ecology burung

8/14/2019 Ecology Burung

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Irfanul Arifin 3425072027Esti Syariati 3425072029

Dita Monalisa 3425072033Arini 3425072051

ORNITOLOGIUNIVERSITAS NEGERI JAKARTA


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FromFrom anatomicalanatomical,, physiologicalphysiological, and, and

behavioralbehavioral standpoints birds arestandpoints birds are

intimately tied to their environments.intimately tied to their environments.

The interactions between birds andThe interactions between birds and

their natural surroundings-thetheir natural surroundings-thephysical and biological aspects ofphysical and biological aspects of

their environment-constitute theirtheir environment-constitute their

ecologyecology


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Habitats and NichesHabitats and Niches

As with all organism, the habitats of birds contain bothAs with all organism, the habitats of birds contain bothlivingliving andand non-livingnon-living components.components.

The non-living orThe non-living or abioticabiotic component consists ofcomponent consists of

sunlight, water, and soil. These, in turn, make posssiblesunlight, water, and soil. These, in turn, make posssiblethe growth of green plants, which birds use eitherthe growth of green plants, which birds use eitherdirectly or indirectly for food and cover or as a sourcedirectly or indirectly for food and cover or as a sourceof nesting materials.of nesting materials.

Not only are plants important to birds as food items atNot only are plants important to birds as food items atdifferent trophic levels, but also because they producedifferent trophic levels, but also because they producea certain overalla certain overall quality.quality.This quality can beThis quality can beunderstood better if we examine each aspect of itunderstood better if we examine each aspect of itseparately.separately.


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The principal qualitative characteristicsThe principal qualitative characteristicsof any habitat are stratification,of any habitat are stratification,

sociability, vitality, and periodicity.sociability, vitality, and periodicity.

StratificationStratificationrefers to the arrangement of organisms, especiallyrefers to the arrangement of organisms, especiallyplants, in a particular habitat.plants, in a particular habitat.

At various times in their lives, like other organism, birds areAt various times in their lives, like other organism, birds arespaced fairly uniformly as individuals, in clumps, or in colonies.spaced fairly uniformly as individuals, in clumps, or in colonies.This ecological phenomenon is termedThis ecological phenomenon is termed sosiabilitysosiability..

TheThe vitalityvitality of the habitat refers to the overall biotic potential itof the habitat refers to the overall biotic potential ithas for reproducing itself; the seasonal changes are referred to,has for reproducing itself; the seasonal changes are referred to,collectively, as thecollectively, as the periodicityperiodicity of the habitat. Both helpof the habitat. Both helpdetermine the nature of a birds habitat. It is important todetermine the nature of a birds habitat. It is important torealize, that within each habitat are numerous microhabitats,realize, that within each habitat are numerous microhabitats,

each of which may harbor a colony, a single family, or perhapseach of which may harbor a colony, a single family, or perhapsonly an individual bird.only an individual bird.


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Birds may be categorized by feedingBirds may be categorized by feedinglevel that they occupy in relation to theirlevel that they occupy in relation to their

utilization of green plant for food,utilization of green plant for food,

example:example:The herbivorousThe herbivorous cedar waxwingcedar waxwing is a first feedingis a first feeding

(tropic)level organism since it eats plant directly(tropic)level organism since it eats plant directly

WarblersWarblers are mostly insect-eathers feeding at theare mostly insect-eathers feeding at the

second trophic levelsecond trophic level

HawksHawks andand owlowl feed at the third trophic level, sincefeed at the third trophic level, since

they eat mice that have eaten plant-eating insects.they eat mice that have eaten plant-eating insects.


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Cedar waxwing

hawks

warbler


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Allen (1961) divides birds of theAllen (1961) divides birds of the

woodlands, primarily on the basiswoodlands, primarily on the basisof nest sites, intoof nest sites, into

1. Birds of the forest floor1. Birds of the forest floor

2.Birds of the undergrowth2.Birds of the undergrowth

3.Birds of the lower branches3.Birds of the lower branches

4.Birds of the trunks and hollow4.Birds of the trunks and hollow

branchesbranches5.Birds of the higher branches and5.Birds of the higher branches andtreetops.treetops.


