THE EARLY HISTORY THE EARLY HISTORY OF MALAYSIA OF MALAYSIA

THE EARLY HISTORY THE EARLY HISTORY OF MALAYSIA OF MALAYSIA

Ancient History

1. Palaeolithic (Early Stone Age) Around 35,000 years ago. Main characteristics of inhabitants:

a. Lived in caves

b. Main activity was collecting forest products and hunting

c. Started to use stone tools

d. Tools were simple and crude Area : Tampan Estuary in Perak, Niah Cave in Sarawak,

Tingkayu in Sabah

2. Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age) Around 11,000 years ago. Main characteristics of inhabitants:a. Lived in caves and also along rivers and lakesb. Started to farm c. Used more refined stone toolsd. Able to make earthenware Area: Cha Cave in Kelantan, Kecil Cave in Pahang,

Kepah Cave in Kedah, Jenderam Hilir in Selangor, Madai Cave in Sabah, Gamantang Cave in Sabah, Niah Cave in Sarawak

3. Neolithic (New Stone Age) Around 5,000 years ago.a. Main characteristics of inhabitants:b. Used more sophisticated stone tools c. Started to rear livestock d. Started to communicate with communities in other

places Started to create objects and use accessories Area: Cha Cave in Kelantan, Kecil Cave in Pahang,

Kepah Cave in Kedah, Jenderam Hilir in Selangor, Madai Cave in Sabah, Gamantang Cave in Sabah, Tengkorak Cave in Sarawak, Niah Cave in Sarawak

4. Metal Age Around 2,500 years ago. Main characteristics of inhabitants: a. Population grew. b. Developed residential areas in wide open land near

rivers c. More orderly and sedentary lifestyled. Practised social customs Area: Lang River in Selangor, Langar River in

Selangor, Muar River in Johor, Tembeling River in Pahang, Terengganu River in Terengganu

Early Kingdoms

Powerful Malay kingdoms existed in the Malay Archipelago since the early part of the first century.

These kingdoms were centres of trade, government and spread of religion.

A few of them had extensive vassal states. Funan • Year : 1st century • Located in present Kampuchea • Influenced by the Old Kedah Hindu religion • Kampung Sungai Emas (from the 5th to the 10th century)

• Pengkalan Bujang (from the 10th to the 14th century) Old Kedah • Year : 5th century • Monarchy system • Strategic location and important entreport • Influenced by Hinduism and Buddhism Gangga Negara, Perak • Year : 5th century • Port and trade centre Langkasuka, Pattani • Year : 2nd century • Important trade centre

• Influenced by Hinduism and Buddhism • Merong Mahawangsa history Chih-Tu, Kelantan • Year : 6th century • Influenced by Buddhism• Strong relationship with China • Ruling system influenced by Hindu culture Tan-Tan, Terengganu • Year : 6th century• Ruling system influenced by Indian ruling system • Strong relationship with China

Tun Sun, Segenting Kra • Year : 3rd century • Important trade centre located between China and India • Influenced by Hinduism and Indian ruling system Srivijaya, Sumatera • Year : 7th century • Well-known trade centre • Strong relationship with India and China • Centre of Buddhism and Sanskrit language • Owned several vassal states

Mataram, Jawa • Year : 8th century • Centre of government • Influenced by Hinduism Majapahit, Jawa • Year : 13th century• Owned several vassal states • Trade centre • Strong relationship with China, India and the Middle

East

The Malay Kingdom of Malacca

According to history, Malacca was founded by Parameswara in 1403 A.D.

Malacca grew into a great empire in the Malay Archipelago. It was well-known mainly as a centre for maritime-trade and the spread of Islam, with vast territory and strong trade relations with powerful countries such as China and India.

The kingdom was also an empire with an advanced civilization. In the system of government, the ruler was the head of state the Islamic religion and the army.

It is clear that great kingdoms once reigned supreme in the Malay Archipelago. This region, better known as the Malay World or the Islands of the Malay Archipelago, was the geopolitical region of the Malays.

The people at that time were free to move from one place to another as there were no boundaries nor limits.

The Malay Archipelago at that time was characterized as a nation with one Malay language and culture.

