18TH-CENTURY & NAPOLEON

EHAP REVIEWPT. 3

18th-cen. Changes

“Modern world”:

Agricultural Revolution Commercial Rev. Industrial Rev. Political Revs. Enlightenment

Ag. Rev.

increased yields due to new tech. Need for LESS peasant ag. labor…cities for

jobs New World crops

Effects: prosperity for estate owners urbanization inventions Enclosure Acts Corn Laws (protectionist in Eng.) conflict b/n middle & upper classes…continued

exploitation of lower classes

Commercial Rev.

extension of trade routes & growth of towns

Changes: national banks/currencies insurance housesstock exchangesbetter sailing tech.removed guild restrictions

***C. & E. Europe impacted less

Dutch Economic Empire

Industrial Rev.

1750 in Eng. textile industries

urban industrial centers (Manchester)factory system (new equipment)reorganized family lifeend of cottage-industry & guild system

• “putting out” system

Brandenburg-Prussia

Modern Prussia: created in 17th-cen. by Hohenzollern family in N. Ger.

aristocrats, called junkers

Frederick the Great (“enlightened despot”): encouraged the arts & sciences

War of Austrian Succession (1740-1748)

Fred. the Great (Pruss.) disputed succession of Maria Theresa to Austrian throne

Austria allied w/ Eng. against Fr., Sp., & Ger. States “world war” over colonies & trade Austrian victory

scared of Prussia: Fr. & Austria ally against Prussia w/ Catherine the Great of Russia

Seven Years War (1756 - 1763)

Fred. the Great (Pruss.) allied w/ Eng. against Fr., Austria, Russia global conflict over colonies Prussians/Eng. win

Eng. (under William Pitt) preoccupied w/ N. America (“Fr. & Indian War”)

Treaty of Paris (1763): Eng. supremacy in colonial N. America & India

Russia

Before reign of Peter the Great: Russia was decentralized, weak, & feudal

By 17th-cen., Russia turned westward (decline of Poland & Sweden)

St. Petersburg

Peter the Great

Peter’s reign: Westernize Russia: St. Petersburg as “window to the

west” Russian Orthodox church under his control state monopolies & national currency system of “colleges & cabinets” to supervise all of Russia schools for civil service & military leaders military service for all land-owners (controlled “boyar”

nobles) cultural changes: banning traditional dress; shaving

beards; changing calendar***MOST RUSSIANS STILL POOR SERFS W/NO

RIGHTS!!!

The Great Northern War: Russia’s triumph over Sweden

Catherine the Great (Rus.)

1762-1796: imitated the West hospitals & schools active w/ Fr. philosophes (Volatire) changed unfair civil laws patron of arts RUTHLESS

Foreign policy: “League of Armed Neutrality”: stay out of colonial

issues Austria-Russia Pact: divide Balkans & Ottoman’s lands 2 wars w/ Ottomans war w/ Sweden Partitions of Poland

Poland: powerless kings (“Exploding Diets”) by 1600’s: Prussia to west & Russia to the east

Ottoman Empire: took over Byzantines in 1453 expanded into Europe (Greece & Black Sea) lost Battle of Vienna (1683) by 1800’s: called “sick man of Europe”

The Enlightenment

Intellectual movement in late 1700’s & early 1800’s

fostered by scientific revolution reason, natural laws, & progress inductive “scientific” method improve condition of mankind

led by “Philosophes” meeting in “salons”

Enlightenment Ideas

Deism: many philosophes against organized religion believed God did not interfere in human affairs did not believe in prayer

Toleration: religious & political

Education: “learning by doing” (Rousseau, