearning systems, and to instruct educators in new technologies and instructional strategies becauseof rapidly changing knowledge bases.

Distance Learning Conference Procccdings, Fall 1989

7

Los Alamos National Laboratory

Media -The session acknowledged the importance of media as a vehicle for lesson presentation, inter-

action, and assessment. Generally, our ability to use the capacity of the media is the limiting factorin distance learning effectiveness, not the media itself.

INvo questions were posed to the small groups. Both dealt with identifying the available mediathat are the most effective for distance learning and the new developments that can be anticipatedin the future for specific media: print, audio/video, computer-based training, or synchronoustelecommunications. The participants agreed that individual media cannot be assessed in isola-tion. Almost without exception, combinations of media are used to create a training system.

The difference between media and delivery was an issue among all groups. The distinction isfurther clouded by breaking media down into parts that represent, transmit, or produce lessonmaterial. Alth3ugh no one group reached clear insight or resolution, participants generally agreedthat this problem warrants and requires further investigation.

InteractivityInteractivity is a necessary condition for learning to occur. The learner must accept the in-

formation provided, process it, and internalize it. Motivation is closely linked to interactivity in thesense of intrinsic motivation of Heaberg's two-factor theory. Michael Moore's definition indicatesthat learning is a two-way interaction between the student and the teacher, the subject matter, andclassmates. The small group expanded this definition to include media and tutors. Additionally,the participants suggested that some level of interactivity is needed in distance learning becausepeople generally are not autonomous learners.

Consensus indicated that motivation and interactivity should continue to be treated as separateentities. However, the precise interrelation of motivation and interactivity is less important thanacknowledging the relationship. Instead, it is more important to concentrate on creating high-quality interact;eity that stimulates learning while addressing motivation separately.

New gel. .> tor distance learning interactivity are urgently needed. The distance learningparadigm is compatible with, but different from, traditional edueation. Therefore, distancelearning developers, instructors, and teachers require different skills to be effective in distancewning. For example, one cannot place a classroom teacher before a TV camera and simply say

"teach."

Instructional StrategiesAn instructional strategy is the teaching method approach used to help students fulfill objec-

tives. Traditionally, little emphasis has been place.d on instructional strategies in distance learning;the focus instead has been on technology. Differing requirements demand appropriate strategies.

Instructional strategies include lecture, drill and practice, tutorial, gaming, simulation, coach-ing, dialogue, and collective learning. The last five strategies have rarely been used in distancelearning. This session explored gaming, simulation, coaching, and dialogue, which require a com-puter for delivery and involve incorporation of the instructor's knowledge and skills into the com-puter software. Highlights of the discussion of the four strategies follow:

Gaming. Games are challenging to design from an instructional sense, but they can be very ef-fective if designed well. They can stimulate not only high-cognitive-level learning but also collab-orative work.

Simulation. In a simulation, the student manipulates a working model of the system beingstudied. Simulation is a very powerful strategy, especially for applications where safety is a

Distance Learning Conference Proceedings, Fall 1989 xi

8Los Alamos National 1 aboratory

concern and the consequences of inadequate training are dire. High development and deliverycosts were a concern, but recent technological advances are increasing desigr. feasibility.

Coaching. Coaching involves active instructional intervention while the student is performinga task or solving a problem. Coaching focuses on diagnosis and correction of individual studentmisconceptions.

Dialogue. In dialogue, the instructor teaches by verbally guiding the student to new insights.For distance learning, the dialogue strategy could involve artificial intelligence. The discussionhighlighted the need for instructor control as well as for student control.

The discussions initiated a thrust to emphasize strategy selection and the use of alternativestrategies in distance learning.

Collective LearningCollective learning is a pedagogical approach whereby students learn skills individually through

group work. It is frequently referred to as collaborative learning. A review of the literature beforethe conference suggested that students learn better through non-competitive, collaborative groupwork than in classrooms that are highly individualized and compeCtive.

We examined collective learning at the conference to obtain a consensus that it is a valid anddesired strategy to use in the distance learning environment and to explore how it can be imple-mented. Many distance learners are distant from not only the instructor but also from other stu-dents. In the traditional environment, a collective approach often occurs because students formtutstructured study groups to work together in the learning process. While collective learningrefers to a formal, structured instructional strategy, informal opportunities should not be ignored.

The conclusions of the work sessions did not provide any specific insight on structuring acollective learning environment except as an extension to current pedagogical approaches in thetraditional environment. However, the group did conclude that the value of collective learning inthe distance learning regime should be pursued with vigor to provide models for developers.While traditional instructional strategies focus primarily on instructor4.student interactions,collective learning concentrates on the student-student interaction. This modification in the in-teraction paradigm changes the control function in the learning environment and needs to be fullydeveloped to assure maximum effectiveness. The potential value cc formal collective learning aswell as the need for informal interaction among students suggests that netwoi king opportunitiesshould be available to distance learning.

Student Performance EvaluationThe issue of when a person has mastered a course or can be certified in a subject matter

should be a major one in distance learning. In traditional education and training situations, the in-structor can directly assess a student's abilities in real time. In distance learning, direct feedbacksituations may not exist. In many anecdotes about people taking distance learning courses, onehears about students' mastering the tests without actually understanding the content and aboutcases where people are frustrated by learning the material only to fail the evaluation procedure.

In response to evaluation scenarios, the small-gioup discussions reached the following conclu-sions:

I. Evaluation and certification through a distance learning system may or may not be appro-priate depending on the subject matter to be tested and on the current state of technology. Themain concern is for life-threatening operations.

Distance Learning Conference Proceedings, Fall 1989

9Los Alamos National Laboratory

2. Evaluation in a distance learning environment can use self-pacing, self-assessment, andmore fleidble scheduling. Evaluation by a distance learning system may become an economic ne-cessity in certain situations.

3. A crucial issue deals with who will be responsible for testing and certification. Distancelearning evaluation considerations that could affect the quality of distance learning include thefollowing: Will those responsible for the actual development of a course be in charge of the fmalcertification, or will some authority such as state or federal government take over the responsibil-ity? Will course objectives and the testing process be coordinated? How will feedback and in-structor...student interaction be channeled if the certification process is separated from theteaching process?

Note that the major concerns expressed in the conference regarding the student performanceevaluation problem were not in the construction of evaluation schemes, but in their administration,the appropriateness, and the general operation of any possible evaluation system.

ImplementationConsensus indicates that distance learning will play a greater role in future education while the

traditional classroom or schoolhouse approach declines in popularity. Despite this fact, institu-tions are amazingly resistant to change and normally do so only when pressured by overwhelmingexternal forces. However, on rare occasions, luminaries emerge who have both the foresight andthe organizational ability to cause and direct dramatic change before the organization experiencesthe woes inflicted by those external forces.

We need a plan that overcomes obstacles and is so attractive to potential educators and theiradministrative decision makers that they will accept it. With fmesse, this acceptance will convinceeducators that they originated the ideas. The challenge is to gain acceptance of distance le-timingand acknowledge the major contribution it can make to society.

Organizational change requires three entities: an identifiable product to which people can re-late, proof of accomplishment, and, fmally, organizational executive support.

What we need is a STRATEGIC EDUCATION INITIATIVE.

This feeling of urgency was at the heart of the group sentiment. In other words, we need a re-birth, a vision, a sense of going to the moon. ParticipantS recognized a crisis in education, which isnot new or unique, but reinforced by the combined experiences of this multifaceted group com-prised of education, industry, military, and government representatives.

Although there is a perceived crisis, it is not considered an emergency. The problem is solv-able, and many positive projects are already underway. What is required is a concerted effort tobring the resources of the nation to address this problem in a coordinated and focused way. Thereis a call to arms: the need for national-level leadership supported by grassroots efforts across thecountry.

The top leadership of the country, the president and key members of Congress, are already vo-cally supportive. Now is the time to press forward with initiatives and establish a ground swell thatcan capitalize on that hard-earned advantage.

Distance learning is not a panacea. Future efforts must be coordinated with traditional schoolsystems that will continue to be the cornerstone of our basic education in America. The mission isto enhance, not compete with, existing institutions. Complementary roles will reduce the fear ofchange while providing for the needs of all sectors of our communities.

Distance Learning Conferecce Proceedings, Fall 1989 x111

1 0

ILAS Alamos National Laboratory

This conference demonstrated that education, industry, military, and government can andshould work together iv a cooperative effort to further the cause of distance learning. Implemen-tation of the ideas proposed here requires that all participants fully employ the resources availableto them, which include mobilization of a constituency to gain support at all levels. A steeringcommittee will insure that the efforts started here do not die but rather are coordinated and dis-seminated to an even broader audience. Each must do his/her part to share ideas and to coordi-nate with others so that we can articulate and reach a common goal. Distance learning is part ofthe solution to the education crisis, but it is not the whole solution. We are part of that solution.

ConclusionsDistance learning has the potential to provide an opportunity for lifelong learning, which could

solve global education problems. Although distance learning can be part of the solution to theeducational crisis, obstacles include resistance to change, traditional views of education, and costs.It is crucial that a formal architecture be developed for distance learning in the context of thepresent-day education crisis.

Implementation of distance learning is a key issue. The successful implementation of distancelearning depends on several actions.

a Document benefts. We must document any existing implementations immediately to exposeobjective evaluations of the advantages of distance learning. Distance learning requires manyresources and must be supported by convincing evidence that it is, in fact, a viable solution.

a Evaluate the costs. What are the costs of development and delivery? How can they be met?

a Create a cultural change. The expectations engendered by schoolhouse teaching traditionsmust be replaced with anticipation of innovation. We must design a new metaphor for edu-cation rather than simply implement old ideas with new technology.

a Learn from the foreign experience. Distance learning is producing results in many othercountries right now. We should take advantage of their experience.

a Locate the control of distance learning. Where should the locus Of control reside (in the in-structor, in the certifying body, in the, local government, or in the federal government)?

a Promote a multidimensional constituency. Academia, the military, the government, industry,the public sthools, and the community must all contribute to the effort to ensure success.

Seek national support. It is unlikely that the potential of distance learning will be real izedwithout federal support in addition to other (state, city, local, etc.) support.

We need a plan, a focus, and national leadership immediately. Distance learning can be a partof the solution to the education crisis in the U.S. if we can successfully surmount obstacles such asresistance to change, traditional views, and costs. The enthusiasm of distance learning proponentsand the "think talk" environment of conferences, like the one sponsored by Los Ala.nos NationalLaboratory, can unify efforts leading to implementation and, perhaps, even effect a national initia-tive.

Distance Learning Conference Proceedings, Fall 1989 xiv Los Alamos National Laboratory

11

DISTANCE LEARNING CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS

Compiled by

John B. Alexander, Andrew E. Andrews, Norman D. Hamer,John W. Keller, and Mary S. Trainor

ABSTRACT

This document reflects the content of the Distance Learning Conference spon-sored by the Cognitive Systems Engineering Group, Analysis and Assessment Di-vision, Los Alamos National Laboratory. The conference participantshiglily re-spected representatives of military/government, industry, and academiaanalyzedthe potential of distance learning to deal with common educational problems. Thegroup explored the distance learning problem, media, interactivity, instructionalstrategies, collective learning, student performance evaluation, and implementationof a national distance learning strategy. The conferees mandated a national initia-tive to implement distance learning in our country. Such a focused effort may helpalleviate the current global education and training crisis.

Distance Learning Conference Proceedings, Pall 1989 1 Los Alamos National Laboratory

12

The Distance Learning Problemby Andrew E. Andrews

BackwoundThe principal focus was to determine what must be done to make distance learning a preferred

solution to educational, military, national, and industrial training/education problems and to de-termine howto implement the solution. The participants were challenged to defme the prob-lem(s), guided by the conference tenet of being requirements driven.

AssumptionsWe assumed that the participants at the conference were distance learning advocates. There-

fore, we expected the results to represent an advocacy position. We also assumed that the groupbasically agreed with the distance learning defmition shown in the figure below.

.17S t,e

44; 'Wilt

QuestionFrom the perspectives of education, military, nation, and industry, what are the true problems

for which distance learning is a solution or requirement? Are there similarities? What should thepriorities be? Specific examples listed in the paragraphs below are not mutually exclusive. Theyreflect participants' input.

EducationThis group discussed the unique issues that

education has with respect to distance learning.Highlights of this session are listed below:

Public education is in the news.

The Presidential Education Conference hasmet to air the educational concerns of thecountry.

The military has implemented a great dealof distance learning and may have somesolutions that would be useful to the rest ofthe country.

Adult education at Syracuse University hasbeen studied, and many ideas on distancelearning resulted.


I

Public relations at the University of theWorld, La Jolla, California, are imple-mented with distance learning, which seemsto be effective.

Many user/human interaction research ac-tivities being performed by the military mayimpact the distance learning problem.

PM TRADE (a U.S. Army organizationand training program manager located inOrlando, Florida) is using embeddedtraining in many of the research and devel-opment (R&D) models currently under de-sign.

The U.S. Navy is using distance learning inits education and training.

3 Los Alamos National Laboratory

1 3

The instructional systems design (ISD)costs for distance learning are high.

Industry is facing a very tough problem inrt-cruiting literate workers from the Ameri-can population.

Recent high-technology developments havecreated unique problems, which may besolved using distance learning.

Oklahoma State University distance learn-

ing has demonstrated a large-scale distancelearning effort for training purposes usingsatellites and closed-circuit TV to reach theentire state's National Guard force. Thiseffort has just started and looks promisingas a model for other educational efforts.

The group members agreed that discoveringand defming the distance learning problemwere essential and also agreed to explore howdistance learning can solve education problems.The figure in the fmal part of this article sum-marizes the current problems in education asprioritized by this group.

MilitaryA number of issues were identified for im-

plementation of distance learning in the mili-

tary. Current instructional strategies are in-consistent in providing quality training to bothActive and Reserve components. The instruc-tion lacks congruency. A vast array of subjectmatter needs to be taught. Some material isapplicable to distance learning techniques, andsome material is not. Many Reservists requiretlaining, are widely scattered, and have onlylimited time available for training. In the Ac-tive Component, a relatively high personnelturnover rate exists, which generates the ne-cesAty for a continual training effort.

Large numbers of personnel need to betrained. For example, the Army's Training andDoctrine Command (TRADOC) alone trains450,000 people per year. Managing such a sig-nificant program is very difficult. Military units

are distributed worldwide. Many relevanttraining subjects apply to only a small numberof personnel at each site.

Senior management is perceived as beingslow to accept new ideas as a result of their


being educated in a centralized system. Theservices may resist new ideas from outside themilitary. Interoperability among American andinternational military set.ices is essential,which means that individuals must be able tocooperate to execute joint missions. In addi-tion, dissimilar units must be able to functiontogether.

The services need to standardize manyfunctions. However, establishing standards isoften difficult. Once in place, distance learningwould provide standardized training.

The gyoup prioritized the issues as reflectedin the summary at the end of this article.

NationThis session identified national issues for

which distance learning could be a solution.

The nation needs to be enlightened aboutdistance learning technology if it is to fulfill itspotential. We must be ready to accept new

concepts of education for distance learning tobe endorsed and implemented. The lifelonglearning attitudes of people will be changed bythe concept of distance learning. We are enter-ing an age of constant learning and retraining.

Nationally, we can develop programs and

new learning communities to educate a largerstudent population more efficiently. New self-help communities are already developing insome areas and can be expanded. In addition,we can tap unused resources, such as retiredpeople with expertise.

.tance learning wql also permit us toemerge from our national shell into a world ofglobal knowledge. As a result of our nation'sdeveloping a global understanding, distancelearning will be able to reach more people withsignificant issues, such as the worldwide de-struction of tne environment. Information con-cerning health and social issues, such as AIDS,famine, and injustice, can be readily dis-seminated. Global distance learning would

then embrace language and cultural barriers.

The participant consensus indicated thepriorities for the nation as shown in the sum-mary chart in the final section of this article.


4

IndustryThis small group was tasked to identify dis-

tance learning problems relative to industry. Inthis initial session, the group had difficulty fo-cusing on the priorities for Industry. However,throughout the industry discussion, participantsagreed that cost underlies all issues.

How one motivates or gets others involvedis a constraint. Motivation is fundamental toany training but it is especially critical in thedistance learning environment. In the corpo-rate sector, a 'buy in" is essential.

The standardization of information is Im-portant. For example, management planningand procedures, administrative and clericaltasks, and common technical procedures can bestandardized.

Adequate and thorough training is vital andrequires the effective use of training resources.We must capitalize on the experience of widelydispersed experts, instructors, facilitators, andcertifiers. Auto mechanic training is an exam-ple. If the mechanics are perplexed, they canconsult industry experts. Currently, the

communication is from experts to novicesrather than the reverse.

Industry has common training requirementsthat need to be met by a large group of people.Distance learning could alleviate the need tosend many trainees to training centers, andcould also standardize the content. In caseswhere requirements are common among com-panies, a single training system could be avail-able to all requiring training.

The need for training occurs ad hoc andusually must be satisfied in a short period oftime, yet not everyone needs the same amountof tramin at the same time. It is not necessaryfor new lures to wait for the next training classwhen it is being implemented by some form ofdistance learning. Specialized training, re-training, and certification can also be accom-plished in this manner.

The issue of continuing education is alsoimportant to industry. Distance learning canprovide personal as well as professional, con-tinuing education to meet changingrequirements.

SummaryThe most significant similarity among the results of all the small-group brainstorming sessions

and prioritizing tasks was the emphasis on rapid technological dianges, which have led to changesin the labor pool. For example, the military must train mechanics on the newest trucks, but thepersonnel may be transferred to another base where they may need to service old vehicles withwhich they are not familiar.

A common, significant issue was accountability, making organizations (management) account-able for delivering quality training. Other dominant issues were how well facilitators are teaching,how appropriate the teaching/training is, and how students are motivated. For example, the Armyhas field exercises for evaluation; they also have teams that evaluate the training and then revise itwhen appropriate. Would distributive learning be feasible?

The issue of continuing education was universal. Information dissemination was an issuecommon to the industry, military, and nation groups. Consistency in training was a recurringtheme. Distance learning implies centralized development and delivery of training, which wascommon to all groups except the nation group.

How can one deliver consistent, quality teaching? In distance learning, without a teacherpresent, students have more frequent opportunities to interact with each other about the teachingthan in a conventional classroom. Distance learning requires increased creativity on the part ofthe teacher.

The language/cultural barrier concern was shared by the nation and industry groups.

Distance Learning Conference Proceedings, Fall 1989 5 Los Alamos National Laboratory

;

The education gctrup had many issues in common with the industry group, for example, geo-graphical and physical issues, optimization of learning, continuing education, and keeping pacewith terhvinioov rhartge-c.

Priorities Established by the Small-Group Sessions

L Awareness of distancelearning technology

Motivation Quantity and qualityof new personnel

Geographic access toeducation

2. New concepts ofinaitutions

Geographic dispersion,non-homogeneouspopulation

Inconsistentinstructionalstrategies

Educator training

3. Lifelong learningattitude

Standardization/consistency

Rapid technologicalchange

Optimization oflearning

4. Global knowledge Content Global trainingrequirements

Learning continuingeducation skills

5. Environmentalissues

Specialization Managementscope of trainingturnoverinteroperabilitycost

Adaptation torapidly changingknowledge

6. Language/culturalbarrier

Effective use oftraining resources

Interoperability

7. Informationdissemination

Variable (ad hac)training requirements

Transition from R&Dto implementation

S. Inclusion of marginalmembers of society

Continuing education

9. Self-help communities

10. Consensus *Cost underlies allpriorities!

References

Note: A binder that was available to conference attendees provided a number of distance learningpublications. A copy of the bibliography of these publications is provided in the proceedings as aresource.


6

Mediaby John W. Keller

BackgroundThe media session allowed each conference member to make input on media and als t. pro-

vided a base from which to progress to the remainder of the conference. Thereafter, when any is-sues of media emerged during the other sessions, we were able to refer to the results of this ses-sion. We wanted to prevent further discussions of specific media during other sessions.

The design of instruction for distance education has been driven by technology. An organiza-tion started with its available media and then designed instruction based *in them. The issue ad-dressed in this conference session was the potential of each existing medium for a given type ofdistance learning in terms of instructional strategies. This approach facilitated the selection of themost appropriate medium. The media selected for in-depth discussions were audio/video, print,computer-based training (CBT), and synchronous telecommunications.

Because media should not be the driving factor in the design of a program, we need to decidewhere media belong. We must always keep the available media in mind while designing an effec-tive distance education course. In addition, to select an appropriate medium, we must have infor-matim on available media. It might also help if we had an idea of what media will be possible inthe future and with what types of distance education they will be most compatible. Such knowl-edge would help us reduce the tcmporal gap between technology and its use.

Our ability to exploit a technology significantly fails to keep pace with the technology itself.Software is generally ten years behind the technology it supports. This situation also exists withdistance education. The technology is advancing so rapidly that the effective uses of the technol-ogy for instruction fall behind. How are we to reduce 14e gap between technology and its applica-tion for distance education?

Another factor that we must consider is distribution. All forms of media must be distributed insome way. We did not want to debate whether or not a television is its own distribution system.Rather, distribution refers to the whole system .at is behind the television. Distribution is impor-tant because our ability to transmit material is constrained not only by the capacity of the mediabut also by their distribution methods.

". . . trying to be at the leading edge of technology rather than at the bleeding edge."

AssumptionsMedia are the backbone of commuD:mtion in distance learning.

Media can influence learning effectiveness.

Ultimately, all 'Astructional material must be transmitted in a form that stimulates one or moreof the senses.

Questions1. Which of the available media are the mos, effective for distance education?

2. What new media can be expected in the future?

Distance Learning Conference Proceedings, Fall 1989 7

1 7

Los Alamc6 National Laboratory

-

Audio/V1deoThe goal here was to determine what

audio/video media were available for distancelearning and what would be expected in the fu-ture. Although the individual media were ad-dressed :,eparately, it was noted that is rarelythe way they are employed. Most distancelearning applications are comprised of severaldifferent media, which fulfill different require-ments within the system.

Many of the existing technologies do notspeed interaction. However, controlled inter-action might be the most desirable. The quickanswer is not always the best. If one must mailquestions, the response time is too slow. Thequality of the feedback is an important issue.

While it was determined that each of themedia was capable Gf supporting all cognitivelevels, it was pointed out that in some cases the

costs would be very high. Tradeoffs in cost andeffectiveness would need to be evaluated on acase by ease basis.

T future work place will demand highercogniLve control of the educational process,requiring nonlinear capability so that the stu-dent can move freely within the lesson and ad-just the level of instruction to his or her specificneeds. Clearly, fully integrated technologieswill be required. Additionally, students willneed direct access to archived information forproblem solving and will not be restricted toexisting lesson formats.

The following matrix is an elaboration ofone found in Training for Tomormw (Kearsley1985). It lists the media that were discussedwithin the audio/video category. Each cate-gory was developed by the participants to showthe potential for each medium.

.4,Tr.,174 J 4.. ,

64.4,4 tiik.i.(14;04;t3:16to's

Feedback & Sense(s) DistributionInteraction Used Method. AT:

Cognitive DominantLevel Cost Factors

MatureEnhancements

Audio/ Synchronous All Production,Video Distribution,

InstructionalDegign (hith)

Search InteractiveMode, Index for Non-Linear Capability

' '-ar 0- Al

VariableStudent-Controlled

Audio ElectronicMail

Distribution(low)

Audiographics,Global Access,High Motivation

"7%14;1 qi

Integration of mediaLearner acceu to archivesFiber optic network availability

Location changeNon-linear presentation


8


PrintThe group dermed print as anything that

can be printed on paper and stated that printedmaterial presupposes some level of readingskills. The role of print is to exchange informa-tion in an informal dialogue.

Because of the literacy problems in thecountry today, some graphics capabilities mustalso be included to accommodate marginalreaders.

Print has several advantages. It allows forthe personalization of the material by makingnotes in the margins and by hiplighting text.By mapping the new material into our own cur-rent knowledge base, this customization of thelearning style is a memory aid. Writing downinformation also allows for a gestation periodand integration at a later time.

The first issue that emerged concerned thedistribution methods that print media employ.Print is easy to transport or distribute to anylearning or job site. However, this distributionmethod does not allow for evaluation, discus-sion, or feedback because mailing questionsand answers back and forth is too slow.

Using computers as the distributionmethod is an option. The material can beprinted out on a printer for those who dislikereading text from a video display terminal, andinteraction can take place faster via E-mail(electronic mail). Using facsimile machinespermits fast transfer of printed material andhandwritten notes. However, questions ofhonesty and pemnal integrity linger.

The participants agreed that print willprobably persist. Future print media will con-tinue to be enhanced by computerized in-formation storage ard retrieval technology.

'Technology has advanced to the point wherewe may almost dictate our needs and getwhat we want."

Computer-Based TrainingToday's CBT systems have advanced a step

beyond the electronic page turners, provideimmediate feedback to the students, and allowfor control of the learning process. Modern


CBT design models are better aole to diagnosea student's progress and necds, and they pro-mote risk taking because the students ask more"dumb* questions of a computer than they dohuman instructors. Intelligent tutoring systemsare good vehicles for achieving such flexibility.

Nevertheless, these intelligent systems havenot really been adopted yet Intelligent tutor-ing and expert systems do work well for limitedknowledge domains but still are not sufficientlygeneral for widespread use. In many cases, theinstructor must still interact with the student,which is especially true in cases where someremediation is necessary. Even though thesesystems ideally will stand alone, it is hard toenvision a system that is designed so well thatit can handle any question or eventuality thatmight arise.

"What is (or will be) the function of the hu-man being in the future of distance learning?"

One component. of CBT that was discussedis computer control of authoring. A perfor-mance content method can be used to con-struct CBT. Lesson templates are used, eachkeyed to a particular cognitive function, andthe teaching is aimed at certain levels ofmastery or performance. The up-front costsare high because the templates must be de-signed very well because of the cookie cutter orcookbook strategy that this employs. This au-thoring tool helps to get a product out quicklyand cheaply.

Throughout the discussion, the gjoupfound it very difficult to deal with CBT as aspecific media because it encompasses so manytypes of systems. They determined that it isnot really a medium. The distinction betweena medium and a distribution method is espe-cially difficult to define ior CBT. It is a combi-nation of method and media but more than ei-ther. The group determined that the termcomputer-mediated training is more appropri-ate. This term emphasizes that computers areendemic to media/transmission means.

In the future, CBT systems will do a betterjob of modeling the student's learning processand customizing training to those processes.There will be development systems for analysis,


1I 9

design, and implementation of training sys-tems. Furthermore, the training will have tobecome embedded in the system so that it istransparent to the learner. Playing and learn-ing will become the same thing.

Synchronous TelecommunicationsA telecommunications medium is syn-

chronous when there is immediate feedback(question followed by answer) to the student.These media include, but are not restricted to,videotext, video conference, and computer con-ference. This group assumed that its modelwas not limited to instructor and student(s). Inthe case of videotext, Vie model is computerand student.

In any set of criteria for selecting amedium, a cost benefit analysis is necessary.Knowing the dominant cost factor is notenough. Especially in the business world, it isnecessary to assess what the return on 'he in-vestment will be. Most of the enhancements totechnology that we discussed involved in-creased cost effectiveness.

Interactivity increases as the medium ap-proaches emulating a face-to-face conference.Although synchronous telecommunication doesnot permit every element of a true face-to-face(lacks the sixth sense) situation, it is a mediumthat allows a high level of interactivity. Thegroup also determined that two-way audio/video is probably most effective when used inthe middle- to high-cognitive levels, but thelevel of interactivity will decrease as the num-ber of students and/or sites increases.

"We are still not good at using and managingtechnology for our needs."

Under what circumstances is it necessary tohave this level of interaction? The answergiven was that it would be any situation inwhich the participants needed to view the samedynamic piece of information simultaneouslyor any situation in which the instructor needsto interact directly with a student (for example,teaching motor skills like ice skating).

SummaryIndividual media cannot be assessed in isolation. Almost without exception, combinations of

media are used to cr;dte a training system. Therefore, an effective way to address media would beto examine combinations of media. Which combinations work the best for given educational re-quirements?

The difference between media and delivery was another issue among all the groups. The dis-tinction can be clouded even further by breaking it down into the parts that represent, transmit, orproduce lesson material. Although no one group developed a clear insight or proposed a specificresolution, the participants generally agreed that this problem warrants and requires further inves-tigation.

A greater level of learner control was also a common theme. Students should be able to con-trol the level of interactivity and the educational process to meet their needs. A large and growingamount of archived material is available, and the learner must be able to access and retrieve someof this material. Fully integrated technologies will be required for these needs to be fulfilled.

We tend to apply technology to the things we have always done in the past, simply using a newtool in an old way. New strategies must emerge that effectively use the new technologies. For ex-ample, in what ways can these strategies be used to achieve more effective instruction using thehigher levels of Bloom's taxonomy?

ReferenceKearsley, Greg, Thai/sing for Tomorrow (Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, inc., Reading, Massachusetts, 1985), p. 106,


20

1

Interactivityby Andrew E. Andiews

General Overview for the Next Three SessionsThe next three sessions dealt with motivating students to learn. In any instructional envi-

ronment, Siudents a:e motivated for a variety of reasons, which can be categorized in two ways.First, minimal performance expectations are linked to students' personal goals. For example,meeting a specified level of training may be required to meet job qualifications. In a sense, thesemotivators are a form of negative leadership: perform or else! Generally, these forms of motiva-tion are easily established, but they guarantee only a minimal level of performance.

The second set of motivators stimulates students to excel. Usually, these motivators are in-tangible and often reflect the /eadership of an outstanding teacher. However, distance learningreduces instructor contact. Instead, the medium for communication tends to be impersonal, atleast on the surface. Yet, if distance learning is to be universally successful in contributing to abetter-educated and more-capable population. it must stimulate higher student achievement.

In the sessions that followed, the conference addressed the three areas that have the greatestpotential for positive motivation-interactivity, instructional strategies, and collective learning. In311 of these discussions, the participants were asked to concentrate on the metaidea of positive mo-tivation for the learner.