Even today, there are elements of similarity. For instance, the language spoken by the Malays in Kampuchea, Pattani and the South of Mindanao are similar to that spoken in Malaysia and Indonesia.

Important officials such as the Finance Minister, the Admiral, the Chief of Defence, Chief Bursar and the Harbour-Master, assisted the Sultan (King).

The organized system of government was based on two main laws: the Malacca Law and the Malacca Law of the Sea.

Golden Age of Malacca There were several factors that contributed to the

rise of Malacca as trade centre.

1. Malacca’s strategic location midway along the trade routes between India and China. Malacca became a famous port of call to merchants from the East and the West as well as disseminator of Islam.

2. Strong trade ties with foreign countries such as ties with China. From political side, Malacca received protection from China against threats of subjugation from Siam. Malacca also had diplomatic ties with Java, India and Siam to strengthen its position.

3. Efficient administration. The supremacy of Malacca was also supported by an efficient administration that succeeded in creating a peaceful and controlled situation. There were capable rulers and Chief Minister, Tun Perak and minister for managing marine trade and commercial affairs (Harbour-Master); and a strong military system to ensure order in the administration.

4. Reasonable taxation system. The low taxes attracted many foreign merchants to trade in Malacca.

Fall of Malacca

The golden age of Malacca ended in 1511 after the Portuguese attack. History showed that Malacca reached its supremacy under the rule of Sultan Mansur Syah (1459-1477) but declined thereafter.

There were several factors, internal and external, that contributed to the decline of the Malacca empire.

1. Internal Factors After the death of Chief Minister Tun Perak,

Malacca lacked an efficient leader. Tun Perak was responsible for enlarging their power base.

His successor, Tun Mutahir was a weak leader. As a result, there were often struggles for power.

Sultan Mahmud was also a weak ruler because he paid little attention to the administration.

Corruption and bribery were prevalent and the high taxes forced merchants to divert their attention to other ports.

Malacca’s weak position caused the people to split into factions and become disunited. Weak administration by Chief Minister Tun Mutahir caused the Malays to become hostile towards the Indian-Muslims.

Continued misunderstanding and dispute caused segregation among the people.

The situation became more critical when the Portuguese, led by Alfonso d’ Albuquerque attacked Malacca and finally conquered it in 1511.

2. External Factors External factors that contributed to the fall of Malacca

empire include the discovery of the Cape of Good Hope in South Africa by Bartholomew Diaz in 1488.

This made it easier to sail from the West to the East. As a result, it was easier for the Portuguese to invade Malacca.

Internal conflict and high taxes caused many merchants to move to other ports.

This combination of factors weakened the position of Malacca.

By understanding the factors that contributed to the rise and fall of Malacca, we can see that the country was itself responsible.

A country can become weak and fall prey to it enemies because of unrest due to weak leaders, bribery and corruption, betrayal among ministers and disunity among the people.

Colonial Era

Malaysia was colonized by colonial powers for approximately 446 years (from 1511 until 1957).

The Portuguese, Dutch, British, Japanese and Siamese had colonized the country before, but only the British and the Japanese succeeded in colonizing almost the whole country and left impact on the people.

The others merely concentrated on certain states.

Colonists and the Features of Domination

1. Portuguese Duration : 1511-1641 (130 years) Mainly in Malacca Was opposed by the Malays of Malacca with

the aid of Acheh Did not leave behind many traces, except in the

areas of language (borrowed words) and dance

2. Dutch Duration : 1641-1824 (183 years) Mainly in Malacca Did not leave many traces, focused on

colonizing Indonesia Was opposed by the Malays who frequently

received help from the Bugis

3. British Duration : 1st phase :1842-1942, 2nd phase :

1945-1957 (130 years) Colonized the whole of Peninsula Malaysia, can

be divided into two phases Left behind significant influence on the way of

life of the people (political, economic and social)

Was strongly opposed by the people

4. Siamese Duration : 1821-1909 (88 years) Was a long time lord of the states in the north of

the Malay Peninsula Stayed mainly in the northern states of the Malay

Peninsula namely Perlis, Kedah, Kelantan and Terengganu

Traces of influence very evident in the states in the north especially in the area of religion (Buddhism) and art

5. Japanese Duration : 1942-1945 (3 ½ years) Colonized the entire country Greatly influenced the life of the people,

especially in term of relations between the races Was opposed by the whole country

Portuguese and Dutch Colonization

The Portuguese, led by Alfonso de Albuquerque, took over Malacca in 1511.

