effective fact-finding techniques

8/9/2019 Effective fact-finding techniques

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Fact-Finding and InformationGathering

Introduction

The chapter will address the following questions: What are the seven fact-finding techniques and what are the

advantages and disadvantages of each?

What are the types of facts a systems analyst must collect? How do you develop a questionnaire and interview agenda?

What is a fact-finding strategy that will make the most of your

time with end-users.

What is the role of ethics in the process of fact-finding.


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What is Fact-Finding?

Introduction Fact-findingis the formal process of using research, interviews,

questionnaires, sampling, and other techniques to collect

information about systems, requirements, and preferences. It isalso called information gatheringor data collection.

ools, such as data and process models, document facts, and

conclusions are drawn from facts.

If you can!t collect the facts, you can!t use the tools.

"act-finding skills must be learned and practiced. #ystems analysts need an organi$ed method of collecting facts.

hey especially need to develop a detective mentality to be

able to discern relevant facts%


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What Facts Does the SystemsAnalyst Need to Collect and When?

When do you perform fact-finding? "act-finding is most crucial to the systems planning and systems

analysis phases.

It is during these phases that the analyst learns about thevocabulary, problems, opportunities, constraints, requirements,

and priorities of a business and a system.

&uring systems design, fact-finding becomes technical as the

analyst attempts to learn more about the technology selected for

the new system. &uring the systems support phase, fact-finding is important in

determining that a system has decayed to a point where the system

needs to be redeveloped.


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What Facts Does the SystemsAnalyst Need to Collect and When?

What types of facts must be collected? 'ny information system can be e(amined in terms of four building

blocks) &'', *+###, I/+"'#, and 00+'*H1.


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What Fact-Finding Methods areAvailable?

There are seven common fact-finding techniques hey are as follows)

#ampling of e(isting documentation, forms, and databases.

+esearch and site visits. bservation of the work environment.

2uestionnaires.

Interviews.

+apid 'pplication &evelopment 3+'&4.

5oint 'pplication &evelopment 35'&4. 'n understanding of each of these techniques is essential to your

success.

'n analyst usually applies several of these techniques during a single

systems pro6ect.


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Sampling o !"istingDocumentation# Forms# and Files

Collecting Facts from !isting "ocumentation he first document the analyst should seek out is the

organi$ational chart.

/e(t, the analyst may want to trace the history that led to thepro6ect.

o accomplish this, the analyst may want to collect and review

documents that describe the problem. hese include)

7 Interoffice memoranda, studies, minutes, suggestion bo( notes,

customer complaints, and reports that document the problem area.7 'ccounting records, performance reviews, work measurement

reviews, and other scheduled operating reports.

7 Information systems pro6ect requests 8 past and present.


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Collecting Facts from !isting "ocumentation /e(t, the analyst may want to trace the history that led to the pro6ect.

3continued4

here are usually documents that describe the business function

being studied or designed. hese documents may include)

7 he company!s mission statement and strategic plan.

7 "ormal ob6ectives for the organi$ation sub-units being studied.

7 *olicy manuals that may place constraints on any proposed system.

7 #tandard operating procedures 3#*s4, 6ob outlines, or task instructions

for specific day-to-day operations.

7 ompleted forms that represent actual transactions at various points in

the processing cycle.

7 #amples of manual and computeri$ed databases.

7 #amples of manual and computeri$ed screens and reports.


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Collecting Facts from !isting "ocumentation /e(t, the analyst may want to trace the history that led to the

pro6ect. 3continued4

&on!t forget to check for documentation of previous systemstudies and designs performed by systems analysts and

consultants. his documentation may include)

7 9arious types of flowcharts and diagrams.

7 *ro6ect dictionaries or repositories

7 &esign documentation, such as inputs, outputs, and databases.7 *rogram documentation.

7 omputer operations manuals and training manuals.


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Collecting Facts from !isting "ocumentation 'll documentation collected should be analy$ed to determine

currency of the information.