BackgroundLearning requires interactivity. The learner must accept the information provided, process it,

and internalize it. Furthermore, the instructor requires feedback from the student to adjust in-structional strategies, apply remediation, and respond with enco-,.agement that is intrinsically mo-tivating. In the distance learning environment, print, audio, graphics, and video are available tech-nical tools. Through various communication systems, students and instructors and students andstudents can converse. Also, students interact with the instructional content; sometimes the in-structor is a machine. The issue is to establish standards for interactivity, guidelines for achievingit, and requisite skills for distance learning faculty with respect to interactivity.

[Note that inculcating a desire for lifelong learning was not discussed ThLs subject, perhaps with-out consideration of interactivity, needs to be ad-:--ased and will be a topic in a future distance learningconference with the more restricted view of determining if distance learning can provide the motivationfor lifelong learning.]

What level of motivation (how much intrin- The following guidelines represent theirsic motivation through interaction) is dis- solution to the challenge of motivating distancetance learning obligated to provide? learners.

The group had difficulty with the notion Get'em there.that distance learning should be intrinsicallymotivating. They questioned the assumption Keep'em there.that interactivity provides motivation. Ac-cordingly, they restated the question to ask Get'em to come back.what type of motivation distance learning isobligated to provide. They characterized students in the next

chart.

"We don't do a lot of training because it's funto do or take a job that doesn't pay."

Distance Learning Conference Proccedmgs, Fall 1989 11 Los Alamos National Laboratory

2,1

Jntrinsic and extrinsic motivation must bedifferentiated. We should examine the charac-teristics of motivated learners (age, relevanceof material, cultufal history, language, interestlevel of material, and control of lenrning sit-uation). Finally, they identified the followingprinciples for motivation that should be con-sidered in distance learning.

The group also felt that instructors needmotivation. One group member pointed outthat the instructor has the responsibility to cre-ate an environment that encourages learning.


:

What are the guidelines for interactivityand/or how should they be established?

This group wrestled with the task of identi-fying guidelines for interactivity in distancelearning and/or how to establish them. Thediscussion focused on identification but did notformulate conclusive guidelines. Nevertheless,some insightful observations are listed below:

1. Good practice suggests moving towardintrinsic motivation.

2. If the student is allowed to select thelevel of interaction, guidelines for interactivitymay not tx necessary. (Note that the difficultyof permitting each student to select his/herlevel of interactivity was not discussed.)

3. Options must be incorporated that rec-ognize different learning styles.

4. Distance learning slows down the inter-action enough to promote a higher level of in-teraction from reflective learners.

5. In the future, cost, benefits, and fidelitylevels must be considered.

Additionally, the group looked at interac-tion with respect to Moore's model of interac-tivity (Moore 1989). They suggested a pro-gressive series of questions:

Is learner4+content enough?

If not, is learner4-,instructor needed?

If that interaction is still not enough, howabout learner4->learner?

The level of interaction can be increased asneeded if at some point learner4+content in-teraction fails and the performance suffers.

What could be some guidelines for achievinginteractivity through primary media?

The discussion in this group centered ontwo areas that we can roughly term as media-affected interactivity and environment-affectedinteractivity.

12 Los Alamos Nauonal Laboratory

22

Under the umbrella of media-affected in-teractivity, we include concepts that deal di-rpr-tly with the h.rri prpepntann nf the lenrn-ing system: course structure, video presen-tation, scripting etc. All agreed that good de-sign was extremely critical. Design can com-pensate for many hardware limitations, but un-limited hardware and production will have littleeffectiveness if the overall design is poor.Knowing the audiencz is critical in distancelearning. One should avoid obvious blunderssuch as cutural taboos and meaningless analo-gies. In addition, every effort should be madeto involve students in courJes from the start.Caution should be exercised to eliminate tech-nology anxiety if the course is using the latestmethodologies.

It is also helpful to make the lesson mate-rial nonjudgmental. Early success reinforcesand encourages students to persevere and seekfurther education.

Whatever the media, proper care. in devel-oping a "good story" with drama and suspensecan do much to integrate the student and com-pensate for not having the latest hardware.Further, the greatest technology can neverovercome a poorly planned and scriptedcourse. Video presentations must be compa-rable to those seen on commercial televisionbecause people have come to expect such aproduction and are disappointed by anythingless, which does not mean that the video screenshould be cluttered with details and minute re-alism. On the contrary, if a screen is too busyattempting to achieve lifelike fidelity, it can bedistracting.

Presentations should be kept as simple aspossible to avoid distracting cognitive overload.Creative design can create the illusion of real-ity without the expense or overload of a full-blown simulation. Simplicity and good designshould be the standards.

Regarding the second type of motivationmentioned above, we refer more to an at-mosphere or attitude rather than to the tech-nology that we have just discussed. Here weconsider that motivation and extrinsic rewardscreate greater interactivity and learning. Thegroup noted that motivation and interactivity


have a circular relationship of induced rein-forcement.

Fostering a sense of community within thestudents generates a great deal of interactivity.Course material development can create suchteamwork and interdependence among thestudents. It is important to make each studentfeel a responsibility to the group, that is, thatthey are needed and must support the successof the group. The sense of community andbonding among students will encourage in-creased effort by each student. In addition, in-structor feedback will always be important tothe atmosphere provided.

What are the requisite skills for distancelearning faculty with respect to interactiv-ity?

Faculty skills include those used by in-structors, designers, content experts, tutors, fa-cilitators, proctors, and supervisors. Anytimethe term instructor is used, it refers to the per-son that delivers the actual material by amedium that supports this delivery method.

There are also several types of interaction:student44material, student4-binstructor, andstudent44student. Generally, we are con-cerned with the interaction between the stu-dent and the instructor.

For the most part, it seems that the re-quirements for good distance learning facultyare an enhanced version of the skills found ingood instructors from traditional learning plussome media-specific requirements. Some cre-ativity is required because the planning andmanagement of distance education need to bebetter than those that are generally found intraditional formats. It will not be sufficient tohave instructors that can just "tap dancethrough the material."

Faculty must be able to deal with the lackof feedback from students. Teachers are accus-tomed to using student feedback to motivatethem and to enhance instruction. Distance ed-ucators may have to learn to live without theseincentives. Faculty may have to be able toteach the students how to learn effectivdy,


23

wing the new environment of distance educa-tion. Many media-specific requirements willalso be needed. The faculty must deal withnew student learning strategies through differ-ent media. For example, in various cultural re-gions of Alaska, students have learned differ-ent ways to tespond to questions. In one area,they have been taught to think about their an-swers carefully before responding. In another,students reply immediately even if they do nothave a well-considered answer. An instructorusing two-way audio needs to be able to deal

with complete silence across the line while stu-dents think about answers.

When using both audio and video, it iscommon for inexperienced instructors to ne-glect the remote learners. The instructor mustknow how to encourage interaction from theremote group. When using two-way audio, ad-aitional listening skills are required because ofthe lack of visual clues. In many cases, facultymust be able to communicate effectivelythrough written material.

SummaryIn the ensuing large-group discussion, there was a distinct focus on interactivity and media.

With the caveat that distance learning should/can be entertaining but should not be entertain-ment, participants agreed that much can be learned from commercial television, the cinema, andthe advertising community with respect to interactivity. Furthermore, we should nat be simplytrying to duplicate the traditional classroom. We must leverage the technology to do what it doesbest.

Good course design is critical and can offset hardware limitations. Distance learning forces usto return to design and determine how we can improve on what we have in place. The best tech-nology can never compensate for a poorly planned and scripted course. Because technology hasadvanced to the point where we may almost dictate our needs and get what we want, instructionalmaterial must oe sensitive to the times. For current technology to enhance and encourage distancelearning, the courses must be interesting and well planned.

A fine line exists between entertainment value and educational value of the media. Therefore,instructors must know their audiences. Learning materials must have exciting, stimulating, enter-taining, and charismatic elements, but they must also be relevant to the knowledge domain. Madi-son Avenue and commercial television can teach us a great deal, but we must not lose sight of oureducational objectives. On the other hand, instructors must create some excitement or they willfail on television/video.

We focused on instructors, noting that simply giving instructors more to do or expecting themto acquire a greater inventory of skills will not work. Distance learning requires a faculty team,forcing a return to design and an assessment of how technology can help improve instruction.However, we must not let technology drive the course.

Student-to-student interaction is crucial to good learning, and we also focused on interactionsbetween the students and the instructor. Faculty must be able to deal with lack of feedbacks fromstudents. Teachers are accustomed to capitalizing on student feedback to guide their instructionor to internalize feedback for their own motivation.

Positive interactivity can be generated by developing a sense of community among the stu-dents. One strategy for encouraging interactivity is to develop course material to support team-work and interdependence among the 3tudents. Each student must feel a responsibility to thegroupa feeling of being needed and being essential to the success of the group. Such a sense ofcommunity and bonding among students will foster more concerted effort by each student.

Distance Learning Conference Proceedings, Pall 1989 14 Los Alamos National Laboratory

24

learning. Motivation dnd interactivity have a circular reinforcement relationship for both the in-structors and the students.

"Try to make knowledge interesting. It is the cwrency of our f;mes."

One must consider the backgrounds of the students. Cognitive style (external versus internallocus of control and reflective versus impulsive) is very important and not linked to autonomy. Intraditional classrooms, impulsive thinkers are rewarded. In a distance education environment, re-flective thinkers can interact at a higher level because interactions are slowed down enough forthem. Some learning-disabled swdents can tolerate only a nonstructured environment, yet otherscannot. Distance learning may demand a greater amount of adaptability than conventional in-struction, and this adaptability will be essential because courseware has to accommodate all typesof thinking.

Motivation is inherent in interactivity. Characteristics that motivate people, both young andold, need to be identified. Motivating the teacher as well as students is a critical issue; thus, if theteacher can be motivated, student motivation logically follows. Early student success is critical toreinforcement, committing the student to a class and motivating the student to seek further successin education. Students' enthusiasm for the course material, in turn, motivates the instructor.

ReferenceMoore, Michael G., Three Types of Interaction, in Readings in Principks of Distance Education 1, M. G. Moore and G. C. Clark. Eds.,

100-105 (1989).

Distance Learning Conference Proceedings, Fall 1989 15 p 5 Los Alamos National Laboratory

Instructional Strategiesby Mary S. Trainor

BackgroundInteractivity guidelines set the stage for a course, but one must determine the pedagogical ap-

proach or instructional strategy for applying these guidelines to the design. Many different tax-onomies for such strategies exist in the education literature, but these taxonomies cover the samecontent. The strategies range from expository (lecture) to tutorial (present information and thenask questions) to simulation and Socratic dialogue. The level of interactivity in these strategiesvaries in quality and frequency of interactivity. Most courses of instruction use several in-structional strategies to meet the needs of the students and the subject matter.

This session explored alternative distance learning instructional strategies, with the goal of in-creasing the potential for learning effectiveness. The taxonomy for instructional strategies selectedfor the conference is below. These strategies are presented in sequence from the least interactiveto the most interactive.

, lc A - %

Instructional Strategies ,

A Range of Choims for Distance Learning

Lecture: The one-way presentation of information fmm an instructor to students.

Drill and Practice: &arises to ensure incorporation of fact s and pmceduree

P.-, fit, .', ,f.?,

- v "

Tutorial: Material presented and questions asked.' .

Games: Any conte.st among adversaries operating under ndes for an objective (winning,payoff). The adversary may be a computer or another person.

- -

Simulatioru A working model (imitation) of the targeted system given 0 the sradent tomanipulate and observe. This model may be physical, pincedura4 situationa4 orprocess bt nature. Leanthlg occw s. by performing activities in a context similar tothe real worid.

CoaChlnv Instntaional intervention given while a student is perfo;rnin g 414*,fir folving.-4.)air .oblem The intervention is specific to the opt of error the student 10410inade.- ,4 . .

Dialogue: Questions for the student by a human or a computer- Dicit;i4itUriaglayL-g,'tailored feedback and then branches to a new topic or remediation isian thestudent's response Some intelligent tutoring systems are exampks of compUter-baseddialogues.

A

Collective LeaminF A process or situation in which students cooperate in exploring a givenarea of study or in solving a problem.

The potential for analysis and synthesis learning experiei ces is higher in the dialogue strategythan it is in the drill and practice strategy. Obviously, this is a broad generalization for which manycounter examples can be made, but it is a useful paradigm for planning curricula. At the beginning

Dtstance Learning Conference Proceedings, Fall 1989 17 Los Alamos National Laboratory

26

of a new module during which new knowledge must be acquired, exposition and drill and practicemight be good initial strategies, fc!bwed by simulation and then collective learning exercises. Di-alogue and collective learning strategies, for example, are not optimal strategics for presenting newfacts and procedures.

Several instructional strategies have not been used to any great extent in distance learning.Ezr:.31..;se fnew advances in terhnology, these strategies (for example, games and simulation) cannow be used. As a result of extensive educational research, educators have capitalized on videoand computer games (for example, Ellington et al. 1981; Malone 1980; and Nawrocki and Winner1983). This research has revealed the design challenges required to make a game both motivatingand instructional. Distance learning presents new challenges for the instructor/designer when se-lecting instructional strategies. Therefore, the distance learning community needs to provideguidelines for selecting and using instructional strategies, in particular, those that have not beenadequately exploited.

RationaleTraditionally, little emphasis has been placed on distance learning instructional strategies. In-

stead, the medium is selected, and then the instruction is written, based on the capabilities of themedium. The focus has been on technology it the expense of instructional strategies. This ap-proach can produce the following undesirable results:

Unmet training requirements,

Cognitive-level mismatch,

Use of instructional strategies not compatible with student requirements, or

Lack of variety in media used for a course.

Frequently, an instructor fixates on one successful and familiar instractional strategy, but thatparticular strategy may not be the best match for the student population, the subject matter, or thecourse objectives. This situation can result in unmotivated students and/or students who completethe course, having achieved different objectives than those expected.

Alternative StrategiesAt the conference, the instructional strat-

egy question for small groups focused on in-depth development of individual strategies thathave been unexploited in distance learning.The strategies explored were games, simula-tion, coaching, and dialogue.

GamesA game is any contest among adversaries

operating under rules for an objective (for ex-ample, winning or payoff). The adversary maybe a computer, the student himself/herself, oranother person. Games are versatile instruc-tional strategies that stimulate high-cognitive-le/el learning.

Distance Learning Conference Proceedings, Pall 1989 18

"Games are versatile instructional strategiesthat stimulate high-cognitive-level learning."

The discussion explored many of the posi-tive and negative aspects of games as an in-structional strategy. Positive attributes in-cluded the following aspects:

Games are a good technique to developlearner involvement and/or collaboration(for students at different sites). Tney pro-mote good learner control.

Their effectiveness depends on the targetpopulation and individual persinalities.

7

las Alamos National Laboratory

They can be designed to be collaborativeand goal-oriented, rather than adversariaL

Games ore appropriate for computer-basedapproaches and distance learning becausethe presence of an instructor is usually notessential. They mediate the absence of

resident instructors.

They can be used in virtually any content

area.

Games are appropriate for autonomouslearning environments.

Games provide closure. Students knowwhen they are done.

Games can energize any subject.

"Games can turn the dullest subject into one

of excitement."

They offer an opportunity for collaborativelearning. If instructional games were im-

plemented in distance learning, unresolved is-

sues would include the following concerns:

a How can one Llefme competence in thesubject matter? Completion alone isprobably inadequate.

a Designing good games is difficult, andbuilding good instructional games is even

more difficult.

Not all students are interested in competi-tion, so some students may not be mod-vated by games.

A game must be used in the context of theentire curriculum, with its usefulnessjudged by the results produced. (Using agame as its own end is not defensible in thelearning environment.)

The possibility of students' just trying tobeat the game and not trying to learn thesubject must be considered in design.

"If time and resources were unlimited, wecould simulate anything."


SimulationIn a simulation, a student manipulates a

working model of the system being studied.Some simulations present a scenario to which

the student responds, others require the stu-dent to set up the scenario and observe the re-

sults, and others require students to perform in

a role-playing manner. Until recently, simula-

tion as an instrudional strategy has rarely been

used because of cost limitations. Now, with the

advent of simulation-based training experi-

ences, it is a feasible strategy (Reigeluth and

Schwartz 19519).

The group discussed the range of simula-

tions from simplevisualization to role-playingdecision making. When using a simulationstrategy, an instructor's role changes to that of

a facilitator. Discussion on simulation revealedthis strategy as a means to an end, not the end

itself. Optimal situations for simulations iden-tified were the following:

a Safety is a concern.

a The consequences of inadequate trainingare costly.

Specific, tailored feedback is needed.

Multiple and synciu'onous activities occur

in task performance.

Time is limited.

Expanding beyond the instructor's experi-

ences is essential.

The discussion centered around cost and

feasibility issues. The consensus was that sim-

ulations are excellent instructional tools that

stimulate higher-level thinking. However, thecost is a concern. Few low-cost simulations ex-

ist.

One concern emerged regarding imple-mentation: Simulations are often desigied forinstruction but used for testing. Evaluation sti-fles exploration on the part of the student;learning occurs through exploration.


2 8

CoachingCot:.hing involves active instructional in-

tprvpqt;nn who', the atnrisnt poircnrrost s twek nr

solves a problem. Interaction must take placebetween the coach and the student. The coachgives individual attention and feedback asneeded Feedback includes evaluation anddemonstration of appropriate performance.Feedback may or may not be in real time.Videotaping a learning activity can easily ac-company distance learning. It allows one tostudy that activity so that performance can beanalyzed and necessary corrections can bemade.

The question of when to intervene is per-tinent to coaching both in person and from adistance. However, the answer may be moreelusive in distance learning because many ofthe cues that are available in person will bemissing in a distance learning setting even withvery sophisticated audio/video systems. Thissituation raises the question of coaching strate-gies in general. Can it be assumed that whatworks in person will work from a distance?Such may be the case, but clearly some analysisof different coaching strategies will be neces-sary.

In the typical classroom environment,coaching is not feasible because of the largenumber of students. The focus of coaching isdiagnosis and correction of individual students'misconceptions. In the distance learningenvironment, coaching is possible through theuse of teleammunications and through intelli-gent tutoring systems.

The discussion of coaching concentrated ondescribing possible different coaching systems:

An AI system could learn, log students'performances, and make decisions con-cerning students' programs at variousstages.

If the coaching option were programmedinto a system, the learner could control thelevel of intervention desired.

The language laboratory model for coach-ing is still a useful one.


Videotaping can be a powerful tool for acoach in live performance training (for ex-ample, sales).

Coaching is equally appropriate for athieticand academic skills.

The group highlighted the difference be-tween coaching and evaluation. Coaching pro-vides correction right after being informed thatan answer or action is right 'or wrong. Evalua-tion simply indicates than an answer or actionis right or wrong.

in noninstructor coaching, simulation ap-pears to be a necessaty requirement."

The subject matter here is more criticalthan in some of the other strategies. For ex-ample, immediate coaching feedback in aspeech class would be potentially destructive.Specific coaching examples included computerintervention during a simulation exercise or af-ter a system locks up following an incorrect re-sponse during a nuclear reactor simulation.

DialogueDialogue, like coaching, is a strategy that is

not feasible in a classroom situation but, withthe appropriate technology, can become feasi-ble. It requires a one-on-one teacher-to-stu-dent ratio. The only existing models for thecomputerized dialogue strategy come from theworld of intelligent tutoring systems. In dia-logue, the instructor teaches by guiding thestudent in conversation to discover new in-sights into the subject matter. Unlike coaching,dialogue can take place in the absence of taskperformance or problem solving.

'Dialogue makes distance learning more ef-fective by focusing and funneling the infor-mation."

In the small-group discussion, the prevail-ing opinion was that some learner control mustbe involved in useful or informative dialogue-based instruction. Student questions to theirpeers and instructors should be allowed.

Dialogue allows active involvement of thestudent as well as individualization of the


2 9

learning environment. Dialogue also providesfeedback to the.. teacher, which enables him/her to develop a model of the student. Toimplement dialogue for a group, the strategyneeds to include the capability for each studentto be involved, which is possible through shift-ing leadership.

The group reached the fol.:v.1ring conclu-sions:

Dialogue can help negotiate the meaningthat the hlstritetor is try;ng to convey.

Dialogue manages instruction and allowsflexibility and prescriptive, individualizedinstruction.

Dialogue helps instruct the teacher and canmake a model of the student.

SummaryThe instructional strategies topic generated many new ideas for implementing alternative ap-

pimaches in distance learning. Regardless of subject matter, all four strategies discussed were con-sidered to be useful components of a curriculum.

The computer played a centrai role in the delivery of each of these strategies in the distancelearning environment. The expense of the computer software implementation could range fromvery low (bulletin board) to high (intelligent tutoring systems). However, low-cost implementationof alternative strategies is now possible. The deorth of models in the literature and software onthe market has caused the lack of implementation thus far, but such models are now rapidlyemerging.

ReferencesEllington, H., E Addinall, and F. Percival, Games and Sinudations in Science Education (Kogan Page, London/Nichols Publishing Corn-

pany, New York, 1981).

Malone, T., 'What Makes Things Fun to Learn: A Study of Intrinsically Motivating Computer Games,' Xerox, August 1980.

Nawtocki, L, and J. Winner, 'Video Games: Instructional Potential and Classification,' Journal of Computer-Based Instruction 10,80-82 (1983).

Reigeluth, C,. and E Schwartz, 'An Instructional Theory for the Design of Computer-Based Simulations,' Journal of Computer-Based In-struction 16, 1-10 (1989).

Distance Learning Conference Proceedings, Fall 1989 21 Los Alatnos National Laboratory

30

Collective Learningby Andrew E. Andrews

BackgroundUnlike the other sessions of the conference, the collective learning session concentrated on a

subject that was more narrow in scope and more focused on innovations. The intent was to ad-

vance the field through the synergistic input of experts.

The expression collective learning stems from the military term collective training, but each has

different goals. Collective training prepares a team to work together in a realistic problem situa-

tion, whereas collective learning develops the knowledge, skills, and/or abilities of an individual

through group work. The literature contains several recent studies on collaborative learning, pri-

marily in English classes. Collaborative learning can be viewed as a subset of collective learning,

with the same goals.

Universally, instruction must provide a high degree of transfer of knowledge and skills to the

student, either in the work environment or the education setting. Technology and the information

explosion have markedly increased cognitive demands on employees and students alike. While

these challenges are complex, the changes further complicate the situation. The requirements ofmany jobs have changed from task performance to monitoring complex tasks and impromptu

problem solving. Moreover, our traditional modes of instruction have not proved highly effective

to satisfy these requirements.

"By challenging the traditional view of the teacher's authority, collaborative learning helps pre-

pare students for effective interdependence in an increasingly collaborative world.". ..K A. Bruffee

A recent approach, which we will classify as an instructional strategy here, is collective learn-

ing the pedagogical approach in which students learn skills individually through a group effort.

For example, they may jointly solve a problem, perform a case study, or research a situation and

write a report on it.

Dr. Michael Moore of Pennsylvania State University addressed the need for additional focus

on the student4+student interaction component of distance learning (Moore 1989). In the past,

the focm has been on studenti-,instructor and student4-,subject matter. Unfortunately, the dis-

tance learning proponents need more than a mere suggestioa to implement such a strategy. They

need specific guidelines concerning student4-,student interaction (where, how, when, and why). A

goal of this session was to develop such guidelines.

AssumptionsCollective learning requires ciireful planning by the instructor or instructional designer. Itcannot be highly effective as a casual, student-determined strategy.

Collective learning can stimulate work place communication.

= Collective learning provides some students more effective feedback than is available in tradi-

tional settings.

How should collective learning be structured?

Organization. The differences betweencollective learning and collective problem

Distanse Learning Conference Proceedings, Fall 1989

solving must be addressed. All participants(instructors, students, and course designers)must have a set of prerequisites and a commonframe of reference from which to work.

23 Los Alamos National laboratory

31

In the training environment today, peopleare working as individuals, yet most complexproblems are group problems. To meet theexisting needs, training must adapt to the col-lective learning group's mode of addressingproblems. Therefore, it is important to con-sider this implied constraint on the organiza-tion of collective learning.

A debate persists in the U.S Army aboutwhether collective learning is learning or is anexperience. No assessment measures exist tosettle the issue. For example, the NationalMilling Center (Fort Irwin, CA) has no wayto replay a battle and then let units learn toimprove their strategies.

Nevertheless, the military uses the fieldtraining exercise (FTX) as a collective learningtool. Actually, it is a good example of inte-grated collective learning and distance learn-ing. Even if there are no predetermined cor-rect methods to evaluate a unit's performance,the FTX usually is a vehicle to build a betterunit, a demomtration of effective collectivelearning.

In collective learning, the emphasis is onthe learning that an individual must acquire tofunction in a generic position. There are twotypes of collective learning. In the first, spe-cific objectives are defined, and training isconducted, guided by these goals. In the sec-ond, no concrete goals exist; learning occursbecause of exploration of the subject materialand interactions among students.

Synchronous and asynchronous modes ofcollective learning are different. In syn-chronous collective learning, time limits maybe used to put more demands on the students,forcing the students to meet the instructionalobjectives in a timely manner. Synchronouscollective learning is a good approach whenpressure on students is needed.

For collective learning, one must considerthree evaluation levels: the individual, hismanager, and the manager's manager. Ques-tions and performance evaluation must bederived from the perspective of all three levels,helping management's vested interest and pro-viding a healthier collective learning twiron-men t.

In collective learning, distinct standards areneeded for both the individuals and for thegroup. The goal is to have the students acquireall the individual skills and to make the transi-tion to a learning mode that primarily meetsthe group objectives. Often textbook solutionsare not available for the group problems, somany different learning approaches may beappropriate. When writing learning objectives,instructors should allow for flvdble guidelines.To illustrate this point, they could provideopen-ended problems for training exercises.

The structure of collective learning and dis-tance learning must be guided by function orrequirements. When the collective learningformat is being used to teach individual skills,we use the same measures that traditionalteaching uses to evaluate. When team skillsare being taught, new evaluation strategies mayneed to be developed.

Collective learning structure is differentfrom that of traditional learning and varieswith the students' diverse backgrounds and thesubject matter. Objective performance evalua-tion measurements must be developed, re-gardless of the learning objectives or any dif-ferences from traditional learning environ-ments.

"When is it collective learning and vv. len is itcollective problem solving?"

Troubleshooting is an example of an inter-esting collective learning environment. For ex-ample, the specific goals for learning to trou-bleshoot a given type of equipment are impor-tant. However, accumulating a bag of trou-bleshooting tricks is also crucial to the transi-tion from the novice to the expert level. Col-lective learning allows students to find outabout other students' "bags of tricks" as theywork together.

If the environment is hazardous, it is veryimportant to control the organization of the in-struction, and risks and consequences must beconsidered in instructional design.

The delivery system must be consideredwhen planning training, but it must not drivethe total effort. The learning objectives must


2 2

be the drivers. One must take advantage of thestrengths of technology and use benchmarks toFide the type and amount of feedback.

Techniques for effectively managing multi-ple dialogues that may occur in collectivelearning m the distance learning environmentmust be developed. Dealing with the frustra-tion induced when the network goes down orthe local system fails must be addressed to re-duce dropouts.

The collective learning designers must alsoconsider the group size. Depending upon thetask, a group size of two to eight appears to beoptimal.

The composition of the group is an impor-tant factor. One must be aware oi when it ispossible to combine diverse people in a collec-tive learning environment.

The success of a collective learning situa-tion is dependent on the availability of instruc-tors. In addition, the student body may notremain stable. Designing effective learningaround changing personnel is indeed challeng-ing.

Because of the time demands on managersin particular, the length of the course is impor-tant. Distance learning can allow a one-weekcollective learning-based course to be spreadout over a month, allowing the manager to takecare of daily business demands. The time in alearning session should not be too short. Threeto four hours seem reasonable for a collectivelearning management session in the distancelearning context.

'The instructor's authority is changed, not re-duced."

Instructor Role. The group felt stronglythat the role of the instructor will not vanishbut must change. The instructor must commu-nicate the course objectives to the students andalso must be able to adapt rapidly to changinglearning situations and unexpected student re-sponses. He/she must also recognize whenstudents are operating at different levels andintervene to fulfill the learning objectives.


The instructor must judge whether the stu-dents' behavior has changed in a positive way.1-1 as learning really occarred? This wecta-tion places more demands on the instructor.The instructor's authority will not be reduced;it will be changed by both collective learningand distance learning. The instructor will haveto operate at a different level than in a tradi-tional learning setting. Alert instructors canindeed moderate group dynamics and groupbehavior in a distance learning setting, but it isa challenging situation.

The instructor must be more versatile thanin,a traditional classroom in terms of pre-sentation of material and real-time reaction tothe students' learning modes. The instructor'sanalysis, group management skills, and subjectmatter expertise will also be more important incollective learning contexts. Depending oncourse design, lesson preparation may be moreintense and thorough than for a traditionalclassroom.

An assertive student may pose problems ina collective learning situation, and instructorsmust handle situations so that such students donot cause the course objectives to be compro-mised. Although groups can compete againsteach other, the role of the instructo: must be toencourage cooperation rather than competitionamong the students In the real world, cooper-ation gets the job done.

In the military, personal integrity is cruciai.Leaders guide units that must follow mission-type orders. The collective learning situationallows integrity to be explored through the waythat the group solves problems, and the instruc-tor must carefully evaluate this aspect. Thediscussion group asserted that in collectivelearning there is no book solution. The instruc-tor judges the solution and piovides feedbackto the students.

Student Issues. Collective learning imi-tates reality. Because of the myriad of poten-tial disasters that can occur in real life, solvingproblems may greatly improve the secondaryskills of students, which may ultimately bemore important.

Asynchronous distance learning allows reti-cent people to have time to contemplate their


33

.=,

answers without being preempted by the as-sertive students. Furthermore, both asyn-ehronams .nta symbeonone eAllftlive learningdevelop team skills that are useful in other ca-reer aspects. These ski& may have muchgreater importance than tne short-range skillsderived directly from the primary learning ob-jectives. Collective learning increases motiva-tion and may decrease the dropout rate that ir,characteristic of traditional correspondencecourses. More training for a given cost will re-sult.

Loners must be motivated to be teammembers. Collective learnirkg provides a ve-hicle to break down the barriers of individualsto be team members. When groups of peoplework together in collective learning individualswill be motivated. Furthermore, individualsare challenged to prepare for the learning ses-sion to avoid ..... Appointing the group.