The main reason for the colonization was to control the maritime trade in the East and to spread Christianity.

The failure to extend their power base was believed to be due to the inconsistency between their trading practices and religion.

This could be true because Albuquerque believed in using force to make groups of merchants leave Malacca.

The merchants also viewed the Portuguese as an enemy to other Islamic countries in the Malay Archipelago.

Their ultimate objective was not completely achieved because the Malays often attacked them.

Among the traces left behind were the Eurasian community, who are Catholic and follow Portuguese customs.

Other influences include the romanized writing, language and terminology (for example, palsu, almari, jendela, garpu and tuala in Malay).

The Portuguese colonization succeeded in bringing about the downfall of the Malay kingdom of Malacca and led to the start of another kingdom, the Johore-Riau Malay kingdom.

With the assistance from Johore, the Dutch defeated the Portuguese and took over Malacca in 1641.

The centre of Dutch activity was not Malacca, but Batavia (now known as Jakarta) in the island of Java.

The Dutch was only interested in the tin ore in the Malay Peninsula.

The Dutch left after an agreement with the British in 1824.

As a result, Malacca was ceded to the British. Both Portuguese and Dutch did not have much

impact on the country.

British Colonization

The chronology of British colonization is as follow:

1786 – Penang Island was founded by Francis Light

Singapore was founded by Stamford Raffles 1824 – Dutch handed over Malacca to British as a

result of the Anglo-Dutch Treaty 1826 – Penang Island, Malacca and Singapore

were combined into one administrative unit known as Straits Settlement

1841 – James Brooke took over Sarawak 1874 – British intervention in Perak, through

Pangkor Agreement 1874 - British intervention in Sungai Ujong 1878 - The Brunei Sultan handed over Sabah to

the British 1888 – British intervention in Pahang 1896 – Perak, Selangor, Negeri Sembilan and

Pahang were united into one administrative unit known as the Federated Malay States

1909 – Under the Bangkok Agreement, Siam handed over Kedah, Perlis, Kelantan and Terengganu to the British, and these are known as Unfederated Malay States

1914 – Johor accepted a British advisor 1945 – The British Military Administration (BMA)

was established 1946 – The Malayan Union was established in

Peninsula Malaya The Federation of Malaya was established to replace

the Malayan Union 1957 – Malaya achieved independence

The Acquisition of Penang Island and: Singapore

The English merchants set up the British East India Company in 1600 with the intention of improving trade in the region, especially with China.

However, China was not interested in trading with the English, so the English looked for other trading zones in the Malay Archipelago.

On 11 August 1786, after an agreement between Francis Light and Sultan Abdullah to protect Kedah from the Siamese threat, Penang Island came under the occupation of the British.

On 6th February 1819, Stamford Raffles occupied Singapore, as it was seen as a suitable new base for the British in the Islands of Malay Archipelago.

This was achieved through the manipulation by the British of a local issue of misunderstanding between the Chief Military Officer Abdul Rahman (Singapore Administrator) and Sultan Abdul Rahman in Riau.

With the occupation of Penang Island, Singapore and Malacca, the spread of British colonization in Malaya began.

Anglo-Dutch Treaty 1824

The Anglo-Dutch treaty was signed on 17 March 1824 with the main aim of ending all rivalry between the British and the Dutch, especially in the East.

Before this, the British and the Dutch had been hostile to each other because of trade. Besides this, the Dutch were not happy with the British occupation of Singapore.

The hostility escalated when some British people were killed in Ambon (a Dutch colony)

However, in Europe, the British government were on good terms with the Dutch.

Furthermore, the Dutch were indebted to the British because of Napoleonic War.

The Dutch King, William of Orange signed the Kew Letters, allowing the British access into and thus protection over Dutch colonies in the East until the Napoleonic War was over.

According to the treaty, the Dutch handed over Malacca to the British in exchange for Bencoolen (Bangkahulu).