&on!t discard outdated documentation. 5ust keep in mind that additional fact-finding will be needed to

verify or update the facts collected.

's you review e(isting documents, take notes, draw pictures, and

use systems analysis and design tools to model what you are

learning or proposing for the system.


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"ocument and File #ampling Techniques :ecause it would be impractical to study every occurrence of

every form, analysts normally usesamplingtechniques to get a

large enough cross section to determine what can happen in thesystem.

#amplingis the process of collecting sample documents,

forms, and records.

(perienced analysts avoid the pitfalls of sampling blank forms --

they tell little about how the form is used, not used, or misused. When studying documents or records from a database table, you

should study enough samples to identify all the possible

processing conditions and e(ceptions.


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"ocument and File #ampling Techniques How to &etermine #ample #i$e)

he si$e of the sample depends on how representative you want

the sample to be.

ne simple and reliable formula for determining sample si$e is

7 #ample si$e ; ( 3ertainty factor'cceptable error4=

8 he certainty factor depends on how certain you want to be that the data

sampled will not include variations not in the sample.

8 he certainty factor is calculated from tables 3available in many industrial

engineering te(ts4. ' partial e(ample is given here.

"esired Certainty Certainty Factor

$%& '($)*

$* '()+%

,* '(,'


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"ocument and File #ampling Techniques How to &etermine #ample #i$e)

#uppose you want @


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"ocument and File #ampling Techniques #electing the #ample)

wo commonly used sampling techniques are randomi$ation

and stratification.7 .andomi/ationis a sampling technique characteri$ed as having

no predetermined pattern or plan for selecting sample data.

8 herefore, we 6ust randomly choose => invoices.

7 #tratificationis a systematic sampling technique that attempts to

reduce the variance of the estimates by spreading out the sampling-- for e(ample, choosing documents or records by formula -- and

by avoiding very high or low estimates.

8 "or computeri$ed files, stratification sampling can be e(ecuted

by writing a sample program.


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$esearch and Site %isits

Introduction ' second fact-finding technique is to thoroughly research the

application and problem.

omputer trade 6ournals and reference books are a good sourceof information.

(ploring the internetand world wide web (WWW)via your

personal computer can provide you with a immeasurable

amounts of information.

7 Internetis a global network of networks. onceived in A@BC bythe Enited #tates &epartment of &efense to create a national

military communications network that would be imperious to

attacks.


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Introduction ' second fact-finding technique is to thoroughly research the

application and problem.

(ploring the internetand world wide web (WWW)via your

personal computer can provide you with a immeasurable amounts

of information. 3continued4

7 World Wide Web 0WWW1was proposed in A@D@ by a group of

uropean physics researchers as a means for communicating research

and ideas throughout the organi$ation.

orporations use the internet as an effective means ofcommunicating with their employees.

7 hese corporate networks called intranets, function and provide the

same assets of the WWW, but can restrict access from anyone outside

the corporation.


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Introduction ' similar type of research involves visiting other companies or

departments that have addressed similar problems.

Femberships in professional societies such as &ata *rocessingFanagement 'ssociation 3now known as 'I*4, or 'ssociation

"or Information #ystems 3'I#4 among others can provide a

network of useful contacts.


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&bservation o the Wor'!nvironment

Introduction bservation is one of the most effective data-collection techniques

for obtaining an understanding of a system.

2bservationis a fact-finding technique wherein the systemsanalyst either participates in or watches a person perform

activities to learn about the system.

his technique is often used when the validity of data collected

through other methods is in question or when the comple(ity of

certain aspects of the system prevents a clear e(planation by theend-users.


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Collecting Facts by 2bserving 3eople at Wor4

The .ailroad 3arado!( 'bout thirty miles from 0otham ity lay the commuter community of #uburbantown. ach morning, thousands

of #urburbanites took the entral +ailroad to work in 0otham ity. ach evening, entral +ailroad returned them to their waiting spouses,

children, and dogs.