Individualized distance learning createslearner loneliness. Collective learning mayhelp ease this loneliness by allowing students tointeract. In traditional correspondencecourses, students must be very self-disciplined.Collective learning can compensate for a lackof personal discipline. Collective learning canbuild enduring friendships, which can be re-newed through additional collective learningexperiences. This opportunity to build suchfriendships alleviates the loneliness of thelearner.

"Distance learning implies the loneliness ofthe learner. Collective learning reduces theloneliness and motivates students to relate toeach other and to the world."

What are the desired characteristics of appro-priate tasks that students can perform collec-tively at a distance?

Small-group discussion identified optimalcharacteristics of tasks that students can per-form collectively at a distance:

The objective must be clear.

The problem IT1113L be challenging.

Dtstance Learning Conference Proceedings, Fall 1989

The task must be reasonable in terms oftime, sEls, and physical resources.

Specific roles must be assigned.

A balance between structure and dialoguemust be possible.

a Closure mubt occur to solve a problem co-operatively, to build results together, and toreview feedback across the system. (How-ever, how does the instructor know thatstudents have fmished? Is closure aseparate issue?)

Collective learning works, and there is nodifference between tasks in traditional and dis-tance education with respect to desired charac-teristics.

'No different types of groups are, involvedin collective learning. For example, in lawschool, study groups form spontaneously tomeet common goals. In other settings, partici-pants may be assigned to projects by a teacher.Evidence indicates that randomized groupingdoes work.

In addition, a balance between structureand dialogue is necessary to facilitate commu-nication. However, this balance should not be-come overbearing. Peer pressure alone will actas a motivator to get people working.

The business world is in transition, and co-operative efforts are increasingly important.Therefore, participating in collective projects isadvantageous.

Experience has shown that frequently stu-dents learn better when they work in groups.Rewarding adult group performance is morevaluable than rewarding individual perfor-mance.

in what distance learning situation can collec-tive learning be most beneficial and why?

Students. Whenever a group is formed, itwill have group characteristics that depend onthe individuals and the relationships amongindividuals. Instructional design must take intoaccount the degree of homogeficity (match or


:el

mismata in talent, interest, level of effort,motivations, etc.), bonding (strong friendshipscan be formed and exploited), synergism, andthe phenomenon of group dynamics.

"One must desir collective learning with thegroup size in mind."

Studies have shown that students prefer tolearn in groups in many situations. There are,of course, exceptions, and any course of in-struction needs to allow for those preferences.

The collective level of expertise in thegroup will determine the requirements for di-rect interaction by the instructor. In general,the lower the level of existing knowledge, thegreater the need for instructor interaction.

Teachers. Teachers may be threatened bythe collective learning model because their"dominant role" may be diminished. Newtraining will be required for the changing roleof teachers. Perhaps a new concept of theteacher will be as a group manager or facilita-tor.

Challenges. Currently, many awilablesources of information are not used. Perhapsthe most significant example is the wealth ofexperience that senior citizens have. If dis-tance learning (in the collective learning mode)could tap into some of those sources, the re-wards would be tremendous.

The ..listance learning environment needsto be carefully considered in collective learn-ing. However, many aspects will be nearly thesnrne as in the traditional classroom. In somecases, the possible asynchronous interactionmay be advantageous; that is, decisions or solu-tions would be cor sidered more clearly beforea reply is made.

What are the preferred media for collectivelearning in distance learning?

This group redefmed the problem by notingthat media are not the issue. If the appropriatecollective learning tasks are identified !Ind theappropriate strategy fur a specific requirementis established, then any of the media can

Distance Learning Conference Proceedings. F11141989

be adapted to the task. Hence, the groupfocused on appropriate tasks and situationsfor collective learning.

What are the reasons for using collectivelearning? Three valid reasons for using collec-tive learning follow:

To work at the synthesis level of Bloom'staxonomy, converging to similar ideas,

To work in a problem solving situation andreach a solution, and

To encourage group interaction and coop-eration.

In addition, the motivational aspects ofgroup work may be sufficient justification forhaving collective learning experiences. Train-ing objectives determine whether or not collec-tive learning is a desirable strategy, with mediaselection following accordingly.

Indeed, collective learning is probably notuseful at the lower cognitive training levels (theintroductory level, for example). For example,one would not use collective learning to teachsomeone a basic mechanical skill (how tochange an XYZ brake), but collective learningcan be used for training on how to fix brakesystems in a general way.

Trainers must be confident of the optimalinstructional strategy. A professional trainingspecialist from the discussion group said thathe has seen three types of collective learning inpractice: 1) a professor places a problem onthe table and has the group solve it; 2) some-one does not want to work with the group, soeveryone works on individual pieces and thegroup synthesizes results; and 3) a hybrid oc-curs and the individualists work by themselvesand otheis work as a team. Eventual/y, they fitthe pieces together. The real point is not tomake individualists outcasts but not permitthem to hinder the learning process either.

"Collective learning goals are clarification ofconcepts, problem solving, synthesis, evalua-tion, and affective domain (interpersonalskills)."

27


Collective learning content is related to agoal, which is different from traditional dis-tane learning that looks for specific answersfrom individuals. Using teleconferencing, aclass could work together. In this regard, aparticipant asked whether or not our distancelearning conference mild have been accom-plished by distance learning. Most groupmembers felt that the initial face-to-face con-tacts were necessary as well as the opportunityto establish a network among distance learningadvocates. However, they weed that usingtwo-way video could have worked for the small-group sessions. Even computer-based trainingcould have been used, wliere a person is effec-tively talking to the terminal.

If learning goals demand group dynamics,there is literature that points out how to in-clude the outsiders. The nominal group tech-nique allows for everyone to individually brain-storm a list and then pick one item from eachperson's list, going around as often as neces-sary and sharing the collective list.

In multidisciplinary groups, one is ;:hal-lenged to get disparate personalities and back-grounds together and to employ appropriatetechniques for the remote learning systemsthat we are designing. In projects where indi-viduals do not know everything, they can relyon ot er people to fill in the gaps. However, ifthe only expert leaves, the group loses part ofits collective power.

One must avoid trying to apply collectivelearning to every situation. For example, in amath game, an individual might solve a prob-lem in 10 minutes, yet a group does it in 20minutes. However, in survival games, peopleare put in unpleasant situations and are taskedto compile a list of things one might need. Inthis case, individuals tend to be less effectivethan the group consensus. Sometimes an indi-vidual on a team will have a valid solution andmay be talked out of it. Nevertheless, overallconsensus may be better than one person'ssolution. Instructional designers must considerboth short- and long-term outcomes. Perhaps


wasting tin 1 at the beginning, may bring betterlong-term results.

If one is looking strictly for answers, thencollective training might well be the wrong ap-proach. In fact, this collective training idea iscontrary to the notion of individualized train-ing. Collective training might be more appro-priate for executives than for blue-collar work-ers because collective learning is quite applica-ble to upper management where people aretrying to develop strategic, marketing, produc-tion, and financial plans. In the business world,collective learning might help a team functionmore efficiently and more effectively.

The application of distance learning tech-nologies does not excuse us from rememberingwhat we already know. We still have to con-sider multiple strategies, everything we alreadyknow, and not expect collective learning to be apanacea. There is a danger of forgetting whatwe know about the traditional classroom set-ting. The technolog itself is seductive, andlearning about it can be so absorbing that weforget our actual goals.

A medium that would let the group drawon many resources to act as a group could bevery valuable. Distance learning learners donot always have a library like traditional learn-ers have. A way to integrate resources such asbibliographies, dictionaries, etc., into the restof the system could be very important. This isalso a policy question, not a media problem. Ifnot done properly, we will create the languagelabs of 30 years ago that were not used. Whilethe requirements of learning should drive thestrategy used, implementation of the strategyin a given medium must be done effectively.Further, the media must be both affordableand available.

Most of the discussion addressed pushingthe cognitive evaluation of issues rather thanthe affective domain, yet group learning tendsto be more involved with the latter. It is im-portant to develop models for cognitive, physi-cal, and affective domains for particular subjectareas.

n1.os Alamos National Laboratory

SummaryCollective learning is a valuable instructional strategy in the distance learning environment.

This instructional strategy promotes teamwork, reduces the isoiation common in distance learning,provides motivation, enhances pacing of the class, could reduce dropouts, and offers no differencebetween traditional and distance learnine, in task characteristics. The bonding that occurs in theinteracting community is also important. Such an instructional strategy could also capitalize or theknowledge of the retired population. Distance learning facilitates capturing the collective learningcorporate knowledge of individuals, which otherwise would be lost.

It is easier to define where collective learning should not be used than where it should be used.Some autonomous learners and anxious people shun collective Naming. However, it is a tool thatcan be used to solve problems that are bigger than a single individual's ability to solve them.

Collective learning goals are clari:ication of concepts, problem solving, synthesis, evaluation,and interpersonal skills (the affective domain). This strategy is process oriented rather thananswer oriented.

The structure of collective learning depends on its objectives, the subject and the participantsand may determine the delivery method, synchronous versus asynchronous.

In a collective learning environment, the instructor's authority is not diminished, just changed,because the 3ituation requires increased evaluative skills rather than presentation expertise. Theinstructor serves as a catalyst, for providing proper and timely feedback is critical.

Some cautions concerning collective learning included the fact that some students work bettercomputer-to-computer versus face-to-face. Also, the subject matter, the student, and the instructorare all dependent on each other. One concern noted was the possibility of collective learning's im-pairing individual learning skills. One participant remarked that the applicability and effectivenessof collective learning is dependent on the synchronous interactivity and objectives of the selectedmedia.

References:Moore, Michael G., Three Types of Interaction, inReadings in Principles of Distance Education 1, M. G. Moore and G. C. Clark, Eds.,

100-105 (1989).


37

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Student Performance Evaluationby Nonnan D. Hamer

BackgroundDetermining whether or not a person has mastered a course or deciding if a person can be

certified as qualified in the subject matter should be major distance learnirgissues. In traditionaleducation/training situations, the instructor is usually in a position to directly assess students' abili-ties in real time. However, large classes and time pressures are forcing the use of less direct test-ing procedure& In distance learning the situation is compounded because the capability for directfeedback may not exist. In many accounts about distance learningexperiences, one hears aboutstudents' passing tests without actually understanding the content and about people who are frus-trated by learning the course material and failing the evaluation procedure. Distance learning pre-sents unique challenges to evaluating student performance; these challenges do not exist in thetraditional classroom situation.

"Students have been certified from distance learning courses when, in fact, they have not mas-tered the material. Students who have mastered the material have been fiustrated by the as-sessment process. The problem is often the testing, not the instruction."

AssumptionsEvaluation of student performance is a critical element in any distancf.; learning system. In

some cases, the evaluation system may exist only for self-assessment. However, the trend is foremployers to require certification of employees' performance.

A model for proper student performance evaluation in distance learning can and should beconstructed. we are to certify performance, then a standard for performance evaluation must beestablished. om this standard, a model or models for evaluation in the distance learning settingmust be developed.

Construction of Evaluation SystemsShould some specific method or principle be embraced as being the best or most accurate for

measuring student performance in the distance learning environment? To adequately answer thisquestion, a number of factors need to be considered:

types of tests,

test content,

administration,

role of the instructor, and

Lnteractions.

Test types generally fall into two main classifications: textual znd performance. By textual, wemean print on paper and computer-rzesented questions and answers. Performance refers to sim-ulations, games, interviews (either direct or indirect), and interactive systems, such as holographicimaging interfaced to interactive devices (for example, the "NASA glove"). The system used canhave a profound effect on the type of evaluation possible.

Th,. actual test content is critical in the distance learning environment. Problemssuch asmisinterpretation because of the absence of direct intervention, lack of test validity because of cul-tural and social factors, and cognitive-level mismatch, especially at higher cognitive levels, where

Distance Learning Conference Proceedings, Fall 1989 31 Loa Alamos National Laboratory

assessment in a distant environment can be difficultcan render the evaluation process virtuallymeaningless.

In distance learning assessment, administration can pose different problems from those expe-rienced in conventional classroom situations. Problems of dealing with cheating, distractions, tim-ing, and misinterpretations can be quite different from those normally encountered.

The role of the instructor in testing in the distance learning environment can be quite varied.The instructor may be directly involved in the testing, or he may have no role at all. The level ofinvolvement depends partly on the nature of interactions in the testing environment, which can bequite different from those encountered in the classroom. Generally, interactions in distancelearning must be anticipated in the course and in the testing.

General Remarks on ScenariosDifferent scenarios were presented to each group to stimulate ono encourage thinking in new

areas. However, some of the scenarios might have been drawn too restrictively, and the discus-sions did not progress according to expectations because unique challenges were posed. As we en-ter new areas, we are reluctant to proceed aggressively and inevitably carry the baggage of our ownexperiences. To initiate new teaching methods in the distance learning environment, we must hathe courage to set aside some of our preconceived notions and not worry about deviating fromsome established systems.

Scenarios and ResultsScenario. Certify whether medical interns

who have been taking a satellite course in re-mote areas of South America can properly per-form an appendectomy.

Results. This scenario certainly entails oneof the most adverse testing conditions. Thedifficulty of assessing fine motor skills requiredfor surgery is compounded by the requirementof near perfect performance.

Only under extreme circumstances andwith no other alternatives would the group beable to accept certification of the intern in adistance learning environment in the near fu-ture because of the life-threatening nature ofthe situation.

'1 would not like a doctor certified by a cor-respondence course operating on me. If thiswere a hair dresser or even a diamond cutter,we could certifr. But not a surgeon!"

The participants concluded that remotelearning techniques are not suitable for sometypes of skill assessment and that account-ability and risk levels were significant factors inestablishing the suitabilit, of distant evaluation.The higher the level of risk, the less likely we


are to rely on distance learning to certify a per-son without actually performing the operation.

Certainly distance learning and testing canbe used to certify some medical skills. Thegroup noted that knowledge concerning varioussurgical procedures could be tested by showingvideo images and querying verbally about whatthe correct procedute would be. This methodcould be used to expose interns to situationsnot generally encountered. However, thegroup was reluctant to propose a method to as-sess actual surgical procedures. Furthermore,participants agreed that accountability was asignificant factor in establishing the suitabilityof distant evaluation.

Scenario. The U.S. Army Command andGeneral Staff College has decided to admin-ister the course of instruction developed by theCombined Arms Staff Services School (CAS3)through distance learning. The course will beadministered by the College's School for Cor-responding Studies to both Active and Reserveunits. Distance learning is the chosen methodof presentation because Reservists cannot takea 13week resident course. For others, dis-tance learning would be just an alternative. Allinstructional materials have been developed,but a method for certification of student skillsmust be developed. Evaluation will be

32 Los Alamos NatIonal Laboratory

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conducted on levels up to synthesis and analy-sis.

Graduates of the CAS3 course are expectedto perform at a minimum standard of excel-lence when assigned to division staffs in the ar-eas of personnel and administration; intelli-gence; operations, plans, and training; and lo-gistics and maintenance. When aszigned to adivision staff position, the officer must work ;n-teractively with other staff officers to producecoordinated plans and orders as well as to ap-ply and develop heuristic strategies for decisionmaking.

Results. The CAS3 scenario group felt thatit was important to determink., how the trainingwas to be done before the evaluation schemewas detcrmined. Three possible organizationalsetups were proposed.

