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Everything You Need to Know About
Radiation Protection
Kelli Haynes, MSRS, RT(R)
Program Director &
Associate Professor
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Radiation Protection 45 questions of the 200 will be radiation
protection (22.5%) 10 -Biological Aspects of Radiation 15-Minimizing Patient Exposure 11-Personnel Protection 9-Radiation Exposure and Monitoring
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Biological Aspects of Radiation
10 Questions
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Cell Radiosensitivity Cells and tissues vary in
their degree of radiosensitivity Immature cells are nonspecialized-
rapid cell division Mature cells are specialized-divide
slower if at all DNA-most radiosensitive part of cell
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High Low
LymphocytesSpermatogoniaErythroblastsIntestinal crypt cells
Muscle cellsNerve cellsChondrocytes
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Dose Response Relationships
Graphic representation of the relationship between the amount of radiation absorbed (dose) and the amount of damage (response)
Linear or nonlinearThreshold or nonthreshold
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Response Response
Dos
e
Dos
e
Linear NonThreshold
LinearThreshold
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Response Response
Dos
e
Dos
e
NonLinearThreshold
NonLinearNonthreshold
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Relative Tissue Radiosensitivities
LET
RBE
OER
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Linear Energy Transfer (LET)
Photons deposit or transfer energy as they travel
The average energy deposited per unit of path length
Assesses potential tissue and organ damage
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LET
High-LET Radiation Alpha particles Beta particles
Low-LET Radiation Gamma rays X-rays
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Relative Biologic Effectiveness
Measures biologic effectiveness of radiations having different LET’s
Influenced by radiation type, cell or tissue type, physiologic condition, and biologic result
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Oxygen Enhancement Ratio
Response to radiation is greater when irradiated in the oxygenated state
Radiation dose required to cause response w/o O2OER= Radiation dose required to cause response w/ O2
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Cell Survival and Recovery
LD 50/30Adults-3-4 Gy (300-400 rad)Recovery may occur
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Somatic Effects
Biologic damage sustained by living organisms as a consequence of exposure to ionizing radiation
Classified as either early (acute) or late
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Short-term vs. Long-term Nausea Fatigue Redness of skin Loss of hair Intestinal disorders Fever Blood disorders Shedding skin
Cancer Embryologic effects (birth defects) Formation of cataracts
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Carcinogenesis
The production or origin of cancer
Experiments have shown that radiation induces cancer
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Cataractogenesis Cataracts-opacity of the eye lens 2 Gy results in partial or
complete vision loss Threshold, nonlinear
dose-response
relationship
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Sterility
Female sterility based on age
of the subject-more radiosensitive
when youngerTemporary sterility-2 Gray (200rad) Permanent sterility-5 Gray (50 rad)
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ACUTE RADIATION SYNDROMES
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Hematopoietic Syndrome
Whole-body doses ranging from 1 to 10 Gy (100 to 1000 rad)
Reduction of blood cells in circulation results in a loss of the body’s ability to clot blood and fight infection
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Gastrointestinal Syndrome
Appears at a threshold dose of approx. 6 Gy (600 rad) and peaks after a dose of 10 Gy (1000 rad)
Without treatment, a dose of 6-10 Gy may cause death in 3-10 days
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Cerebrovascular Syndrome
Doses of 50 Gray
(5000rad)
Death within 2 hours
or up to 2 days
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Embryonic and Fetal Risks
Fetus is very sensitive
Fetal radiosensitivity
decreases as gestation
progresses
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Genetic Effects GSD-used to assess
the impact of gonadal dose Dose equivalent to the
reproductive organs
that would bring genetic
injury to the total population
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PHOTON INTERACTIONS WITH MATTER
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Coherent Scattering Photon of low energy
interacts with atom. No net energy has
been absorbed by the atom.
Low-energy photons,1-50 kVp
Contributes to fog
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Compton Scattering• Moderate energy x-
rays, 60-90 kVp• Interaction with outer
shell electron• Electron ejected,
Atom is ionized• Photon loses energy
and recombines with an atom
• Fog and Scatter
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Compton Scattering
FIGURE 2-6 Compton scattering is responsible for most of the scattered radiation produced during a radiologic procedure. (From Radiobiology and radiation protection: Mosby’s radiographic instructional series, St. Louis, 1999, Mosby.)