#uburbantown was a wealthy suburb, and many of the spouses liked to leave the children and dogs and spend an evening in 0otham itywith their mates. hey preferred to precede their evening of dinner and theater with browsing among 0otham ityGs lush markets. :ut there

was a problem. o allow time for proper shopping, a #uburbanite would have to depart for 0otham ity at =)< or )


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Collecting Facts by 2bserving 3eople at Wor4 bservation 'dvantages)

&ata gathered by observation can be highly reliable.

he systems analyst is able to see e(actly what is being done. bservation is relatively ine(pensive compared with other fact-

finding techniques.

bservation allows the systems analyst to do work

measurements.

i i i


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Collecting Facts by 2bserving 3eople at Wor4 bservation &isadvantages)

:ecause people usually feel uncomfortable when being

watched, they may unwittingly perform differently when beingobserved.

he work being observed may not involve the level of

difficulty or volume normally e(perienced during that time

period.

#ome systems activities may take place at odd times, causing ascheduling inconvenience for the systems analyst.

he tasks being observed are sub6ect to various types of

interruptions.

i i f i


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Collecting Facts by 2bserving 3eople at Wor4 bservation &isadvantages) 3continued4

#ome tasks may not always be performed in the manner in

which they are observed by the systems analyst. If people have been performing tasks in a manner that violates

standard operating procedures, they may temporarily perform

their 6obs correctly while you are observing them.

7 In other words, people may let you see what they want you to see.

idi d f i


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5uidelines for 2bservation bservation should first be conducted when the work load is

normal.

'fterward, observations can be made during peak periods togather information for measuring the effects caused by the

increased volume.

he systems analyst might also obtain samples of documents or

forms that will be used by those being observed.

idi d f i


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5uidelines for 2bservation he sampling techniques discussed earlier are also useful for

observation.

Work samplingis a fact-finding technique that involves a large

number of observations taken at random intervals.

7 his technique is less threatening to the people being observed

because the observation period is not continuous.

7 When using work sampling, you need to predefine the operations of

the 6ob to be observed, then calculate a sample si$e as you did for

document and file sampling.7 Fake that many random observations, being careful to observe

activities at different times of the day.

7 :y counting the number of occurrences of each operation during the

observations, you will get a feel for how employees spend their days.

F tFidi dIf ti


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5uidelines for 2bservation With proper planning completed, the actual observation can be

done.

ffective observation is difficult to carry out however, thefollowing guidelines may help you develop your observation

skills)

7 &etermine the who, what, where, when, why, and how of the

observation.

7 btain permission from appropriate supervisors or managers.

7 Inform those who will be observed of the purpose of the

observation.

7 eep a low profile.

7 ake notes during or immediately following the observation.

F tFidi dIf ti


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5uidelines for 2bservation ffective observation is difficult to carry out however, the

following guidelines may help you develop your observation

skills) 3continued4

7 +eview observation notes with appropriate individuals.

7 &on!t interrupt the individuals at work.

7 &on!t focus heavily on trivial activities.

7 &on!t make assumptions.

F tFidi dIf ti


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(uestionnaires

Introduction 6uestionnairesare special-purpose documents that allows the

analyst to collect information and opinions from respondents.

he document can be mass produced and distributed torespondents, who can then complete the questionnaire on their

own time.

2uestionnaires allow the analyst to collect facts from a large

number of people while maintaining uniform responses.

When dealing with the large audience, no other fact-findingtechnique can tabulate the same facts as efficiently.

F tFidig dIf ti


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(uestionnaires

Collecting Facts by 7sing 6uestionnaires 'dvantages)

Fost questionnaires can be answered quickly.

7 *eople can complete and return questionnaires at theirconvenience.

2uestionnaires provide a relatively ine(pensive means for

gathering data from a large number of individuals.

2uestionnaires allow individuals to maintain anonymity.

7 Individuals are more likely to provide the real facts, rather thantelling you what they think their boss would want them to.