Case 1 entails an active-duty leader pre-senting instruction in a traditional classroom.

Case 2 assumes that the leader is cot presentand that the Reserve Components are receiv.Lng individual instruction at home. Lastly,Case 3 supposes that the leader/instructor isnot present but is responsible for two groupsand that the Reserve Components are re-ceiving instruction in an armory.

For these learning environments, delayedfeedback and evaluation are reasonable, partic-ularly in situations where Reserve units have toparticipate in a part-time capacity. For theremote instruction situations, synchronous con-ferencing in a variety of media could be used toobserve or record the student interaction pro-cess.

The group decided that the evaluation pro-cess could be divided into three areas: writingskills, orals skills, and interactivity. The rec-ommended types of evaluation for the variouscases are presented in the following figure.

, zue..

and p "reit4

"-('11.;.ifiA,0

'1414

,

While the methods of recording perform-ance are plausible with existing technology, theevaluation of such results is always very timeconsuming and subjective in nature.

Scenario. Test whether dealer mechanicsthroughout the U.S. know how to repair a new,sophisticated carburetor.


Results. Early in the discussion of this sce-nario, a participant pointed out that a trainingand evaluation system for mechanics had beendeveloped recently for Nissan. Someone ques-tioned why mechanics needed distance learn-ing. Why not have all mechanics checked outpersonally by the head mechanic? However,the group considered that option impractiabecause of the increasing complexity of carsand because of the large number of mechanics

33 Los Alamos Nafional Laboratory

40

who must be qualified at a dealership. Thestandard method of updating mechanics willrequire some travel to group classes as well asmore implementation of distance learningtraining.

Testing must be consistent with the trainingmeth oci."

The use of computers for training of me-chanics seems extremely sensible as dealer-ships will already possess computer systems forinventories and accounting. Many dealershipsare or will be on networks that could distributecourseware and conduct the student evalua-tion.

The group agreed that in certain areamore and more certification will be required bylocal and federal agencies because of envi-ronmental and safety issues.

In the actual evaluation, the group assumedthat mechanics would not be tested in physicalmanipulation skills. It would be assumed thatphysical dexterity would already have been de-veloped through other training. With these as-sumptions, the group determined that a touch-screen graphics system could interrogate atrainee concerning the order of parts for disas-sembly and reassembly. It could also show ex-amples of the condition of parts and ask if re-placement should be considered necessary.

Although the group found its scenario to betoo constricting, it did reach the following gen-eral conclusions:

The computer can be used to teach andevaluate.

We have unlimited human resources.

A large number of people could benefitfrom this type of training within the deal-ership.

The number of trainees and their dis-tribution determines the appropriatetraining method.

Disiance Learning Conference Proccedinp, Fall 1989

For the future, evaluation and certificationwill become crucial issues in any trainingprogram.

Scenario. Test NO- -ther 1,500 second-yearuniversity students E 1- hroughout the U.S.know French well eno to attend universityclasses in Paris next year.

At the beginning of this session,group members objected to the presenter's as-sertion that little literature is available on eval-uation. They pointed out that Canada, Aus-tralia, and Europe have quite a bit of literatureon evaluation.

The U.S. tends to be too introspective, andwe should research what has alre.tdy been ac-complished els .iwhere in the world. It ie di-cult to study evaluation in the U.S. because lit-tle attention has been paid to the certificationissue in distance learning. In addition, it is dif-ficult to ascertain what the rest of the world isdoing as few libraries carry many of the non-U.S. journals. In the distance learning arena, inparticular, we should make an effort to over-come these barriers to our own learning.

This scenal:.) generated some problemsthat were not present in the other scenarios.First, writing and reading French could behandled with standard evaluation techniquesappropriate for any distance learning course,but in this scenario the problem was to assessthe students' ability to understand and speakFrench. iii addition, is it necessary to requiredifferent levels of proficiency between read/write and speak/understand abilities?

The group decided that in the speak/understand assessments, the first aspect to con-sider was understanding. To handle this as-sessment, the students could listen to tape cas-settes of a Sorbonne-level lecture, for example,and then write a summary of what they heard.This method would require that the students beplaced under classroom-like test conditions.(In distance learning situation, this arrange-ment provides opportunities to cheat. Whoknows and can verify the identity of the stu-dents?) Higher cognitive levels could be testedby having the students analyze and evaluate inFrench what they had heard on the tapes.


41

tT

Although tape exchange was considered tobe a reasonable evaluation method, manyunanswered questions remained. Is thereenough time for feedback to be useful? Willthere be some scheme for retesting? Shouldn'ta pilot test be conducted ahead of time?

"Any qualify design for exiluation shouldhave a lot of room for self-assessment."

Grading large quantities of test responseswill be difficult. For this scenario, the group

decided that the test could be used for the stu-dents to do self-screening, that is, to let themcheck their own answers so that they can de-termine the level. they have attained. Theycould then determine for themselves if theycould study comfortably in France. The groupalso considered that such an assessment shouldnot be handled by distance learning techniques.

The traditional evaluation techniques maystill be the most appropriate methods to handlethis type of problem.

SummaryIn handling the difficulties presented in the smnarios above, we should not ignore the benefits

and challenges of evaluation that exist in a distance learning environment, but not in a traditionallearning situation.

In distance learning, we have the opportunity to better control feedback on students' perfor-mance. Testing can be accomplished so that students can learn from their mistakes as well as as-sess the need for further training. Evaluation systems can be self-pacing, flexible, patient, andreusable.

All of the participants were concerned that the peop e conducting and demanding certificationmay have little involvement with the establishment of the educational objectives of distance learn-ing courses. Certification requirements will probably filter down from above to the course design-ers and instructors who will have to incorporate them without destroying good educational prac-tices. Ideally, certification will not become the tail that wags the dog.

We must also be careful not to transfer traditional models into the newer media of distancelearning without attempting to devise new approaches. We are in the enthusiastic, fledgling stateqnd should experiment, but we also need to consider how distance learning can become a strong,lir2ture field in its own right.


42

Implementationby Werander

BackgroundConsensus indicates that distance learning will play a greater role in future education, while

the traditional classroom/schoolhouse approach declines in popularity. Despite this intuitivelyobvious conclusion, institutions are amazingly resistant to change and normally do so only whenpressured by overwhelming external forces. However, on rare occasions, luminaries emerge whohave both the foresight and the organizational ability to cause and direct dramatic change beforethe organization experiences the woes inflicted by those external forces. Ideally, this group canserve as the strategic planners to steer distance learning into mainstream organizations of the fu-ture.

We resist change for many reasons:

fmancial cost,

lack of technology,

a lack of skills (delivery/student/instructor),

lack of understanding of a new approach, and

vested interest in the current approach (comfort zone/inertia).

What is needed is a plan that not only overcomes these obstacles but is also so attractive to po-tential educators and their administrative decision makers that they will accept the concepts.

With fmesse, this acceptance will be accomplished so that it convinces the educators that theyoriginated the ideas. The challenge is to gain acceptance of distance learning and acknowledgmentof tht major contribution it can make to society.

Organizational change requires three entities: an identifiable product to which people can re-late, proof of accomplishment, and, fmally, organizational executive support.

Because we know where we are at this point, we must create the desired objective state andthen design a plan to that state from the present. This plan should include the following:

strategies to gain acceptance,

demonstrations of significant advantages,

technolog requirements,

methodologies to educate users (educators and students),

instructional techniques,

curl ;culum development techniques/requirements,

evaluation methodologies,

determination of decision makers to be influenced,


43

identification of resources required (people, funding, knowledge, things, time), and

identification of the responsible action agency.

Implementation questions to be answered by the conferees included the following:

.--; How should distance learning be implemented in future educational/organization settings?

s What do we as a nation need to do to exploit distance learning capabilities?

To prevent this task from becoming overwhelming in the tinv: allotted, we divided the effortamong four groups. We asked each group to produce at least an outline that would provide theguidelines for addressing the problem statement. The goal was to develop a generic strategy that,with appropriate modification, could be tailored to successfully cause the smooth introduction andacceptance of distance learning. In addition, a fifth group, representing a cross section of distancelearning advocates, was created to discuss immediate implementation.

What methodologies should be used to in-form/educate those involved in distancelearning, including students, educators, ad-ministrators, and technicians?

ResultsDefine administrators as implementors andtechnicians as product/delivery support.

Use distance learning techniques to in-form/educate.

Target information to the audience.

2 Point out benefits from implementation.

Point out consequences if not imple-mented.

Emphasize short-term advantages.

Emphasize the opportunity to employ hightechnology, a useful tactic at the policymaker/administrator/educator level.

Add executive/policy maker as fifth cate-gory to the list of people requiring informa-tion or education.

Emphasize specific problem(s).

8 Design a generic distance learning strateg.


In addition to the major points, the follow-ing commentary was made about the questionprovided. The group decided to provide defini-tions for the terms administrator, manager, andtechnician. An administrator was seen as onewho implements policy provided by an externalgroup. For example, local schools follow stateguidelines. Managers function much like ad-ministrators but have resources to allocate.Technicians deliver support functions, such ascamera operators.

Technicians are important as they adviseon the level of technological support available.On the other hand, because of the general lackof creativity, we have "talking heads" on videoscreens.

Cost must be refined when talking to policymakers. A person must be able to address allkinds of costs involveddirect costs, sunk costs,direct savings, indirect savings, and cost avoid-ance. Cost is not only measured in dollars butalso in time, equipment, and other assets.

To influence each category, we must beable to answer the question: What is in this forme (the person in that position), or what is thedrawback of not doing it (distance learning)?To answer these questions, the following chartwas generated.

4 4

Los Maraos Nanonal Laboratory

s

r:

A

Implementation Rewards/Nonimplementation Drawbacks

Drat AndirMExecutives/Polley Makers

Administrators/Implementors

Teachers/Presenters

Students

Community

Technicians (Production/Delivery Support)

Jniementation RewardsIncreased productivityIncreased cusiumer utistl.aionHigher profit marginsBetter trained workersLower turnover

Fewer resources required or more

accomplished with existing re-

source".

Promotions by high-visibility projectAdded flexibility

Recognition, credibility, and visibility

Increased expectancy level

Shift onus of learning to studentSolution for discipline problemsTeam teaching

Use of content sperialistsGlobal access to other teachers'

Improved teacher/student interactionsImproved resource selection/integrationBetter selection and integration of materials

and teaching resources

Better teacher/student interactionExperts available via satellite

Increased learning opportunities/.convenience... when, where, and

how to learn subject matterAccess to otherwise unavailable

courseware

Availability of more student-studentinteractions

New, vibrant presentationsIncreased subject matter depth available

Enhanced self-image f -d outside image

of communityBetter training of community semice

providers (police, fire, etc.)Labor force retraining capabilityBetter informed citizenryImproved ability to attract industry

Ability to maintain cultural tiesSupport for civic clubs, churches, etc.Greatlyenhanced adult education

opportunities

Incorporation into creative process

Potential for skill enhancementCleat ivity outletBarriers broken down with educatorsIncreased job status/salaries

Enhanced status

Increased/improved hardware

Potential RisksatNonimalementationFalling behind competitorsLoss of money/capability

Failure to meet stated objectiv3Administrative consolidation

Increased work load

Loss of certification

Subjects unavailableLimited depth of subject matterUnmet graduation requirementsMore time in classroom requiredInability to *go to" collegeLack of job opportunitiesLack of opportunity to excel,

especially in the military

Loss of autonomySchool consolidationDecreased tax base

Lack of workLimitations of constant/

decreasing budget situation

Source: Small Discussion Group A


4 5

1.,

The group noted that specific objectivesmust be defined and that the proposal mustshow concrete problem solving. General com-ments about benefits will not be sufficient togain a favorable decision that requires resourceallocation.

Examples of applications in which effectiveuse has achieved positive results were sug-gested. Examples include higher sales andprofits, competitive advantages, better trainedworkers, lower turnover, or improved safetyrecords. Public schools are very sensitive tothe quality of their product. Small school dis-tricts generally cannot compete fur top teach-ers. Distance learning may provide the only vi-able option for them to have high-level instruc-tion in technical areas.

Administrators. They should implementand manage distance learning. They maydemonstrate that they can perform their jobresponsibilities more effectively for the samefunding currently available. This approachprovides an additional dimension in flexibility.

They can be ittracted to personal recogni-tion for having eone a good job and for keep-ing abreast with advances in their field. Someadministrators want hands-on products theycan try out, which should be done in such a waythat minimizes the risk of embarrassing them.Make it fun.

Schools generally try to avoid consolida-tion. Distance learning provides an opportu-nity to share resources and remain autono-mous. Furthermore, satellite links are rela-tively inexpensive.

Educators. They may be influenced byrecognition, visibility, and credibility in theirfield by collaborating with broadcasts. This ap-proach provides a better selection of coursematerial and expert resources to draw on andallows the teachers to integrate the distancelearning lessons into their own courses.

Teachers must be trained in distance learn-ing techniques so that they understand the ca-pabilities of the system, and teachers should beinvolved in the management of the program


Distance learning could be linked to meritpay. Some feel that acceptance will come onlyif associated with pay.

Students. Distance learning meets thetime requirements of adult students and maybe more convenient in method of delivery.They will be able to see top-quality deliveryand explore topics at the desired depth. Dis-tance learning provides for a potentially higherdegree of student control regarding pace,choice of materials, order, and access to help.

Distance learning provides for interactivityamong students. The business world likes net-working concepts and has benefited by allowingand encouraging the exchange of ideas throughinteractivity. Distance learning also provides amultimedia curriculum, which could meet stu-dents' varying learning styles and could reducethe actual delivery time, allowing flexibility andmaximum use of learning time.

Technicians. They should be renamed asoperational support and not be teachers, butthey may be highly educated individuals whoare required to keep up with the state-of-the-art in technology. The whole system will failwithout them.

In the military, there is a significant chal-lenge to get educators and technicians to worktogether; using technicians to help implementdistance learning would remove the perceivedlow social status of being a technician.

General IssuesCommunity support is necessary because it

frequently provides the needed physical facili-ties. Distance learning can be used to supportcivic organizations and more traditional educa-tion institutions. Public television provides anopportunity to offer distance learning courses.

The public image of a community is impor-tant, and having better-educated people will at-tract industry. More employment in higherpaying jobs will raise the tax base of that com-munity.

In addition, multicultural communities canmaintain ethnic ties.


46

-vomml.1011.1011N

Significancea We recognized that if one wants to sell dis-

tance learning, a person should use thesame tools used to sell anything else.

We can use distance learning to sell dis-tance learning and products, such as a par-ticular educational television channel.

We must target presentations to the audi-ence.

What do decision makers need to be positivelyinfluenced, and how should such an action beaccomplished?

ResultsDecision makers are dispersed (military,public education, business).

Distance learning needs top-level (CEO)support but also needs concurrence frommany sources.

We need a strategy to influence top-levelexecutives.

Other users (Who has done it before?)Low down-side risk (off the shelf andfield proven)Bottom line (cost-effective financialclimate)

- Use heavy lobbying effort for politicalappointees and tie their names to posi-tive results.

In large organizations, such as the military,public education, or big business, decisionmaking is far more diffuse than generally real-ized. Even though an organization has a com-mander or CEO, it rarely makes decisionswithout the support, advice, or consent of manyothers.

