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Lecture 1
The English noun phrase
v I qUANG,ph.d.
Englishdep .,CFL - VNU, H anoi
A. Overview
1. What is meant by the noun phrase ?
The noun phrase is a group of words in which there is / are
one or more noun(s) as the head component modifiable by
(an)other preceding or
following item(s) as modifier(s):NP NP
The man there is my teacher of
English
head head
2. Possible components of the NP:
Premodifier(s) Head
Postmodifier(s)
Closed-system item(s)+open-class item(s) noun(s) /
pronoun(s) open-class item(s)
3. What is meant by closed-system and open-
class items ?
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a.Items are closed in the sense that they are (i) reciprocally
defining;(ii) reciprocally exclusive.
Closed system items: articles, pronouns, prepositions,
conjunctions, etc.
b. Open-class items are (i) those that possess the same
grammatical properties and (ii) constitute the basis for
further word formation or paradigms.
Open-class items: nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, etc.
4. Types of NP in terms of structure: The basic NP vs.
the complex NP.a. Structures of the basic NP: [Closed-system item(s)]
+ head
b. Structures of the complex NP: Patterns other than those of
the basic NP are normally considered possible abstract
models of the complex NP.
5. Dichotomies inherent in the English NP:
(i). Basic vs. complex NPs.
(ii) Single head vs. multiple head.
(iii) Single vs. multiple modification.
(iiv) Restrictive vs. non-restrictive modification.
(vi) Dynamicness vs. stativeness.
(vii) Premodification vs. postmodification.
(viii) Temporary vs. permanent characteristics.
(ix) Explicitnees vs. non-explicitness.
B. nouns, pronouns and The basic noun phrase.
I. The noun as a part of speech.
1. Classification of English nouns in accordance with:
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a. Structure: simple vs. compound.
b. Types of referents:count vs. noncount.
c. Deictic function: proper vs. common.
d. modes of naming: dynamic vs. stative.
e. Degrees of nominalisation: primary vs. substantivized.
2. Grammatical categories of the noun:
Singular:
Variable Plural:
a. Number
Invariable Singular:Plural
b. Gender: + English makes very few gender distinctions.
Where they are made, the connection between the biological
category sex and the grammatical category gender is
very close, insofar as natural sex distinctions determine
English gender distinctions.
+ Gender classes:
A.
Masculine: uncle
B.
Feminine: aunt
C. Dual:
doctor
Personal D.
Common: baby
Animate E.
Collective: committee
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F.
Masculine higher animal: bull
Non-personal G.
Feminine higher animal: cow
H. Higher
organism: France
I. Lower
animal: ant
Inanimate J.
Inanimate: desk
c. Case:
+ Case system: CASE
Nominative Genitive
Subjective Objective - sgenitive of- genitive
Group gen. Double gen.
Accusative Dative Instrumental
+ Group genitive: s apostrophe applied to a group of words
rather a single noun. Eg.
The man in the deckchairs ears are very
large.
+ Double genitive: - Combination of the s genitive with the
of-genitive.
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Eg. A friend of Marys is here.
- Constraints on the usage: (i) The noun
with the s apostrophe must be both personal and definite;
(ii) The noun preceding of- must be indefinite.
+ Genitive meanings:(i) possessive gen.; (ii) subjective
gen.; (iii) objective gen.; (iv) genitive of origin; (vi)
descriptive genitive; (vii) genitive of measure and partitive
gen.; (viii) appositive gen.
+ The choice of genitives:
- Principle: (i) The - s genitive is favoured by the classes thatare highest on the gender scale, ie animate nouns, in
particular persons and animals with personal gender
characteristics.
(ii) The of-genitive is chiefly used with nouns that
belong to the bottom part of the gender scale.
- Exception: The - s genitive is nornally used with the
following kinds of inanimate nouns: Geographical and
institutional names (eg. Europes future); temporal nouns
(eg. a weeks holiday); nouns of special interest to human
activity (eg. sciences influence)
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Lecture 2
The English complex noun phrase
v I qUANG,ph.d.