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Photoelectric Absorption Most important interaction
between x-ray photons and the atoms of the pt’s body for producing useful images
Higher energy x-rays (23-150 kVp), more likely to penetrate & not interact
Interaction b/t photon and inner shell electron
X-ray is absorbed Electron ejected
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Attenuation
Process that decreases the intensity of the beam
Refers to both absorption and scatter processes
Thickness of body part (mass density) Type of tissue (atomic number)
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Minimizing Patient Exposure
15 Questions
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Exposure Factors
kVp
mAs
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Shielding
Protects gonads when w/i 5 cm of collimated beam
Females receive
more exposure due
to location
of organs
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Types of Shields
Flat contact shields
Shadow shieldsShaped contact
shieldsClear lead
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Beam Restriction
Purpose-confine useful beam
Reduce scatter
Types Cones Collimators
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FiltrationEffect on skin and
organ exposure
Effect on beam energy
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NCRP Report #102
The useful beam shall be
limited to the smallest area
practicable and consistent
with the objectives of the
radiological or fluoroscopic examination.
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Exposure Reduction
Patient positioning
AECPatient
CommunicationALARA
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Image Receptors
Film-screen systemsIntensifying screensDigital Image receptorsCR and DRFilm speed
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Image Receptors
Digital CT, CR, DR, DF, NM, MR, & US Photons on a detector Electronic image Matrix Patient dose
Film Intensifying screens convert photons and
expose film Analog image Patient dose
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Grids
As grid ratio increases patient dose increases
Increases contrastAbsorbs Compton scatterImproves qualityIncreases patient dose
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Fluoroscopy
Pulsed or
IntermittentExposure factorsPositioningFluoroscopy
time
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Personnel Protection
11 Questions
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Sources of Radiation Exposure (3)
Primary x-ray beamSecondary radiation
1. Scatter
2. Leakage Patient
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Basic Methods of Protection
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Protective Devices Protective structural shielding
Primary Barriers
Secondary Barriers
Lead Shields
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Protective Devices
Aprons
Gloves
Thyroid shields
Protective glasses
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Portable (mobile) units
Lead apparelExposure cordStand at right
angles to the
patient
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Fluoroscopy
Protective curtainBucky slot coverCumulative timer
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NCRP Report #102
Fluoroscopy Exposure Rates General Purpose: 10 R per minute Non-image Intensified: 5 R per minute High Level Control: 20 R per minute
Exposure Switch Guidelines Switch must be of the dead-man type
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Radiation Exposure and Monitoring
9 Questions
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Units of MeasurementQuantity SI Traditional
Exposure Coulomb/kg roentgen
Absorbed dose gray rad
Dose equivalent sievert rem
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Dosimeters
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Film Badge
EconomicalPartsMonitors x and
gamma raysTemperature and
humidity can cause fog
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Pocket Ionization Chambers
Most sensitiveMust be charged
to zeroAccurate from
0-200 mR
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OSL Dosimeter Aluminum oxide
detector Optically stimulated
luminosity occurs when struck by laser light
Accurate reading as low as 1mrem
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TLD’s
Look similar to film badge
Lithium fluoride Ionization causes
crystal to change
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NCRP #116
Annual occupational
effective dose- 50 mSv
(5rem) Public Exposure- 1 mSv Embryo/fetus exposure-
50 mSv/month Dosimetry records
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NCRP #160
Typical effective dose per exam; varies from 0.1 mSv for a chest xray to 1.5 for a lumbar spine
Interventional- ~3mSv CT- range from 2mSv
for a head to 10 mSv for a spine
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Review Questions
What is the most radiosensitive part of the cell?
Which is more radiosensitive, immature or mature cells?
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This is a picture of what?
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Review Questions
What is LET? What is LD 50/30? What is an example of an early somatic
effect? Late somatic effect? What is carcinogenesis?
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Review Questions
What is the threshold dose for cataracts? What is the threshold dose for temporary
sterility? What is the threshold dose for
permanent sterility? What is the threshold dose for
cerebrovascular syndrome?
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Review Questions
What is the threshold dose for hematopoietic syndrome?
What is the threshold dose for gastrointestinal syndrome?
What are some types of shields? What is filtration? What does NCRP Report # 102 state?
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Review Questions
Why do we use a grid? What are the 3 sources of radiation
exposure? What is the SI unit of measurement for
exposure? What is the SI unit of measurement for
absorbed dose?
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Review Questions
What is the traditional unit of measurement for dose equivalent?
What is the sensing material in an OSL dosimeter?
What is the sensing material in a TLD dosimeter?
What does NCRP # 116 state?