. . a rush to be second."

Those who provide input are not homoge-neous bodies and frequently have agendas andinterests that vary greatly from those of the topdecision maker. To influence these people,one must know and understand the differingviewpoints of each group and be able to tailor,

Distance Learning Conference Proceedings, rall 1989

in a consistent fashion, arguments that will gaintheir support.

With many CEOs, there is a "rush to besecond," which implies that they wish to beseen as forward thinking and that they ac-complish business by quickly adopting new, in-novative ideas. This approach is a risk reduc-tion technique, which if well executed, allowslarge organizations to appear to be leaders. Toinfluence this group, one must be able to tellthem who has successfully employed the tech-nique or program being advocated.

Low down-side risk means that managerslike programs that provide only small losses inthe event of failure. Such low down-side risk ismanaged by using only existing technology,which can be bought "off the shelf' without re-search and development. Furthermore, theyprefer field-tested and proven approaches.

With the military, and some companies, aloadership turnover problem exists. F .!ople donot remain in place long enough to formulateand implement progams.

"My main problem is mean time betweenmind changes." . . . Cot. Lunsford, US. ArmyProject Manager, Training Devices

Influcacing groups who experience highturnover rates to use distance learning meanscontinuous updating and backtracking. Onemust follow the changes in organizations andbe prepared to meet with and convince newkey players, which can be difficult if the per-sonnel action was designed to generate achange in direction, such as with a new politicalparty coming into office.

Agreement going up the chain of commandis important for program initiation. Once es-tablished, agreement coming down is importantfor successful implementation of the program.

We need te have a champion who willHearty the ball" and see that actions are exe-cuted. This person may, at times, have tosubordinate his/her wishes and give credit to amore senior official who desires to be per-ceived as the concept leader. Frequently, bothpositions will be required to reach the goal.


7

For projects requiring political support, wemust allow politicians to be identified as theproponents of successful projects. Intense lob-bying is sometimes required to gain their sup-port.

User support is important and includesboth students and parents in the schools. Inindustry, it includes workers and supervisors.

Industry will respond to cost savings.Demonstration projects zre a good and safeway to obtain further support. Training as pro-tection for investment also makes a strongcase. Training budgets are tied to productionpriorities, and high-priority projects that di-rectly impact production are more likely to befunded than maintenance functions.

An approach that would join industry andlocal schools would be to have consortia adoptgroups of schools in support of distance learn-ing. Having consortia involvement can preventturf battles that emerge if single companies es-tablish relationships with specific schools. Inaddition, people are concerned that telecom-munications companies may exploit the fieldfor future profit.

Issue:Do we need a national strategy? YES!

Caution: Some feel this idea "flies in theface" of 200 years of tradition of independenceof local school systems.

However, issues, such as interstatecertification of instructors and instruction,would be handled more easily with a nationalapproach. We must establish standards at thenational level.

Technology now permits far greater distri-bution of training than has been possible pre-viously. We must capitalize on the advantagesprovided by this opportunity. A group membersuggested that the policy and funding shouldcome from the federal level, but the executionand administration of the programs should beconducted at the state level. However, such anapproach would require a great deal of atten-tion to details.

Distance Learning Conference Proccedinp, Fall 1989 42

At present, not a single organization sup-ports distance learning and can act as a lobby-ing force at the national level. Nevertheless,momentum exists at the national level and isevidenced by the Office of Technology Assess-ment's (OTA) study on distance learning re-questcd by four senior senators. Additionally,President Bush has acknowledged distancelearning publicly on several occasions.

Two organizational approaches were sug-gested. There was general, but not total,agreement that a national distance learning ini-tiative should be conducted from within thegovernment. The second approach suggested anongovernmental body with close ties to thegovernment.

In the governmental approach, the Depart-ment of Education would establish a deputy di-rector position for distance learning.

RecommendationsApply both top-down and bottom-up initia-tives. Neither will succeed alone.

Get distance learning on the agenda for thenext National Association of Governorsmeeting.

Call your governors and get them inter-ested in distance learning.

Establish a coordinated lobbying effort.

Promote business consortia in support ofgroups of schools.

SignificanceDecision makers want

consensus,- the bottom line, and- risk management.

A national strategy is necessary for growth.

We need to work from the top down (lobbyCongress, Department of Education, andgovernors).

We also need to work from the bottom up(inform school boards and administratorsand substantiate with demonstrations).

4 8


What resources are required to implement aruttiotiml ilislanee learning strategy?

ResultsThe group suggested the following ideas:

1. Increase the price of gasoline. We tan payfor distance learning if we want it!

2. Remove institutional barriers (for example,"ownership").

3. Allow alternate career paths (credit forcourse development and teaching as well as forresearch).

4. Help top people become comfortable withcomputers.

5 Work on para-educational systems.

6. Work with high-status groups.

7. Encourage cooperation, collaboration, andcompetition.

8. Cultivate champions (friends in highplaces).

9. Be certain that research has demonstrableresults (rigorously provable).

Comments on PoliciesThey may be established by industry's needfor distance learning before educators orgovernment does anything. (Will industrycause/generate a national policy?)

Employers may pressure universities intogiving distance learning courses.

State and local authorities may have a sig-nificant effect on what is allowed to "flowin."

They may develop from the ground up(showing worth of smaller projects that arelinked into larger projects), which may bemore effective in introducing distancelearning than the top-down approach.

ResourcesInstructional materials already exist in -

number of areas. A group member said that

Distance Lcarning Conference Proceedings, Fall 1989

the University of the World was cited as an ex-ample where database devel^pmi-nt ;c oc-curring.

As far as equipment and facilities are con-cerned, TVs, computers, and telephone linesare in place in today's schools.

Policy as a ResourcePolicy can be a resource because it is some-

thing that must be created and developed. Onemust realize that any national policy can be adouble-edged sword, as one may not like thepolicy or rigidity imposed on the system. Tohave a policy, goals need to be quantified. Indeveloping goals and policy, it should be un-derstood that in the history of the U.S., edu-cation policies have been made at the locallevel. Educational administrators will be re-luctant to change the basic system they have inplace.

It may be best if national policy stays awayfrom planning course content and detailedteaching methods. National policy should bedirected more toward the base construction,such as getting funding for equipment andmaking money available for the training of thepeople who are to develop the distance learn-ing courses. National policy should also be di-rected to developing a center for storing, dis-seminating, and coordinating informationdealing with distance learning.

If a distance learning system is to be devel-oped nationwide, the question is how, when,and where to install it. Possible locations toconsider are homes or schools, National Guardarmories, and local libraries. However, thissolution would be detrimental to those alreadydisadvantaged by the technological revolution.A large number of microcomputers are alreadyin place in the public school system. Althoughthese microcomputers are not state-of-the-art,to start a national system would be reasonablystraightforward at this lower technology level.It would also provijo equality of opportunity.

From where will the leadership for imple-menting this resource come? If economicsdrives it, then the corporate bodies may be theinitiators of distance learning policy, as they al-ready have a great commitment in this area.On the other hand, school administrators, as


4 9

we have already mentioned, will probably resistchanges in policy that upset the status quo. Inaddition, at one university, departments werediscouraged from producing courseware be-cause of disputes over ownership and over thedilemma of who would reap the rewards fromthe creation of the course. For these reasonsalone, it is very likely that real distance learn-ing advancements will come from outside es-tablished school and university systems. How-ever, the effects outside of schools and thecommunity, in general, will probably impactour entire society.

Actually, general distance learning systemsare already in place in many foreign countries.Maybe the U.S. should ascertain what can belearneJ from experiences in those countries.

SignificanceNo matter how quickly we develop policy,

generate funding, or produce the hardware,finding people capable of developing effectivedistance learning will be the main problem forthe near future. Why are the universities notgearing up to produce the people that areneeded?

. . no point in trying a rational approach toprove the value of distance learning over tra-ditional methodsas no one has been able toprove rational47 the value of traditionalmethods, and they have survived."

What needs to be done to insure that the tech-nologies required to implement distancelearning will be available when needed?

ResultsThe group identified the following needs:

Learning must be taken out of the schoolsand made into a community issue for ev-erybody. Kindergarten through 12th gradeis not enough. We must redefme the roleof the school as the center of communitylearning.

Perceptions of the distance learning gradu-ates must change.

- Acceptance- Credibility

Distance Learning ...mference Proceedings, Fall 1989

We nee-1 better pnradigmc on thi- impa"t "fhuman replacement.

The group proposed the following solu-tions:

1. Change the national paradigm:education = lifelong community learning

2. Use instructional technology + theory tosupport distance learning.

3. Create the pull on technology with items #1and #2 above.

4. Identify the risks to society for not makingchanges indicated above in items #1 and #2.

5. Work from the top down and the bottom up.

6. Build an outstanding technology-based cur-riculum and make it available to everyone.

"However, how does one sustain the push?"

Although the group was asked to addressthe question of how to make the appropriatetechnology available when needed, it actuallydiscussed the ways to implement distancelearning as a whole. It would be to our ad-vantage if we knew what is inhibiting the im-plementation of distance learning today. Per-haps it is not technology that is holding usback. In addition, what are the research anddevelopment needsboth strategic and tactical?

One problem is the perception that dis-tance learners are not as well educated astraditional students. The real point should bewhat you can do, ad what school you attended.The true issue here ir, one of differing stan-dards. If the educational system had a nationalstandard, then there woo!d be no question ofcredibility.

"If an outside fprce had imposed ourpresent educational system upon us, wewould go to war."

We do have significant problems with oureducational system, and we need new educa-tional paradigms where technology is used to

44 Los Alamos National Lahorator.

50

enhance rather than replace human perfor-mance. This strategy should not ovec.haui thepresent educational system; instead, it will bean educational revolution. This type of changewill have to be based on policy and the society.We need to take education out of the schoolsand into the community. Quality educationneeds to be available for all ages and locations,like health care is today. The new paradigmwould require education to become lifelonglearning, based in the community. Ultimately,it should be embarrassing to admit that one isnot involved in education.

First, we must convince the public that aproblem exists. It is difficult to detect theconsequences of poor education. To identifythe risks, we have to establish the conse-quences of NOT making these types ofchanges.

This strategy needs to be implemented by atactical plan. Included in such a plan would bea huge public relations effort on the scale ofthe present media war on drugs. ACapraesque movie showing a future withoutthese changes, along the calibre of "DeadPoet's society" or with the type of messagefound in "Bright Lights, Big City," could be partof that effort.

Technology will not be the thrust behindthe changes. With better instructional technol-ogy and theory for distance learning along withthis educational revolution, technology will bepulled along. The gjoup agreed that having theneeded technology at the appropriate time willnot be a concern.

What must we avoid if we want to see distancelearning "take ofl?"

Major PointsWe need a Strategic Education Initia-tivenot an emergency, but a crisis.

The leadership should be assumed by a na-tional lab-type organization.

We aiready have the resources, but theyneed to be organized properly, which doesnot require that much money. We needefficiency in funding research.

We do not need a center OF excellence,but a center FOR excellence that combinesthe work of all the fine people in this field.

We need some type of infrastructure first,technology second (that will draw the tech-nolegy into society).

CommentaryThe group felt strongly that we need a

calling: a "sense of going to the moon." Thisfeeling could capture the imagination of theAmerican public and focus appropriate re-sources. In th3t respect, Michael Moore ofPennsylvania State University suggested thatwe need a Strategic Education Initiative (SEI).

The SEI concept was very favorably re-ceived. However, consensus was not reachedon how to implement such a scheme. Debateensued about whether the initiative should be agovernment program versus one organized bythe private sector. Arguments in favor of theprivate approach implied a lack of confidencein the capability or willingness of the federalgovernment to organize and conduct such aninnovative project.

Participants noted that NASA and SDIhave been successfully launched within thegovernmental structure and against stiff op-position. There was consensus that successfulimplementation of an SEI would require both atop-down and a bottom-up approach, and nosingle organization could accomplish the taskalone. They mand .ed a united effort.

"Distance learning is part of the solution tothe education crisis, but it is not the whole so-lution. We are part of that solution."

Lifelong learning is everybody's business.We must develop new communities of scholars.Currently, education is drifting away from be-ing everyone's business to being concentratedin the schoolsletting everyone "off the hook,"which is unacceptable. Nevertheless, we persistin perceiving education in terms of the tradi-tional schoolhouse. Perhaps there is anotherviewpoint. Perhaps another perspective is thesolutionmore than just the schools.

Distance Learning Conference Proceedinp. Fall 1989 45 Los Alamos National Laboratory

51

Trying to put distance learning in the for-mat of emsting institutions, indeed, is probablyflawed. The natural tendency is to erect bar-riers because the instructor is threatened orbecause the institution is thrtatened. If dis-tance learning is properly presented, bothcould benefit.

Furthermore, a national distance lilrningconcept may also be flawed because of havingto respect states' rights and other territorialboundaries. Trying to put distance learninginto existing institutions using traditional for-mats is also probably flawed. To sell the con-cept of distance learning, we must sell the ideaof re-conceptualizing our educational institu-tionsthe schoolhouse and the traditionalclassroom. How we think of learning institu-tions must change, which will not be easy be-cause most people have grown up thinking ofschools in a specific way. Underlying the dis-cussion was the tenet that we do not want torepeat mistakes that have already been madein the field of education.

"Distance learning can improve the quality ofeducation as well as provide an opportunityfor expansion."

Using the open university concept, as op-posed to traditional methods, has reaped goodresults. We could sell distance learning usingdistance learning. However, care must betaken to accc imodate the cognitive level tothe audience.

The National Technolog University is adirect result of industry's meeting a need.Each institute maintains its own courses butworks toward a common goal because severalindustries financed it. If we could develop thetrunk line that would facilitate better datacommunication, we would be in a more fa-vorable position. Perhaps when the cost of ed-r, :on becomes excessive or the quality of ed-ucation becomes too inferior, parents may re-gard distance learning as a solution to thedilemma.

Distance learning can improve the qualityof education as well as provide an opportunityfor expansion, yet institutions do not want todie. Can we risk stating that distance learning

Distance Learning Conference Proceedings, Pall 1989

prevents the demise of an rastitution? "Howmany blacks:"-s 6-pened gas station: at theturn of the century?"

"How many blacksmiths opened gas stationsat the tunz of the century?"

Distance learning is part of the solution tothe education crisis, but it is not the whole so-lution. We are part of that solution.

Strategic Education Initiative (SEDWe need an SEI. We are not in an emer-

gency, but a crisis. The situation could be im-proved. Many positive projects are presentlyunderway. Currently, distance learning propo-nents are decentralized and diffused. We donot need a center OF excellence (to exhibit it),but an SEI, a center FOR excellence (to pro-mote it) that incorporates existing organiza-tions/agencies and integrates, coordinates, andfocuses the work of all the fine people in thisfield as well as disseminates information andprojects an image. We need some type of in-frastructure first and technology second,meaning a way of integrating the technologyinto society. We should not exclude the exist-ing schools nor invent a totally new institution,but we should use the potential of distancelearning as a parallel support opportunhy.

"We need a Strategic EducationInitiative. . . not an emergency, but acrisis."