The areas south of Singapore continued to belong to the Dutch, while the British controlled the north.

They also agreed to work together to eradicate pirate activities.

The consequence of this treaty was clear:1. The Malay Archipelago was split into two

spheres of Dutch and Britsh influence.2. The Johor-Riau empire ended as Johor now

belonged to the Britsh while the Islands of Riau came under the Dutch.

3. Dutch and British trade rivalry continued to grow in intensity. This was aggravated by the dispute between them over Brunei Island which the British claimed was located north of Singapore and was therefore in British territory. Meanwhile, the Dutch thought otherwise.

However, to Malaysia, the effect of the treaty was the split of the Archipelago region into two different spheres of influence and the effects of the two different cultures remain even until today.

This also shows that, at that time foreign forces determined the destiny of this country.

Straits Settlements

The Straits Settlements consisted of Singapore, Malacca and Penang Island.

These states were united in 1829 and Penang Island was the first capital state with a Governor as head.

On 1st April 1867, the administration of the Straits Settlements was transferred from Calcutta in India to the Colonial Office in London, by the same act that declared the Straits Settlements as British colonial territory.

British Intervention in the Malay States, Sabah and Sarawak

• Before 1873, the British government did not have any policy of intervention in the affairs of the Malay states in Peninsula Malaya.

• In September 1873, Lord Kimberly, Secretary of the colonial office, inaugurated a policy of intervention in the affairs of the Malay States. Before that, the British intervened only in Sarawak.

1. Sarawak (1842) James Brooke occupied Sarawak after fulfilling

his promise to Raja Muda Hashim to quell the rebels.

James Brooke was appointed as King of Sarawak in 1842.

The Sultan of Brunei agreed to sign the Agreement of 1842 to confirm James Brooke as the governor of Sarawak for fear of British threat

2. Perak (1874) The British intervened with the excuse of

protecting the interests of British merchants Chaos broke out with the Larut War (the struggle

for control of the tin mines) that involved the Chinese secret societies, Hai San and Ghee Hin, and civil war (the struggle for the throne between Raja Abdullah and Raja Ismail) Chieftains such as Ngah Ibrahim (Laru Minister) and Raja Abdullah requested for British intervention

Anxiety on the part of the British that other European powers will intervene in the Malay States

The Pangkor Treaty was signed on 20th January 1874

J. W.W. Birch was appointed the first resident.

3. Selangor (1874) Civil war involving Raja Mahadi and Raja

Abdullah Tengku Kudin and Yap Ah Loy supported Raja

Abdullah; the princes of Selangor Sultan and Sayid Masyor supported Raja Mahadi

British intention to interfere was not successful because the Malay chieftains did not want the British to interfere.

In 1873, a British cargo boat was attacked by pirates; the British took this as an excuse to intervene.

In August 1874, Frank Swettenham was appointed official advisor to the Sultan and J. G. Davidson as the resident.

4. Sungai Ujong / Negeri Sembilan (1874) Struggle for power in Sungai Linggi between

Dato’ Kelana Sayid Abdul Rahman and Dato’ Bandar Kulup Tunggal

Dato’ Kelana sought help from the British and was subsequently acknowledged as chief of Sungai Ujong.

However, the appointment of Dato’ Kelana and British presence were opposed by Dato’ Bandar Kulup Tunggal.

The British army, led by W.A. Pickering, successfully defeated Dato’ Bandar Kulup Tunggal.

Sungai Ujong accepted British advisor, W. I Tatham.

The British extended their power to all districts in Negeri Sembilan and finally the local people had to accept a British resident, Martin Lister.

5. Pahang (1880s) Civil war broke out due to the struggle between

Wan Mutahir and Wan Ahmad for the post of Chief Minister.

The British were worried over Sultan Ahmad’s suggestions to give trade concessions to Western powers.

In February 1888, a British citizen (of Chinese descent) was murdered in Pekan (near the sultan’s palace).

The British took this as an excuse to intervene. Sultan Ahmad accepted the British resident, J.