English
dep .,CFL - VNU, H anoi
I. COMPONENTS OF THE ENGLISH COMPLEX NOUN PHRASE.
1. Pattern:
NP
Premodification Head
Postmodification
Closed-system item(s) + open-class item(s)
open-class item(s)
2. Dichotomies inherent in modification:
a. Restrictive vs. nonrestrictive:
(i) Restrictive: + The head can be viewed as a member of a
class which can be linguistically identified only through the
modification that has been supplied.
Eg. The pretty girl standing in the corner who became
angry because you waved
to her when you entered is Mary Smith.
In this example, the girl is only identifiable as Mary Smith
provided we understand that it is the particular girl who is
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ptretty, who was standing in the corner, and who became
angry. Such modification is restrictive.
+ Restrictive modification tends to be given
more prosodic emphasis
than the head
(ii) Nonrestrictive: + The head can be viewed as unique or as
a member of a class that has been independently identified;
any modification given to such a head is additional
information which is not essential for identifying the head.
Eg. Mary, who is in the corner, wants to meet you. In thisexample, Mary Smith s identity is independent of whether or
not she is in the corner, though the information on her
present location may be usefull enough.
+ Nonrestrictive modification tends to be
unstressed in pre-head position. In pre-head position, its
parenthetic relation is endorsed by being given a separate
tone unit or - in writing - by being enclosed by commas.
b. Temporary vs. permanent.
+ Items placed in premodification position are given the
linguistic status of permanent or at any rate characteristic
features.
+ Adjectives which cannot premodify have a notably
temporary reference. Eg. We can say The man is ready but
we cannot use the phrase the ready man.
c. Explicit vs. non-explicit.
+ Explicitness in postmodification varies considerablly: It is
greater in the finite relative clause, lesser in the nonfite
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clause, less still in the prepositional phrase and least in the
one-head noun / adjective / adverb phrase.
+ Part of the relative clauses explicitness lies in the
specifying power of the relative pronoun: It is capable of (I)
showing agreement with the head and (b) of indicating its
status as an element in the relative clause structure.
+ Observe the degrees of explicitness in the following:
Eg. The girl who was standing in the corner
is Mary (1)
personal time posture position
The girl standing in the corner is Mary
(2)
posture position
The girl in the corner is Mary (3)
position
The girl there is Mary (4)
position
The girl is Mary (5)
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In example (1), the status, the time of action, the posture,
and the position of the head noun referent are specified. In
example (5), no such properties are indicated.
II. Postmodification in the COMPLEX NOUN PHRASE.
1. Items as postmodifiers:
Postmodifiers
Padj. Padv. Pprep. NP. Non-finites
Finites
(to) V V-ing V-ed2
Relative Sent. rel. Appositve
Note: The types of items in this diagram do not necessarily
occur in the order thus mentioned.
2. The relative clause as postmodifier.
a. Relative pronouns in English:
who, whom, whose that
which
For human(s) For both animate (humans) and
inanimate For inanimates
b. Case in the relative pronoun.
+ Case is used to indicate the status of the relative pronoun
in its clause.
+ If the pronoun is in a genitive relation to a noun head, the
pronoun can be whose.
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c. Relative pronoun and adverbial.
d. Restrictive vs. nonrestrictive relative clauses.
e. Functions performed by relative pronouns in the relative
clause: S, O, C, A.
f. The sentential relative clause:
Features:
+ The only relative pronoun used is which.
+ The sentential relative clause is separated from the
preceding clause by a comma.
+ The antecedent of WHICH is the whole preceding clause,not any single word.
Eg. Mary came home late, which made her
mother angry.
3. The appositive clause as postmodifier.
Features:
+ Similarities and differences between the relative clause
and the appositve clause:
- Similarities: (i) Capable of introduction by that; (ii)
distinguishing between restrictive and non-restrictive;
- Differences: (i)The particle that is not an element in the
clause structure; (ii) The head of the noun phrase must be a
factive abstract noun.
+ Plural heads are rare with appositive postmodification and
are regarded as unacceptable.
+ As with apposition generally, the apposed units can be
linked with be (where the copula typically has nuclear
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prominence). Eg. The belief that no one is infallible is well -
grounded The belief IS that no one is infallible.