+esponses can be tabulated and analy$ed quickly.

F tFidig dIf ti


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(uestionnaires

Collecting Facts by 7sing 6uestionnaires &isadvantages)

he number of respondents is often low.

here!s no guarantee that an individual will answer or e(pand on all of

the questions.

2uestionnaires tend to be infle(ible.

7 here!s no opportunity for the systems analyst to obtain voluntary

information from individuals or to reword questions that may have

been misinterpreted.

It!s not possible for the systems analyst to observe and analy$e therespondent!s body language.

here is no immediate opportunity to clarify a vague or incomplete

answer to any question.

0ood questionnaires are difficult to prepare.

F tFidig dIf ti


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(uestionnaires

Types of 6uestionnaires here are two formats for questionnaires, free-format and fi(ed-format.

"ree-format questionnaires)

Free-format questionnairesoffer the respondent greater latitude in

the answer. ' question is asked, and the respondent records the

answer in the space provided after the question.

he analyst should phrase the questions in simple sentences and not

use words -- such asgood-- that can be interpreted differently by

different respondents.

he analyst should ask questions that can be answered with three or

fewer sentences.

7 therwise, the questionnaire may take up more time than the respondent

is willing to sacrifice.

FactFindingandInformation


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(uestionnaires

Types of 6uestionnaires "i(ed-format questionnaires)

Fi!ed-format questionnairescontain questions that require

specific responses from individuals.7 0iven any question, the respondent must choose from the

available answers.

7 his makes the results much easier to tabulate.

7 n the other hand, the respondent cannot provide additional

information that might prove valuable.



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(uestionnaires


here are three types of fi(ed-format questions.

A

Fultiple-choice questions)7 "or multiple-choice questions, the respondent is given severalanswers.

8 he respondent should be told if more than one answer may be

selected.

8 #ome multiple-choice questions allow for very brief free-format

responses when none of the standard answers apply.7 'n e(ample of a multiple-choice, fi(ed-format question is)

Is the current accounts receivable report that you receive useful?

YES N

If no! please e"plain#



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(uestionnaires


= +ating questions)

7 "or rating questions, the respondent is given a statement andasked to use supplied responses to state an opinion.

7 o prevent built-in bias, there should be an equal number of

positive and negative ratings.

7 he following is an e(ample of a rating fi(ed-format question)

$he implementation of %uantity discounts would cause an

increase in customer orders#

Strongly agree &gree No opinion

'isagree Strongly disagree



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(uestionnaires


+anking questions)

7 "or ran4ing questions, the respondent is given several possibleanswers, which are to be ranked in order of preference or

e(perience.

7 'n e(ample of a ranking fi(ed-format question is)

an the following transactions according to the amount of

time you spend processing them*

++++++++++ , new customer orders++++++++++ , order cancellations

++++++++++ , order modifications

++++++++++ , payments



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(uestionnaires

"eveloping a 6uestionnaire 0ood questionnaires are designed.

If you write your questionnaires without designing them first,

your chances of success are limited. he following procedure is effective)

A &etermine what facts and opinions must be collected and from

whom you should get them.

8 If the number of people is large, consider using a smaller,

randomly selected group of respondents.

= :ased on the needed facts and opinions, determine whether free-

or fi(ed-format questions will produce the best answers.

8 ' combination format that permits optional free-format

clarification of fi(ed-format responses is often used.



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(uestionnaires

"eveloping a 6uestionnaire 0ood questionnaires are designed.

he following procedure is effective) 3continued4

Write the questions.8 (amine them for construction errors and possible

misinterpretations.

8 Fake sure that the questions don!t offer your personal bias or

opinions.

8 dit the questions.

C est the questions on a small sample of respondents.

8 If your respondents had problems with them or if the answers

were not useful, edit the questions.

> &uplicate and distribute the questionnaire.



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Intervie)s

Introduction he personal interview is generally recogni$ed as the most

important and most often used fact-finding technique.