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A similar horizontal spacing is seenA similar horizontal spacing is seenin aquatic habitats :in aquatic habitats :

Ducks and coots build nests on orDucks and coots build nests on orjust above the water surface.just above the water surface.

cootsducks


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Least bitterns and red-wingedLeast bitterns and red-winged

Blackbirds utilize the cattails andBlackbirds utilize the cattails andreeds (sometimes several feet aboutreeds (sometimes several feet aboutthe waters surface) for nestthe waters surface) for nestattachmentattachment

Least bitterns Red-winged


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When dead trees are available inWhen dead trees are available insuch habitat, their upper branchessuch habitat, their upper branchesmay be occupied by Great Bluemay be occupied by Great BlueHerons, Ospreys, and even BaldHerons, Ospreys, and even BaldEagles.Eagles.

Great Blue

Herons

Bald EagleOspreys


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SociabilitySociability

Like stratafication, bird sociability is quite variable. TheLike stratafication, bird sociability is quite variable. Thenearness of nestingnearness of nesting HerringHerring andand Ring-billed GullsRing-billed Gulls,,where the nearest neighbour may be only inches away,where the nearest neighbour may be only inches away,

allows for greater protection from predators than ifallows for greater protection from predators than iftheir nest were widely spaced;on the other hand, suchtheir nest were widely spaced;on the other hand, suchspecies generally spread out more when theyspecies generally spread out more when theyfeed;hence they more effectively utilize the feedingfeed;hence they more effectively utilize the feedingspace by covering a greater area.space by covering a greater area.


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A tropical cloud forest inA tropical cloud forest in

costa ricacosta rica


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The Kirtlands Warbler, a spesiesThe Kirtlands Warbler, a spesies

nesting only in Michigan, utilizes anesting only in Michigan, utilizes a

relatively dry and homogenous plantrelatively dry and homogenous plant--


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Succession

One feature of all natural habitats isan orderly growth pattern, termedsuccession.

Such growth, whether in terrestrial oraquatic habitats, involves progressive

change in the number and kinds ofspecies present and an accompanyingaccumulation oforganic matter.


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Begins at a relatively inorganic,primitive plant level and, as morecomplex plants and animal replacemore simple ones, culminates in theclimax community, which is theultimate community of organismpossible under the existing climatic

conditions

If primary succession isinterrupted or if a climaxcommunity already has beenestablished and is thendisrupted.

Occurs in an area, the result is the same the establishment of the ultimatemature community that can maintainitself indefinitely as long as the climatic

conditions do not change drastically.


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Succession (Continue.)

In each successional sequence (a sere) thereare a number of fairly well-marked stage(seral stages) that lead to the climax

community, and in each stage there are

change in bird life. 1.The Seral Field Community 2.The Seral Old Field

3.The Seral Shrub Stage 4.The Tree Stage


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A similar community progression occurs in aquatichabitats but with aquatic-adapted organism.

A typical progression in such habitats might begin withaquatic birds such as grebes or black terns that build

floating nest. As aquatic vegetation develops and cattails and reeds

become established, Red-winged blackbirds, Long-billedMarsh Wrens, American and Least Bitterns will begin tonest in the area and replace the former species that

required more open water.


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As cattails give way to woody aquaticvegetation these birds are replaced by speciesthat nest in this vegetation, such as YellowWarblers and Common Yellowthroats.

Eventually, as more and more vegetationcreates more organic material and dryer

condition, the tree stages and theiraccompanying avifauna become the ultimateclimax community.


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nest of Least Bitterns


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nest of yellowwarblers


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Floating nest Grebesin cattails


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Bird Population

Habitat vary greatly in diversity and density of bird life.

Bird population are ascertained by inventories and censuses.

1. Inventories is to evaluated population changes from year to year.

2. Census is to evaluate the status of various species formanagement purpose. Census also enable ornithologists to

estimate population over large areas.


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Bird Population (continue)

Bird numbers fluctuated are caused by unknownreasons and obvious causes.

For examples: Mans activities it can caused the bird

population have declined or increased. Change of habitat Season

Rookery birds in the southeast:declinedsuccession of dry breeding seasons.

recovered ` after a rainy season.Duck have declined due to drought and drainageprairie marsh lands.


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Data up to 2006 for the UK are presented in the national indicator

(a) Population index of farmland birds between 1992 and 2005

UK and selected countriesv
http://www.defra.gov.uk/sustainable/government/progress/national/20.htmhttp://www.defra.gov.uk/sustainable/government/progress/national/20.htm


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b. Percentage of known bird species threatened, 2004

UK and selected countries


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Data up to 2006 for the UK are presented in thenational indicator

Between 1992 and 2005 the farmland bird population index declinedfor all the selected countries. During this period the UK farmland birdpopulation index declined by 14 per cent. This was the fourth lowestdecrease after the Sweden, Belgium and Denmark.