P. Rodger. 6. Sabah (1946) Part of Sabah was under the Brunei Sultanate

since the 16th century. Was leased to Charles Lee Moses in 1865 and

subsequently sold to Baron Von Overbeck The Sulu Sultanate agreed to give up their land

in Sabah to Overbeck and Dent in 1878.

The North Borneo Chartered Company was established to administer Sabah.

On 15th July 1946, Sabah was declared a British colony.

The above is a summary of the history of British intervention in the Malay states of the Peninsula, Sabah and Sarawak.

The Malay states that first accepted British intervention were Perak, Negeri Sembilan (Sungai Ujong), Pahang and Selangor.

These states were combined under the administrative system of the Federated Malay States.

Factors for British Intervention 1. The colonization was caused by internal weaknesses

such as unrest and civil war in the states concerned. There was no unity among the inhabitants and this gave the British the chance and excuse to intervene by installing an advisor (and later resident).

2. The presence of important economic resources such as tin ore and agricultural products (commercial agriculture) in these states were also reasons for intervention.

3. There was strong competition among the Western powers for colonies to meet the economic needs of their country thus increasing the need for intervention.

This shows that it was the rich natural wealth that attracted the foreign powers but it was the people’s own mistake that the land was colonized.

Resident System

To make the administrative system more efficient and to strengthen their hold over the colonized territory, the British introduced the Resident system in the Malay states.

Every Malay state that was conquered, had a British resident.

The role of resident was to advise the Sultan; but in certain cases, the resident had power even over the state officials and the Sultan himself.

The impacts of this resident system on the Malay states were as follow:

1. From the point of administration, every state was divided into districts, divisions or residency, villages, each with its own head.

A police force was established for peace-keeping.

Sometimes, in certain states, the resident was more powerful than the Sultan himself, and the power of the Sultan was limited only to religion and Malay customs.

2. From the economic view-point, public infrastructure such a roads and railway tracks were built to facilitate the transport and exploitation of resources.

The British could develop their agricultural activities including the introduction of new plants such as rubber.

However, the development was focused mainly on areas that were economically profitable such as the tin mining areas, towns and states on the west coast of the Peninsula.

Besides that, the immigrants and Western investors monopolized the economic resources, while the local people were still tied to their traditional economy and lived in villages.

Although there was development in terms of infrastructure, it was concentrated mainly in areas where British economic interests were located, such as towns and centres of economic activities.

3. From the social aspect, the taxation system and imposition of licenses on boats and firearms were introduced.

The British also enforced the ban on slavery. Meanwhile, the immigration of a foreign workforce,

especially from India and China, was encouraged to assist the development of rubber estates and tin mines.

At the same time, the influx of foreign workers (Chinese and Indians) caused many other problems.

They were isolated from the locals in terms of living quarters and occupation.

As a result, there was no interaction between them and this physical distance was among the many causes for the increasing social gap between them.

Federated Malay States

Through the Federation Agreement in 1896, Perak, Selangor, Pahang and Negeri Sembilan were consolidated under one central ruling system.

These states were known as the Federated Malay States.

There were several factors behind its establishment: 1. To address Pahang’s financial problems2. For the purpose of efficiency and uniformity in

administration

3. To check the Resident’s power 4. For security Through a federation, the resources of all the member

states could be collected and used for a common benefit to develop other states with minimal administration costs.

Among the conditions of the Federal Treaty was the acceptance by the rulers of the Federated Malay States of a British officer with the title of Resident-General.

The role of Resident-General was to advise on all aspects of government except on issues relating to Islam and Malay customs.

The rulers were still in power in their own states. The first Resident-General was Frank

Swettenham. To create a better relationship between the rulers

and the British officers, a Conference of Malay Rulers known as Durbar was introduced.

The first conference was held in Kuala Kangsar in 1897 and it was the first time that the rulers met.

The second conference was held in 1903 in Kuala Lumpur.

The outcome of the Federal Agreement, was the centralization of administrative power in the hands of Resident-General in Kuala Lumpur and the gradual loss of powers of the rulers in their own states.

The Resident-General had power over matters relating to finance and the primary sources of income, which were duties on exports that were under the control of the central government.

This also meant the establishment of federal departments which led to the employment of more British officers, resulting in the Malay states to be administered mostly by British officers.