Interviewsare a fact-finding technique whereby the systemsanalysts collects information from individuals face to face.

here are two roles assumed in an interview.

A he systems analyst is the interviewer, responsible for

organi$ing and conducting the interview.

= he system user, system owner, or adviser is the interviewee,who is asked to respond to a series of questions.



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Intervie)s

Collecting Facts by Interviewing 3eople 'dvantages)

Interviews give the analyst an opportunity to motivate the

interviewee to respond freely and openly to questions. Interviews allow the systems analyst to probe for more

feedback from the interviewee.

Interviews permit the systems analyst to adapt or reword

questions for each individual.

Interviews give the analyst an opportunity to observe theinterviewee!s nonverbal communication.

Fact-FindingandInformation


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Intervie)s

Collecting Facts by Interviewing 3eople &isadvantages)

Interviewing is a very time-consuming, and therefore costly,

fact-finding approach. #uccess of interviews is highly dependent on the systems

analyst!s human relations skills.

Interviewing may be impractical due to the location of

interviewees.



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Intervie)s

Interview Types and Techniques here are two types of interviews, unstructured and structured.

A Enstructured interviews)

7 7nstructured interviewsare conducted with only a general goalor sub6ect in mind and with few, if any, specific questions. he

interviewer counts on the interviewee to provide a framework and

direct the conversation.

7 his type of interview frequently gets off track, and the analyst

must be prepared to redirect the interview back to the main goal or

sub6ect.8 "or this reason, unstructured interviews don!t usually work

well for systems analysis and design.



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Intervie)s

Interview Types and Techniques here are two types of interviews, unstructured and structured.

= #tructured interviews)

7 In structured interviewsthe interviewer has a specific set of

questions to ask of the interviewee.

8 &epending on the interviewee!s responses, the interviewer will

direct additional questions to obtain clarification or

amplification.

8 #ome of these questions may be planned and others spontaneous.

8 2pen-ended questionsallow the interviewee to respond in anyway that seems appropriate.

8 Closed-ended questionsrestrict answers to either specific

choices or short, direct responses.



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Intervie)s

8ow to Conduct an Interview #elect Interviewees)

1ou should interview the end-users of the information system

you are studying.

7 ' formal organi$ational chart will help you identify these

individuals and their responsibilities.

7 1ou should attempt to learn as much as possible about each

individual prior to the interview.

7 'ttempt to learn what their strengths, fears, biases, and

motivations might be.

7 he interview can then be geared to take the characteristics of the

individual into account.


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FactFinding and InformationGathering

Intervie)s

8ow to Conduct an Interview *repare for the Interview)

*reparation is the key to a successful interview.

o ensure that all pertinent aspects of the sub6ect are covered,the analyst should prepare an interview guide.

7 'n interview guideis a checklist of specific questions the

interviewer will ask the interviewee.

he interview guide may also contain follow-up questions that

will only be asked if the answers to other questions warrant theadditional answers.



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uesday, Farch =, A@@

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urrent redit-hecking *olicy

A to = min.

pen the interview.

Introduce ourselves.

hank Fr. :entley for his valuable time.

#tate the purpose of the interview -- to obtain an understanding of the e(isting credit-checking

policies.

> min.

What conditions determine whether a customer!s order is approved for credit?

> min.

What are the possible decisions or actions that might be taken once these conditions have been

evaluated?

min.


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Intervie)s

8ow to Conduct an Interview *repare for the Interview)

'void the following types of questions)

7-oaded %uestions, such as LL&o we have to have both of thesecolumns on the report?!! he question conveys the interviewee!s

personal opinion on the issue.

7 -eading %uestions, such as LL1ou!re not going to use this

*+'+ &, are you?!! he question leads the interviewee

to respond, LL/o, of course not,!! regardless of actual opinion.

7 .iased %uestions, such as LLHow many codes do we need for"&-J'##I"I'I/ in the I/9/+1 "IJ? I think =

effective fact-finding techniques

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