Between 1999 and 2005, the UK farmland bird population index

declined by 4.4 per cent. Six other of the seven selected countries alsoexperienced a decline. The highest decrease was in Denmark wherethere was a 28 per cent reduction.

In 2004 15 per cent of known bird species in the UK were classified asendangered. This was the seventh lowest of the 13 selected countries.

The highest percentage was in Belgium, where 28 per cent of knownbird species were classified as endangered, and the lowest was Norway

where this figure was 8 per cent.
http://www.defra.gov.uk/sustainable/government/progress/national/20.htmhttp://www.defra.gov.uk/sustainable/government/progress/national/20.htm


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ANATOMICAL ADAPTATION

Ardea herodias

1 k ll
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skullhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skull


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Skeletal System1. skull

2. cervical vertebrae

3. furcula

4. coracoid

5. uncinate processes of ribs

6. keel

7. patella

8. tarsometatarsus

9. digits

10. tibia (tibiotarsus)

11. fibia (tibiotarsus)

12. femur

13. ischium (innominate)14. pubis (innominate)

15. illium (innominate)

16. caudal vertebrae

17. pygostyle

18. synsacrum

19. scapula

20. lumbar vertebrae21. humerus

22. ulna

23. radius

24. carpus

25. metacarpus

26. digits27. alula
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skullhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cervical_vertebraehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Furculahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coracoidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uncinate_processes_of_ribshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keel_%28bird%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patellahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tarsometatarsushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digitshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tibiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tibiotarsushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fibiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tibiotarsushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Femurhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ischiumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Innominatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pubishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Innominatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illiumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Innominatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caudal_vertebraehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pygostylehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synsacrumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scapulahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lumbar_vertebraehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humerushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulnahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carpushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metacarpushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digitshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alulahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alulahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digitshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metacarpushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carpushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulnahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humerushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lumbar_vertebraehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scapulahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synsacrumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pygostylehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caudal_vertebraehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Innominatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illiumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Innominatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pubishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Innominatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ischiumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Femurhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tibiotarsushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fibiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tibiotarsushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tibiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digitshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tarsometatarsushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patellahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keel_%28bird%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uncinate_processes_of_ribshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coracoidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Furculahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cervical_vertebraehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skull


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Muscular System

Most birds have approximately 175 differentmuscles, mainly controlling the wings, skin, andlegs. The largest muscles in the bird are thepectorals, or the breast muscles, which control

the wings and make up about 15 - 25% of aflighted birds body weight. They provide thepowerful wing stroke essential for flight. Themuscle ventral (underneath) to the pectorals isthe supracoracoideus. It raises the wing

between wingbeats. The supracoracoideus andthe pectorals together make up about 25 35%of the bird's full body weight.


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Picture. Skull of wing a Bird


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The skin muscles help a bird in its flight byadjusting the feathers, which are attachedto the skin muscle and help the bird in its

flight manuvers.

There are only a few muscles in the trunk

and the tail, but they are very strong andare essential for the bird. The pygostylecontrols all the movement in the tail andcontrols the feathers in the tail. This gives

the tail a larger surface area which helpskeep the bird in the air.


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Head

Picture. Skull of Head a Bird


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Scales

The scales of birds are composed of thesame keratin as beaks, claws, and spurs. They are found mainly on the toes and

metatarsus, but may be found further upon the ankle in some birds. Most birdscales do not overlap significantly,except in the cases of kingfishers and

woodpeckers. The scales of birds arethought to be homologous to those ofreptiles.


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Picture. Kingfiisher Picture. Woodpecker


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The internal and external structures ofterrestrial species reflect environmentadaptations.

The commonRedpoll in Alaska hasevolved a croplike

diverticulum thatpermits greater foodstorage for the longerArctic nights, and, like

other northern forms,has a dense plumageand thick layers ofinsulating fat that

reduce heat loss.

Picture. Carduelis sp.


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Ptarmigans have feathered toes that servethe same function.


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Unlike penguins in the northern parts oftheir range, the AdeliePenguins in theAntarctic has nostril covered with

feathers that permit inhaling colder air.


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Even the color of plumages (e.g., white inptarmigans during winter) and body size (e.g.,larger in subspecies of more northern FoxSparrows) are reflections of evolutionaryadjustments to environmental pressures.

Picture. Ptarmigans

Picture. Fox Sparrow

PHYSIOLOGICAL


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PHYSIOLOGICALADAPTATION Paralleling anatomical adaptations have

been physiological adjustments thatenable birds to succeed in variety of

habitats. Although every aspect of abirds physiology reflects this to someextent, there are several exceptionaladaptations that illustrate how

physiology and environment are closelyinterrelated.