This had secured the position of British in these states.

The Malay rulers grew uneasy with the situation.

Federal Executive Council

To strengthen control over the states, the British government established in 1909 the Federal Executive Council.

The aim was to increase the power of the rulers and the residents in the states concerned.

The real motive, however, was solely to increase the power of the British Governor in Singapore.

The Federal Executive Council consisted of the High Commissioner (President), Resident-General (later changed to Secretary in 1901), four Sultans, four residents and four unofficial members (three Europeans and a Chinese).

The obvious effect of the establishment of the council was the gradual weakening of he power of the Sultan and the State Executive Council.

This became very clear when the Sultan became only an ordinary member with no decision-making power.

Laws were signed and passed by the High Commissioner and not the Sultan.

In short, the Federal Executive Council placed all authority in the hands of the High Commissioner.

This shows how the British gradually strengthened their hold on the states in Malaya. All measures taken were to facilitate their exploitation of the country’s economy.

Non-Federated Malay States

Before 1909, Kelantan, Terengganu, Kedah and Perlis were under the protection of Siam. As a consequence of the 1909 Bangkok Treaty, the Siamese agreed to hand over these states to the British, and a British advisor was appointed in each sate.

However, the Bangkok Treaty was rejected by the states involved, in particular, Kedah and Perlis.

Among the objections was the reluctance of the states to accept a British advisor.

The Bangkok Treaty had restricted the expansion of Siamese power to other Malay states and protected the British interests in Malaya.

The agreement made it difficult for other western powers to penetrate the Malay states, thus benefiting the British.

To the British, the states had had economic and trade potential while they were of no benefit to the Siamese.

The importance of his treaty was that it facilitated the process of expansion of British power in Malaya; Johore accepted a British advisor in 1914.

In 1919, the British combined the five states as the Non-Federated Malay States.

Therefore, beginning 1919, the states in Malaya were under three political units, namely the Straits Settlements, the Federated Malay States and the Non-Federated Malay States.

This ruling structure continued until the Japanese occupation that began in 1941.

Decentralization of Power

The decentralization of power (distribution of central power) meant that the important powers relating to administration of finance and services, such as the railway, customs and postal services that were once under central control, would be distributed to the states concerned.

The decade between 1910 and 1920 were years of peace in the Federated Malay States.

The economy was good and the rulers were pleased with their position.

However, after 1920, feelings of dissatisfaction crept in especially among the rulers because of matters pertaining to their position, causing the British to take measures to decentralize powers in the states concerned.

The distribution of power was in stages, first in the 20’s and then the 30’s.

In the 1920s, the main factor for the decentralization of power was the dissatisfaction among the rulers of the Federated Malay States concerning their decision-making power.

On the other hand, the rulers in the Non-Federated Malay States, where they had greater power over their own state.

The other factors included the British intention to combine the Federate Malay States and Non-Federated Malay States, the decline of world-economy in the 1920s, and the struggle for power between the Resident-General and High Commissioner.

Meanwhile, the reason for the decentralization of power in the 1930s revolved around the need to form a Malayan Union, the declining world economy and the need to protect the interest of the Malay society and keep check on Chinese political activities.

It was clear that the distribution of power implemented by the British was based on economic and political motives.

The distribution of power happened when the world economy was declining and it was a way to economize.

From the political aspect, the British had the intention of ruling the whole of Malaya under one administrative entity, that is the Malayan Union.

However, this distribution of power was not successful because the Japanese invaded Malaya in 1941.

Japanese Colonization

The Japanese colonization was an important event in the history of Malaya.

Although the Japanese occupied Malaya for only three and a half years (from 15 February 1942 to 15 August 1945), they had a great impact on the country.

The conquest of the whole of Malaya was fast and effective.

The entire country and Singapore were defeated in only 17 days.

The attack started from two directions, from the East and the West.

After landing in Kota Bharu, the Japanese soldiers rushed to Kuantan and then to Mersing.

On December 1941, Jitra was captured, followed by Penang Island and Slim River. In January 1942, the Japanese entered Kuala Lumpur, and both the Japanese military troops met in Johore Bahru.

On 15 February 1942, Singapore fell to the Japanese army.