4. Nonfinite clauses as postmodifier.
a.Types of clauses: Head + Non-finite clauses
V-ing V-ed2 To -
V
b. V-ing participle clause:
+ V-ing nonfinite clauses can be interpreted, according to
context, as equivalent to one of more explicit versions,
typically relative clauses.
Eg. The man writing the obituary is my friend
will write
will be writing
writesThe man who is writing the
orbituary is my friend.
wrote
was writing
+ Not all V-ing forms in non-finite postmodifiers correspond
to progressive forms in relative clauses. Stative verbs, which
cannot have the progressive in the finite verb phrase, can
appear in participial form. Eg. He is talking to a girl
resembling Jane (Who resembles Jane, not * who is
resembling Jane ).
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c. V-ed2 participial clauses:
+ The V-ed2 participial clause corresponds to a passive
clause construction .
+ The V-ed2 participle concerned is as firmly linked with the
passive voice as that in the V-ing construction is linked with
the active. Hence, with intrasitive verbs, there is no V-ed
postmodifier corresponding exactly to a relative clause.
d. To V clauses:
+ The to-V nonfinite clause could, in a suitable context, have
precisely the same meaning as the relative clause. But, thesubject of an infinitive clause need not be the antecedent. It
may be separately introduced by the for- device or it may be
entirely covert. Eg. The man for John to consult is Wilson /
The man to consult is Wilson.
+ Voice and mood are variable, the latter covertly:
Eg. The time to arrive ... (= The time at which you should
arrive).
The case to be investigated... = (that will or is to be
investigated).
5. Prepositional phrases as postmodifier.
+ A prepositional phrase is by far the commonest type of
postmodification in English: It is three or four times more
frequent than either finite or non-finite clausal
postmodification.
+ The full range of prepositions is involved in
postmodification including the complex prepositions. Eg.
Passengers on board the ship; Action in case of fire.
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+ Relationships conveyed by the of - genitive in
postmodification: appositive, possessive, ...
+ Restrictive vs. nonrestrictive:
- Prepositional phrases may be non-appositive or appositive,
and in either function, they can be restrictive or non-
restrictive. Eg.
This book on grammar(non-appositive,
restrictive).
This book, on grammar, (no-appositive,
non-restrictive).This issue of student grants (appositive,
restrictive).
This issue, of student grants, (appositive,
non-restrictive).
+ Non restrictive function would be rare and unnatural,
plainly suggesting an afterthought.
+ Position and varied relationship: When separated by
commas, prepositional phrases may be interpreted either as
A or Postmodifier, ...
+ Deverbal noun heads: A deverbal head will not permit
premodifying adverbs.
Eg. The violent quarrel over pay.
* The violently quarrel over pay
(unacceptable).
6. Minor types of postmodification.
(i) Adverbial postmodification. Eg. The road back was dense
with traffic.
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(ii) Postposed adjective. Eg. Something strange happened
last night.
(iii) Postposed mode qualifier. Eg. Lobster Newburg is
difficult to prepare.
7. Multiple postmodification.
(I) A head may have more than one postmodification;
(ii) A modification may be applicable to more than one head;
(iii) The head of a modifying phrase may itself be modified.
(iv) Miscelaneous types.
8. Ambiguity and constraints on multiple modification.+ Frequently, careful ordering of constituents in a NP is
essential to communicate all (and only) ones intention.
Eg. The man in black talking to the
girl ...
The man talking to the girl in
black ...
These two phrases are different in meaning.
+ One of the chief reasons for preferring the of - genitive to
the -s genitive is to avoid discontinuity. Eg. The ears of the
man in the deckchairThe mans ears in the
deckchair.
+ A special type of multiple modification that requires careful
ordering occurs when the premodifying clause becomes itself
embedded in a clause.
Eg. I will read the poem (which) Tom hopes (that)
John will write for you.
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In this example, the relative pronoun which is object in the
underlined relative clause. When, however, a relative
pronoun is subject, the conjunction that must be omitted.
Eg. I will read the poem (which) Tom hopes will be
written for you.