With a national effort, we could achieve anational telecommunications-based system in5 years instead of in 25 yea. People taskedwith the job of restructuring education with dis-tance learning could do so with strong nationalpolitical support and the promise of financialassistance. Actually, we do not need moremoney devoted to solving the education crisis.However, we do need a reapportionment ofexisting funding to capitalize on solutions withgreater potential.

In fact, we can probably save money. Evenif SEI were funded at $10M a year, thatamount would merely be a drop in the bucket.However, if we ha to Tend significant timejustifying such amounts, we would not progress.


52

We need more efficiency Ln funding research.Ten million dollars would not -our many peo-ple, but it could fmance an outstanding centerfor excellence.

Not reaching 9,000,000 kids is a nationalemergency. We lose half of all kindergartenthrough 1,2th grade students by their droppingout. Packizg these students' brains with infor-mation should not be the goal of learning atthis level, but we should strive to teach themhow to learn. We need to look beyond tech-nology and redesign the role of the teacher.We can restructure the role of the teacher bychanging the curriculum of teacher training.We need to re-examine our expectations of theeducation system.

We also need to re-conceptualize what edu-cation is. Our expectation of education has tochange. If people (including the teacher) andiscover things mutually, the learning environ-ment may change. Learning will become ex-citing!

LeadershipDistance learning needs a high-level cham-

pion. We need a national leader who will pro-pose that we need such an SET effort. Thisleadei should be supported by grassroots ef-forts across the country. We have to handlethe situation differently to capture the atten-tion of a politician. We must contact state sen-ators and representatives and offer these par-ticular suggestions. We need to write letters tomotivate them to become involved as distancelearning advocates. Such a distance learninginitiative can certainly be appropriate in thechanging perspective and image of the nationallaboratories.

However, one expert questioned if LANLwould be so technology driven that it wouldhave difficulty acting as distance learning's na-tioaal leader. In response, an administratorfrom the Laboratory said that he did not be-lieve that the Laboratory is technology drivenand that distance learning deals with a widerange of technologies. Shortages in thosetechnologies hold the secret to bringing


distance learning to fruition and sharing thoseanswers with a broader class of people, whichfalls in the realm of technology transfer andwould justuY the Laboratory's role.

CenterWe are recommending the establishment

of a center so that we can collaboratively seekfunding and produce research. A mixture ofacademia, industry, government, and the mili-tary is valuable and should be exploited for theadvancement of distance learning. There mustbe many examples of cooperation between ed-ucational institutions and the military alreadyin existence. How do we find them and thenhow do we become less invisible to them?

Its advocates should not be working inisolation. Our country already has the [ e-sources; they need to be organized properly,which does not require extraordinary sums ofmoney. We need efficiency in funding re-search. We also need to be centralized in oureffort, not diffused. On the other hand, onemember of the gfoup felt that the centershould not be a place but a group of decen-tralized people.

ResourcesWe have content resources and incredible

communication resources, unrivaled anywhereelse in the world. What we do not have is abody of scholarly work, a codified distancelearning knowledge base, such as a distancelearning textbook. There is more researchthan we have been able to ass 'mble. We needto establish data on how this body of knowl-edge actually works before we can establishourselves. We have the resources; we need anational effort to consolidate these elements.

Satellite technology makes it easy to crossover state lines. What we need is a "pip.,,ine"that is analogous to a computer network thatwould facilitate distance learning communi-cation. Participants suggested that Los AlamosNational Laboratory could set up such a net-work. Such a center would facilitate com-munications among diverse groups, includingthe military and academia.

47 Los Alamce National Laboratory

53

Summarymot IL -- - c.rms rimnelyel Twee MT /Mil 11.111,11R Tilt IfV.

112111 WC IICL1,/ 13 a 01 WU% 1 61.111... r4JU.Jt A 11.111 1111 1 /1.11 1 V/.

This feeling of urgency was at the heart of the group sentiment. In other words, we need a re-birth, a vision, a sense of going to the moon. Participants recognized a crisis in education, which isnot a new or unique thought, but one reinforced by the combined experiences of this multifacetedgroup comprised of education, industry, military, and government representatives.

Although there is a perceived crisis, it is not considered Gn emergency. In spite of many nega-tive interacting factors, this situation could be improved, and many positive projects are alreadyunderway. What is required is a concerted effort to bring the resources of the nation to bear onthis problem in a coordinated and focused way. There is a call to arms: the need for a display ofnational-level leadership supported by grassroots efforts across the country.

The top leadership of the country, the president and key members of Congress, are already vo-cally supportive. Now is the time to press forward with initiathes and establish a ground swell thatcan capitalize on that hard-earned advantage.

Distance learning is not a panacea. Future efforts must be coordinated with traditional schoolsystems that will continue to be the cornerstone of our basic education in America. The mission isto enhance, not compete, with existing institutions. Complementary roles will reduce the fear ofchange while providing for the needs of all sectors of our communities.

Distance Learning Conference Proceedings, Fall 1989 48 Los Alamos National Laboratory,

5 4

EpilogueParticipants left the conference with an overwhelming impression of urgency and commitment

to market the distance learning concept beyond specific institutions and provincial interests. Wehave a technology to sell and should not be working in isolation! We must convince the bureauc-racy at the state and national levels that distance lean :rig works. Furthermore, we must focus on abroader implementation of distance learning in the home, for asynchronous presentations, and forintegration of technologies into the field.

American education is in a crisis. We cannot afford enough teachers to ensure that everylearner can fulfill his/her potential, much less have a twor or classic apprenticeship relationship.Even to maintain the status quo, the need for knowledge, skill, and ability acquisition will continueto grow. Distance learning provides a solution. At the conference, people examined particulartechnologies as solutions to these problems and acknowledged that distributed training systems arecapable of integrating technology.

Distance learning offers a low political risk with a high political payoff as well as moderate tohigh technical risks and potentially high technical payoffs for the nation.

In conclusion, the conference assembled people of varying backgrounds and interests, ex-panded horizons, gave direction to distance learning advocates, created a valuable network amongparticipants, and inspired further cooperation to advance this exciting field.

Distance learning is a significant component for solving the American education crisis. Allcommunities must work together to implement this solution, prove that distance learning is justifi-able, and work enthusiastically to demonstrate the value of lifelong learning.


s.

Author/Presenter Biographies

John B. Alexander is the manager of Anti-Materiel Technology (soft kill) in the Defense Initiative Office atLos Alamos. This position entails creating new weapons concepts that degrade or destroy threat systems byattacking materiel rather than personnel. He holds a BA. in sociology from the University of Nebraska-Om-aha, an MA. in education from Pepperdine, and a Ph.D. in education from Walden University. He retired as acolonel from the U.S. Army in 1981. While in the military, he held various research and development positions,including director of the Advanced Systems Concepts, Laboratory Command, and manager of the TechnologyIntegration Office, Army Materiel Command. Previously, he served as chief of Advanced Human Technology,Intelligence and Security Command, and advised the intelligence community and later the National RcsearchCouncil on enhancing human performance. As an officer in Children's Hospice International, he is deeply in-volved in the issues of dying children and their families.

Andrews E. Andrews is the group "scader of the Cognitive Systems Engineering Group at Los Alamos Na-tional Laboratory. This group designs and develops experimental simulation-based training. He holds an MS.in engineering from the University of California at Berkeley, an M.B.A. from Long Island University, and aMaster of Military Arts and Sciences. Before working at Los Alamos, he held varied positions in the U.S. Armythat included responsibilities for exercise and training development. He culminated his Army career as the se-nior air defense staff officer at the S..preme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe. Andrews ha'; published manypapers, principally regarding military doctrine and computer-based training.

Norman D. Hamer obtained a B.S. degree in chemistry from Arizona State University, where he also par-ticipated as a proctor when Professor Fred Keller fa introduced his plan of self-paced instruction. After re-ceiving a Ph.D. in theoretical chemical physics at Massachusetts Institute of Technology, he served as a guestresearcher at the Kamerlingh-Onnes Laboratory in Lieden, Holland. He then taught and did research in thePhysics Department at the University of Toronto. Before coming to the Cognitive Engineering Systems Groupat Los Alamos National Laboratory, he served for 15 years as a faculty member in the Chemistry Department atthe Australia Defense Force Academy and the Ro. 1 Military College in Canberra, Australia.

John W. Keller is a graduate research associate in the Cognitive Systems Engineering Group at LosAlamos National Laboratory. He holds a B.A. in cognitive science from the University of California at SanDiego. He recently attended a distance learning course that was offered by the University of Wisconsin atMadison.

Mary S. Trainor holds a Ph.D. in science and mathematks education and is currently deputy group leaderof the Cognitive Systems Engineering Group, Los Alamos National Laboratory. She has been an instructionalpsychologist in CBT projects for 14 years. She is currently the president-elect for the Association for the De.velopment of Computer-Based Instructional Systems (ADCIS).

Distance Learning Conference Preedings, Fall 1989 50 Los Alamos National Laboratoty

5 6

List of Participants, Distance Learning Conference

Dr. John B. AlexanderLos Alamos National LaboratoryDRA-DIO, MS F613Los Alamos, NM 87545(5115) 665-3586

Mr. Marshall E. AllenEducational TelevisionOklahoma State UniversityTelecommunications CenterStillwater, OK 74078(405) 744-5960

Mr. Andrew E. AndrewsLos Alamos National LaboratoryA 6, MS M997Los Alamos, NM 87545(505) 665-0732

Dr. Stephen F. Brown1339 Oak PathSan Antonio, TX 78258(512) 497-8201Compuserve 76327,2462

Mr. John E. BuckleyHQ TRADOC, Attn: ATTG/CFDCS for Training TDADFt. Monroe, VA 23651(804) 727-4265

LTC James S. CaryHO DA, Attn: CSDS-FiviThe Pentagon, Rm. 3D614Washington, D.C. 20310-0200(202) 695-8029Army FORUM/Army PROFS-caryjBitnet via university of michiganFAX: (202) 695-4399

Dr. Vincent P. Cieri119 Queens Drive SouthLittle Silver, NJ 07739(201) 747-3183

John deVriesLos Alamos National LaboratoryA-6, MS M997Los Alamos, NM 87545(505) [email protected]

Mr. 'Thomas E. DowneyBoeing AerospaceP. O. Box 3999, MS 3F-22Seattle, WA 98124-2499(206) 657-1050Bitnet 7742344@UWACDCCompuserve 71460,3171FAX: (206) 773-0008ADCIS on PEACENET

Mr. Thomas J. EdwardsHq. US. Army TRADOCAsst. DCS/Training PlansFort Monroe, VA 23651-5000(804) 727-3141

Dr. Richard E. FarsonWestern Behavioral Science Inst.P. O. Box 2029La Jolla, CA 92038(619) 459-3811FAX: (619) 454-7612

Dr. Linda D. FentyElectronic Data Systems7450 Boston Blvd.Springfield, VA 22153-3197(703) 644-8150FAX: (703) 644-8259

Professor Barbara M. FloriniAssoc. Prof. of Adult EducationSyracuse UniversityKellogg Project113 Euclid Ave.Syracuse, NY 13244-4160(315) 443-1095bflorini@suvmFAX: (315) 4434842

Mr. John F. FoxLos Alamos National LaboratoryHRD-3, MS M589Los Alamos, NM 87545(505) [email protected]

Professor Terry L. GibsonAssoc. Prof., Univ. of Wisconsin605 Extension Bldg. 432North Lake StreetMadison, WI 53706(608) 262-4877

Professor Jack D. GittiagerAssistant Professor, Dept. of TOEUniversity of New MexicoAlbuquerque, NM 87131(505) 277-6640jack@unmb (BITNET)

Prof. Charlotte N. GunawardenaAssistant Professor, Dept. of TOEUniversity of New MexicoAlbuquerque, NM 87131(505) 277-5046lani@unmb (BITNET)[email protected] (Internet)

Dr. Heidi A. HahnIdaho Nat'l Eng. LaboratoryNow withL Alamos National LaboratoryA , MS M997Los Alamos, NM 87545(505) 665-4606

Dr. Stanley M. HalpinU.S. Army Research InstituteP. O. Box 3407Ft. Leavenworth., KS 66027-3407(913)[email protected]

Dr. Norman D. HamerLos Alamos National LaboratoryA-6, MS M997Los Alamos, NM 87545(505) 665-0722

Dr. Stephen W. HartmanAssoc. Prof.American Open UniversityNew York Institute of Technology211 Carlton Ave.Central Islip, NY 117221-800-222-6948

Dr. Ronald C. HoferUS PM TRADE12350 Research ParkwayOrlando, FL 32826-3276(407) [email protected]

John W. KellerLos Alamos National LaboratoryA-6, MS M997Los Alamos, NM 87545(505) 665-4231jwk@lanigov

Distance Learning Conference Proceedings, Fall 1989 51 " Alamos National Laboratory

57

Ms. Susr.r. M. °S!ie.IBM Corporation/Fourth Floor2321 Whitney Ave.Hamden, Cr 06518(203) 287-7079ADCISTX on PEACENET

Mr. David R. LittlefieldLos Alamos National LaboratoryA-DO, MS F606Los Alamos, NM 87545(505) 667-3901

Mr. Paul W. MahlstedtBETAC Corporation1401 Wilson Blvd.Arlington, VA 22209(703) 522-6942TELENET-TELEMAILp.mahlstedt/cpiFAX: 703-247-0450

Dr. William L. MaloyNETPMSA, Code 04Pensacola, FL 32509-5000(904) 452-1757FAX: (904) 452-1299

Mr. Michael MichalskiAT&T (7th Floor)15 West 6th StreetCincinnati. OH 45202(513) 352-8668ATTmail!mmichalskiFAX: (513) 352-5797

nr. Michael G. MooreAssociate Professor of EducationPennsylvania State University219 Rackley Bldg.University Park, PA 16802(814) 863-3764(814) 865-3387BITNET NOG at PSUVMFAX: (814) 865-3315

Ms. Janelle E. O'DtllDirector of Public RelationsUniversity of the World1055 Torrey Pines Rd., Suite 203La Jolla, CA92037(619) [email protected]

Mr. Joseph V. PaskaTriton Systems Corporation9300 Lee HighwayFairfax, VA 22031-1207(703) 934-3900/3956

Dr. Nancy N. PerryNETPMSA, Code 047Pensacola, FL 32509-5000(904) 452-1288perry@NPRT3CFAX: (904) 452-12%

Dr. Ruth H. PhelpsArmy Research Inst. Field Office1910 University Dr.Boise, ID 83712(208) [email protected]

Distance Learning Conferenc- Proceeklings. Fall 1989

Dr. Farhad (Fred) SabaAssoc. Prof. of Ed. TechnologySan Diego State UniversityDept. of Educational TechnologyCollege of EducationSan Diego, CA 92182-0311(619) 594-6138

Dr. Arthur L. SlaterNETPMSA, Code 0412Pensacola, FL 32509-5000(904) 452-1309

Dr. David E. StoneComputcr Teaching Corporation1713 S. Neil StreetChampagnc, IL 61820(217) 352-6363FAX: (217) 352-3104

Dr. Mary S. TrainorLos Alamos National LaboratoryA-6, MS M997Los Alamos, NM 87545(505) 667-7862

Brig. Gen. Charles R. WhiteU.S. Air Force Reserve200 Bibb Ave.Auburn, AL 36830(205) 844-1414


58

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