The main aim of the Japanese was to establish a New Great East Asia government.

The Japanese promised to declare independence in certain South East Asian countries.

Factors for Japanese Victory

The Japanese conquered Malaya quite easily although the British military was equipped with better firearms and were grater in number than the Japanese.

The factors that contribute to the Japanese victory were:

1. The British were not prepared for the war. They did not expect the Japanese attack from the north.

2. The Japanese also had a comprehensive plan in which they had a network of spies in Malaya.

3. The Japanese soldiers were in excellent form because of intensive training and were led by capable and experienced leaders (such as Yamashita and Tsuji). They were enthusiastic and inspired to fight for the important and supremacy of Japan.

4. The Japanese had practical war tactics, such as using the bicycle even in the jungles and villages.

5. The British military lacked the spirit of war, especially after the first round of attacks. A large number of the British soldiers consisted of Indians who were still young and inexperienced in warfare.

Effects of Japanese Colonization The Japanese invasion had a great impact on the

life of the citizens of Malaya. The effects were social, economic and political.

1. From the social aspect, the Japanese invasion worsened the relationship among the races in the country because the Japanese were against the Chinese and on the side of the Malays.

This made the Chinese took refuge at the edge of the jungle.

The misunderstanding between the Malays and the Chinese continued even after the Japanese had surrendered.

2. From the economic aspect, Malaya was in complete confusion. The economic infrastructure was destroyed and economic activities were disrupted causing the lives of the people to become worse and inflation continued to grow higher.

3. From the political aspect, it was found that the Japanese administration was a period of misery for the local citizens and the experience raised their political awareness.

The Malays were attracted to the slogan “Asia for Asians” which motivated them to build their own government.

On the other hand, the Chinese established the Malayan People’s Anti-Japanese Army (MPAJA) to fight the Japanese and strengthen the Communist Party of Malaya (MCP).

The bloody conflict between the Chinese and Malays lasted two weeks until the British established the British Army Administration (BMA).

However, this experience had left lasting negative racial sentiment between the two races.

Era of Emergency

One of the most important periods that Malaysia went through was the period of the emergency.

The emergency period is closely related to the development and activities of the Communist Party of Malaya (MCP).

Communism spread into Malaya in the 1920s through a branch of the Kuomintang Party that was an ally of the communists in China.

Majority of the MCP members were Chinese. The primary objective of the MCP was to

overthrow the British government and establish the Communist Republic of Malaya.

Since its establishment, the MCP had been an underground movement except during the years 1945 to 1948.

When the Japanese occupied Malaya, the MCP had worked with the British to fight against the Japanese by forming the Malayan People Anti-Japanese Army (MPAJA).

As soon as the Second World War ended, some of the MCP guerillas emerged from the jungle and prepared a strategy to take over the controlling power before the British resumed their rule of Malaya.

The MCP formed the Malayan Races Liberation Army (MRLA), better known as the Three Stars (symbolizing the three main races in Malaya) to fight for the establishment of the Communist Republic of Malaya.

The MCP also set up a supply and public spy unit known as Min Yuen.

Min Yuen had two main functions: to get food and medical supplies for guerillas in the jungle and to obtain information on British activities.

The majority of the local population did not support the communist ideology.

For the Malays, communism was against Islamic teachings as it denied the existence of God.

Besides, the MCP was dominated by the Chinese and created suspicion among the Malays and the Indians.

However, there were many Chinese who were not interested in joining MAP. Instead, they were more interested in economic activities and improving the economy.

Furthermore, there were some political leaders who established the Malayan Chinese Association (MCA( to safe-guard the interest of the Chinese people.

Besides, the Malayan economy was quite stable at that time and most Malayan citizens were against the violent tactics of the MCP.

In 1948, the MCP launched attacks on rubber estates and tin mines causing many deaths and loss of means of livelihood.

Consequently, the British took step to eliminate communism and halt the MCP activities.

In June 1948, the MCP launched an armed uprising in Malaya.

Between 1948 and 1951, the MCP launched several attacks on estates, mines, police stations and the general public, especially Europeans.