* hopes that
will (unacceptable)
III. Premodification in the complex NP.
1. Types of premodifying items.
Premodifiers
Closed-system items + Open-class items
adjective participle -s genitive noun
adverbial sentence
2. Premodification by adjectives.
+ A premodifying adjective, especially when it is the first
item after the determiner, can itself be premodified in the
same way as it can in predicative position:
His really quite unbelievably delightful
cottage
+ With indefinite determiners, so would be replaced by
such:
A cottage which is so beautiful = Such a
beautiful cottage
or else so plus adjective would be placed before the
determiner:
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so beautiful a cottage
+ There are certain adjectives that cannot be used in
premodification.
3. Premodification by participles.
a. V-ing participle:
+ Gradability is available. Eg. He has a very interesting
mind.
+ The indefinite article favours the the habitual or
permanent, the definite article the specific or temporary.
Eg. ? The approaching train is fromLiverpool.
He was frightened by an
approaching train.
? The barking dog is my neighbours
I was wakened by a barking dog.
+ The definite article may be used generically and hence
evoke the same generality and permanence as the
indefinite.
Eg. The beginning student should be given every
encouragement.
b. V-ed2 participle:
+ Ved2 participle can be active or passive. The active is rarely
used in premodification.
Eg. The immigrant who has arrived.
* The arrived immigrant
(unacceptable).
The newly - arrived immigrant.
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Our recently - departed friend
+ Most V-ed2 participles are of the agential type and
naturally only a few will admit the permanent reference that
will permit premodifying use.
Eg. The wanted man was last seen in
Cambridge.
(The man goes on being wanted by
the police)
* The found purse was returned to its
owner (unacceptable)(The purse was found at a particular
moment)
+ Modifiers in -ed may be directly denominal and not
participles at all.
Eg. a wooded hillside; the vaulted roof; a fluted pillar, ...
Constraints are detectable (perhaps dictated merely by
semantic redundancy):
Eg. * a powered engine; * a haired girl; * a legged
man, ... (unacceptable).
The following are possible:
a diesel - powered engine; a red - haired giel; a
long - leg man, ...
4. Premodification by genitives.
Ambiguity is available with this type od premodification.
Eg. These nasty womens clothing may be interpreted as
The clothing of these nasty women and not The nasty
clothing of these women which would require The nasty
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womens clothing. An intermiediate modifier will be
interpretated as referring to the head: This nasty womens
clothing.
5. Premodification by nouns.
+ Noun premodifiers are often so closely related with the
head as to be regarded as compounded with it. In many
cases, they appear to in a reduced-explicitness relation with
prepositional postmodifiers.
Eg. The question of partition = The partition
question.The door of the cupboard = The cupboard
door.
+ Two important features in noun premodifications:
(I) Plural nouns usually become singular;
(ii) According to the relationsjip between the two nouns, the
accent will fall on the premodifier or the head. Eg. An iron
rod but a war story.
6. Multiple premodification.
+ With single head;
+ With multiple head;
+ With modified modifer.
7. Relative sequence of premodifiers.
Det. + general + size + shape + age + colour + particple +
noun + denominal + head
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Lecture 3
The verb and its
complementationv I qUANG,
ph.d.English
dep .,CFL - VNU, H anoi
I. Classification of verbs in English
1. Verbs classified according to the functions
performed by the elements in the verb phrase:
Regular: V VED
Lexical
Irregular: (7 subclasses)
Verbs Semi-auxiliaries: need, dare,
used to.
Primary: do, have, be
Auxiliary
Modal: will, would, shall,
should, may, might, ought
to, must, can, could.
2. Verbs classified in accordance with the types of
complementation:
Current:
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Intensive
(SVC / SVA) Resulting:
Verbs
Intransitive (SV)
Extensive
Monotransitive
(SVO)
Transitive Ditransitive
(SVOO)
Complex
transitive (SVOC / SVOA)
3. Verbs classified according to the number of
constituents:
One - word verbs
Verbs
Phrasal verbs
Multi-word verbs Prepositional verbs
Phrasal - prepositional verbs
II. Verb forms
1. The five forms of the lexical verb
V
VS Finite
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VED1
VED2 Non-finite
V- ING
2. Uses of lexical verb forms:
(i) V: Simple present tense - aspect forms except 3rd person
singular; mandative
subjunctive form.
(ii) Vs: Simple present tense - aspect form for 3rd person
singular.
(iii) Ved1: Simple past tense - aspect form for all persons
singular as well as plural;
past subjunctive form.