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In young alticial species(e.g., all Passeriforms)temperature regulation is partlydeveloped at hatching. Afterbeing exposed to a controlled100C environment for 1 hour, aone day, a one-day-old EasternPhoebe has a body tempera-ture of only 1 or 20C above theambient temperature. At thisbody temperature its heartrate, blood flow, and breathing

rate decrease until they arebarely perceptible.

Picture. Passeriforms


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Picture.Acanthisitta chloris

After 10 days of age,however, the youngbirds maintain a fairly

constant bodytemperature(comparable to adults),even when exposed for

one hour or more to lowambient temperatures.


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In some species, however, distribution is moredirectly related to birds physiologicalrequirements. It is well known, for example,that certain Galliform birds are physiologicallydependent on specific soil types; the Ring-necked Pheasant apparently requires calcium-enriched soils, and the Gray Partridge limestone

soils.

Ring-necked

Galliform

Gray Partridge


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Another physiological adaptation involves therelationship between daylight periods andmetabolic activities. The Day-night light cycle(circadian rhythm) ofChaffinches can be alteredin captivity simply by exposing them to differentperiods of light (Aschoff, 1965). In fact,increasing the intensity of light caused a

shortening of diurnal metabolically activeperiod. Also, there is an accumulative effect ona birds physiology when photoperiods arelengthened.

Picture. Chaffinches


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Circulatory System

Birds have a four-chambered heart, in common withhumans, most mammals, and some reptiles (namelythe crocodilia). This adaptation allows for efficient

nutrient and oxygen transport throughout the body,providing birds with energy to fly and maintain highlevels of activity. A Ruby-throated Hummingbird'sheart beats up to 1200 times per minute (about 20beats per second).


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HUMMINGBIRD


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BEHAVIORAL ADAPTATIONS

Black Vulture


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Success of birds in any habitat isattributable not only to properanatomical and physiological

adaptations; of equal importance arethose patterns of behavior that haveevolved to enable birds to find food,acquire a mate, reproduce, and avoid

predators or avoid being destroyed bythe harsh conditions that sometimesoccur in their world.


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Although anamazing variety of

feeding techniquehave been evolved,sometimes behaviorintended for

securing foodbecomesnonadaptive. BlackVultures are

gregarious feeders,seldom feedingalone.

Black Vulture


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Drinking Behavior

Most birds are unable to swallowby the "sucking" or "pumping"action of peristalsis in theiresophagus (as humans do), anddrink by repeatedly raising their

heads after filling their mouths toallow the liquid to flow by gravity,a method usually described as"sipping" or "tipping up".


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1 The Seral Field


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1. The Seral FieldCommunity

Grasshopper andVesper Sparrows arecommon in terestrialcommunities during the

early herbaceous plantstages.

They nest either on theground or only a few

inches from it.

Vesper Sparrows

Grasshoper Sparrows (Ammodramussavannarum)

h l ld i ld


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2. The Seral Old Field

As the low herbaceous vegetation dies, it produces moreorganic matter in soil and soil becomes more moist.

This leads to the establishment of taller, more complicatedfield plants, and at this stage the Field Sparrow becomes morenumerous, the Grasshoppers Sparrow less so.

Possibly new species may enter this area, such as :

meadowlarks bobolinks


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3. The Seral Shrub Stage

With further increase in organic matter and moisture, theseral field stage is replaced by a seral shrub stage.

In this stage the Grasshopper and Vesper Sparrows usuallydisappear, the Meadowlark and Bobolinks may also dissapear

or decrease considerably, andTowhees & Song Sparrows maymove into the area.

There still may be a few Field Sparrows but along with Song,Grasshopper Sparrows and Towhees, they disappear from the

area at the end of this growth period, as the seral shrubcommunity is replaced by mixed species of trees.


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Towhees


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4. The Tree Stage

During the early tree stage there still will

be numerous shrubs as an understory.

Bird typical of this stage are the Ruffed

Grouse, Gray Catbirds, Brown Trashers and

American Robin, all using the trees

invading area.

B


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A


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Ultimately, of course, the shrub community and its

avifauna will be vastly reduced as the climax-

community trees create increasing amounts of shade.

In this final stage, dominated only a few dominant tree

species, the community and its bird life (Veeries andWood Trushes, for exampel, in the eastern beech-maple

climax forest) become somewhat stabilized.

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