The MCP employed guerilla war tactics. Their strategy was to cripple the Malayan economy, by conquering big cities, and towns (to form headquarters) and eventually drive the British out of Malaya.

On 6 October 1951, while on his way to Fraser’s Hill, Sir Henry Gurney, the High Commissioner, was shot dead by communists

His violent death shocked the British government and spurred them into action to eradicate the communists and their activities.

Among the measures taken were the declaration of emergency, the Briggs Plan, military steps and psychological warfare. (the Templer Plan).

Declaration of Emergency

On 16 June 1948, Sir Edward Gent, a British High Commissioner, declared Perak and Johore emergency areas.

On 17 June 1948, a state of emergency was declared on the whole of Malaya.

The declaration was due to the killing of three Europeans estate managers in Perak.

On 23 July 1948, the MCP was officially outlawed.

The Emergency Law of 1948 gave powers to the police and soldiers to arrest and detain communist suspects without trial.

The military force also imposed roadblocks and curfews in areas where communist activities were rife.

The registration system was also introduced where citizens aged 12 years and above must register and own an identification card, now known as the identity card.

Sir Harold Briggs introduced the Briggs Plan to eradicate communist activities through a strategy to relocate the squatter areas from the edge of the forest to a new village; and to launch starvation movement.

The plan was aimed at restricting the Chinese from supplying food , medicine and information to the communist guerillas who were hiding in the jungles.

This plan was effective in eradicating communist violence because it weakened Min Yuen activities and forced the communist out of the jungles.

Sir Gerald Templer was appointed the High Commissioner of Malaya in 1952 to replace Sir Henry Gurney.

As a military general, he used firm military force to fight the communists.

His military tactics included the use of 13 battalions of British soldiers, Gurkhas and Malays; training 67,000 special Malay soldiers and forming home guards systems with 210,000 of hem in 1953, and recruiting assistance from the Commonwealth military, such as form Australia, New Zealand and Rhodesia.

The strength of military team enabled the government to launch more aggressive attacks on the communists and ensured that food was not smuggled out for the guerilla communists.

Sir Gerald Templer also launched psychological warfare upon the communist terrorists by taking a number of actions.

Among them were making conditions easier for non-Malays to obtain citizenship, pardoning in large numbers the MCP members who surrendered, rewarding people who provided information on the communist terrorists and giving out pamphlets calling the communist terrorists to give up their fight.

Besides that, he introduced the system of white and black areas.

The white area is an area that is free from communist activities, while the opposite is the case for a black area.

Templer also introduced curfews in areas where the soldiers were hunting for the communists.

Templer’s psychological warfare can be said to be one of the factors for the success of the government of the Federation of Malaya in ending the communist revolution.

This encouraged the people of Malaya to work together with the government to eliminate the communist terrorists.

After the MCP decline, it decided to negotiate with the government of Malaya.

The negotiation was held in Baling, Kedah on 28 and 29 December 1955.

Tunku Abdul Rahman, David Marshall and Tan Cheng Lock represented the government while Chin Peng, Chen Tien and Rashid Maidin represented the MCP.

The MCP requested to be legally recognized but the request was turned down.

The negotiations failed as the MCP further rejected the government’s counter offer and refused to lay down their arms.

Impact of the Emergency

Gradually the influence and activities of the MCP declined.

On 31 July 1960, Tunku Abdul Rahman proclaimed the end of the emergency.

MCP’s failure was due to several reasons: their offensive acts against the Malayan Union, the lack of support from Malayan citizens, especially from the Malays, and the lack of protection from other communist countries, such as Russia and China.

However, the emergency period hat lasted 12 years left many negative results.

The number of people killed included 9,581 MCP members, 2,461 ordinary citizens and 1,851 members of the Security Force. The injured numbered 1,383 while those missing were around 807.

Properties were destroyed and the economy was crippled.

New villages with public facilities unlike those in the traditional Malay villages were developed.

This widened the social gap among the people. Communist movements with mainly Chinese

while the police and army forces being Malaya only made the racial issue worse.

A few lessons can be learnt from the emergency. It challenged the people in the country to work

together to defeat the communist terrorists. The British, on the other hand, took immediate

action to grant independence to the country on the ground that there was unity among the citizens of Malaya.