(iv) V-ing: Progressive aspect form.
(v) Ved2: Perfective aspect form; passive voice form.
3. Auxiliary verb forms & uses:
- Eight forms of BE: be, being, been, is, am, was, are, were.
- Forms of all modal auxiliaries and the primary auxiliaries
DO and HAVE: grouped under three categories (non-
negative; uncontracted negative; contracted negative).
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- Usage: operaror function (structural; modal; structural -
modal).
III. Grammatical categories of the verb
1. Tense
(i) Tense (linguistic concept; language-specific) vs.Time
(universal concept)
(ii) Tense system: Present (timeless; limited; instantaneous)
vs. past.
(iii) Uses of tense - aspect forms (26 forms: active vs.
passive).
(iii) Ways of expressing future time: will / shall + verb; be +
going to +verb; present progressive; simple present; will /
shall + progressive; be + to verb; be + about+ to verb.
2. Aspect
(i) What is meant by aspect ?
(ii) Aspect system: simple vs. progressive vs. perfective vs.
perfective progressive
(iii) Interrelationship between tense and aspect:
INTERMINGLED.
3. Mood
(i) What is meant by mood ?
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(ii) Types of mood in English:
+ Forms:
- Indicative: affirmative, negative, non-assertive.
- Imperative: positive, negative.
- Subjunctive: mandative, formulaic (present subjuntive),
were (past subjuntive).
+ Uses of different types of mood: indicative (facive);
imperative (non-factive); subjunctive (non-factive / counter-
factive), ...
(iii) Mood vs. modality.
4. Voice
(i) What is meant by voice ?
(ii) Voice system: Active, passive, middle.
(iii) Uses of the passive voice.
(iv) Constraints on active - passive transformation.
III. Verb phrase forms:
1. Simple verb form: V; Vs; Ved.
2. Complex verb forms (in relation to aspect and
voice):
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(i) Modal; (ii) Perfective; (iii) Progressive; (iv) Passive; (v)
Modal perfective; (vi) Modal progressive; (vii) Modal passive;
(viii) Modal perfective passive; (ix) Modal progressive
passive; (x) Modal perfective progressive passive.
3. Contrasts expressed in the VP: Tense, aspect, mood,
voice, questions, negation, emphasis.
IV. Complementation of the verb.
1. Intensive complementation.
a. Clause type: SVC / SVA
b. Features:
+ Morphological features:
* Types of copulas: current, resulting.
* Realisation of elements:
- Noun and adjective phrases as CS
- Predicative adjuncts
- Complementation of adjective phrase as CS : Adj
complementation by prepositional phrase; Adj
complementation by finite clause; Adj complementation by
to-infinitive clauses.
+ Syntactic features: Word order;
transformation.
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+ Semantic features: Relations between
elements (identifier - identified;
carrier - attribute, entity - location, event -
time, ...).
2. Intransitive complementation
a. Clause pattern: SV
b. Features: + Morphological features: Realisation of
elements, ...
+ Syntactic features: Word oder; transformation,
...
+ Semantic features: Relations between
elements, ...
3. Monotransitive complementation.
a. Clause pattern: SVO
b. Features:
+ Morphological:
- Types of verbs not involved in passivization.
- Realisation: NPs as Od; finite clauses as Od; non-finite
clauses as Od.
+ Syntactic: Constraints on active - passive transformation,
temporal & voice differences between the two constructions
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of the forms V + to V and V + V-ing with certain
aspectual verbs: begin, start, stop, remember, deserve,
need,want, ...
+ Semantic functions performed by S, V and O: S: Agentive /
actor; V: Material / mental ... processes; O: Affected /
effected / locative, ... participants.
4. Ditransitive complementation.
a. Clause pattern: SVOO
b. Features: + Morphological features: Realisation of
elements, ...
+ Syntactic features: Word oder; possible
transformations; ditransitive prepositional verb
complementation; ideomatic expressions consisting of verb
+ noun phrase + preposition; NPs as Oi + finite clauses as
Od; NPs as Oi + non-finite clauses as Od.
+ Semantic features:
- Semantic relationships between elements.
- Typical semantic functions: S (actor); Od (affected
participant); Oi (recipient).
5. Complex transitive complementation
a. Clause patterns: SVOC / SVOA
b. Featufres: + Morphological features:
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* Realisation of elements: - To-infinitive clauses with S; bare
infinitive clauses with S;
- ing participle clauses with; - ed participle clauses with S;
verbless clauses with S.
* Types of verbs involved in complex transitive
complemetation.
+ Syntactical features: Word oder; possible
transformations, ...
+ Semantic features:
- Underlying intensive relationship between O and C,
between O and A, ...
- Typical semantic functions performed by clause elements: S
(agentive); O (affected); C (resulting attribute); A (locative).
- Semantics of the ideomatic collocation category verb +
adjective (push open, pull tight, make clear, ... ): structure,
collocations, ...
+ Passivization as a means of making explicit
the cases of ambiguity as regards the differentiation
between ditransive and complextransitive complementation.
Eg. I wanted Bob to teach Mary.
I persuaded Bob to teach Mary.
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Lecture 4
The simple sentence
I. Clause patterns:
(i) SVO; (ii) SVC; (iii) SVA; (iv) SVOO; (v) SVOC; (vi)
SVOA; (vii) SV
Note: S = subject; V = verb; C = complement; O = object; A
= adverbial
Examples: a. Mary beat Tom.
S V O
b. Mary is clever.
S V C
c. Mary is here.
S V A
d. Mary gave me a book.
S V O O
e. Mary put the book here.
S V O A
f. Mary is singing
S V
II. Syntactic and semantic features OF clause
elements.
A. Subject1. Syntactic features:
a. Realization: NPs (basic & complex); clauses (finite;
nonfinite).
b. Positions: + Before V in statements; + After operator in
questions.
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c. Possible transformation: passivization with S becoming
by-phrase.
2. Semantic roles: agentive, recipient, temporal, locative,
instrumental, empty it, ...
B. Direct Object.
1. Syntactic features:
a. Realisation: NP (basic & complex); clauses (finite;
nonfinite).
b. Positions: After V in SVO; Before Oi in SVOO.
c. Possible transformation: passivization.2. Semantic roles: affected participant; effected participant;
locative.
C. Indirect Object.
1. Syntactic features:
a. Realisation: NP (basic & complex); clauses (finite;
nonfinite).
b. Position: After V and befrore Od
c. Possible transformation: passivization.
2. Semantic roles: recipient; affected participant.
D. Complement.
1. Syntactic features:
a. Realisation: NP (basic & complex); adjective phrases;
clauses (finite; nonfinite)
b. Positions: (i) After V in SVC; (ii) After O in SVOC.
c. Typical features: No passivizstion possible; NP
Complement is co-referential with S
(or O).
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2. Semantic roles: Attribute
E. Adverbial.
1. Syntactic features:
a. Realisation: NP (basic & complex); adjective phrases;
adverb phrases; clauses (finite; nonfinite; verbless).
b. Positions: Initial, medial, final.
c. Typical features: (i) Mobile; (ii) No passivization possible
with A becoming S.
2. Semantic roles: temporal, locative, conditional,
concessive, resultative, manner,...III. Concord
A. Types of concord in number and person between
clause elements:
(i) Subject - Verb concord;(ii) Subject-Complement concord;
(iii) Object - Complement concord ; (iv) Pronoun concord.
B. Subtypes of S - V concord in number and person.
1. Grammatical concord: (i) Ssingular + Vsingular; (ii) Splural + Vplural
2. Notional concord: Verb form determined by the actual
number inherent in the S
rather than its form.
3. Proximity concord: Verb form determined by the nearest
word (normally as S).
IV. Negation.
1. Scope of negation: stretch of discourse over which the
negative word operates.
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2. Focus of negation: contrastive stress on a certain word
in the sentence to signify the place where negation is most
available.
3. Interrelationships between scope and focus of
negation:
(i) Scope of negation normally extends from the negative
word up to the end of the sentence or to the beginning of a
final adjunct in the sentence.
(ii) Scope of negation extends from the negative word to the
focus. It is to be driven backwards to include the focus incase the focus is before the negative word.
(iv) It then follows from this that the scope of negation can
be identified by where the information focus is placed.
Eg. Mary didnt break the vase yesterday
morning.
Focus of negation
V. Sentence types
1. Categories of sentences (classified in accordance with
purposes of communication) : (i) Statements; (ii) Questions;
(iii) Commands; (iv) Exclamations.
2. Subcategories of questions: (i) Wh-questions; (ii) Yes-
No questions; (iii) Alternative questions.
a. Wh-questions: (i) Wh-word + operator + S + Predication ?
(ii) Wh-word + Predicate ?
b. Yes - No questions: Yes - No questions proper; declarative
questions; tag questions: (i) \Positive statement + /negative
tag, (ii) \Negative statement + /positive tag, (iii) \Positive
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statement + \negative tag, (ii) \Negative statement +
\positive tag, (v) \Positive + /positive.
c. Alternative questions: Wh- question form; Yes-No question
form.
3. Subcategories of commands: Commands with S;
commands without S; commands with let; negative
commands; persuasive commands.
4. Subcategories of exclamations:
(i) How + adjective phrase !; What + NP !
(ii) Wh-question form exclamations; Yes-No question formexclamations; statement form questions.
5. Semantics of tag questions:
(i) Positive assumption + neutral expectation; (ii) Negative
assumption + neutral expectation; (iii) Positive assumption +
positive expectation; (iv) Negative assumption + negative
expectation; (v) Positive assumption + positive expectation.
VI. Block language
1. Definition: Block language = language structured in
terms of single words or phrases rather than the more highly
organised units of clause or sentence.
2. Forms:
3. Features: i.Omission of low-informative words;
ii.journalistic style, ...
VII. The vocative
1. Definition: Vocative = nominal element added to the
sentence to attract the attention of the addressee and to
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express the speaker s attitude towards the person
addressed.
2. Forms: noun phrases; finite clauses.
3. Characteristic intonations: (i) Fall - Rise for initial
vocatives; (ii) Rise for medial and final vocatives.
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The complex sentence
I. Coordination vs. subordination.
1. Coordination: Type of relationship between units that
stand on equal footing with each other.
2. Subordination: Type of relationship where one or more
unit(s) is/are (a) constituent(s) of a larger unit.
3. The complex sentence vs. the compound sentence.
Sentences with subordination between clauses (finite, non-
finite and verbless) are termed complex. Those with
coordination between clauses are compound.
4. Markers of subordination in the complex sentence:
Subordinators (simple, compound, correlative); S-Operator
inversion; That-clause; Wh-elements; subordinate clauses
that contain no markers within themselves of subordinate
status (nominal clause which may or may not have THAT,comment clauses), etc.
II. Dependent clauses structurally classified.
1. Finite: Verb element conjugated in number and person
with the subject.
2. Nonfinite: Verb element realized by a non-finite verb
form (to-V, Verb, VED, VING).
3. Verbless: No verb form available; the predicate realized
by items of different parts of speech.
III. Dependent clauses functionally classified.
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1. Nominal clauses: THAT- clause; Wh-interrogative clause;
Yes-No interrogative clause; nominal relative clause
(realization; syntactic functions; semantic roles, posssible
transformation).
2. Adverbial clauses: Adjuncts; disjuncts; conjuncts.
2.1. Adjuncts: Time, place, condition, process, result,
concession, etc.
2.2. Disjuncts: Style; attitudinal.
2.3. Conjuncts: Antithesis, contradiction, addition, etc.
3. Comparative clauses (structure; syntactic functions,
propositions to be compared).
4. Comment clauses (5 forms; syntactic functions).
IV. The verb phrase in dependent clauses.
1. Sequence of tenses: Present tense with subordinators;
the modal past; present subjunctive in conditional clauses;
direct vs. indirect speech (Backshift; exceptions to the
distancing rules; modal auxiliaries and indirect speech; free
indirect speech; transferred negation).
2. Types of verbs in dependent clauses as
complentation of superordinate verbs:
(i) Factive main verb + indicative verb in the dependent
clause.
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(ii) Emotive main verb + indicative verb in the
dependent clause.
+ should V
(iii) Volitional main verb + subjuntive V in the
dependent clause.
+ should V
3. Tense - aspect forms of verbs in Adverbial clauses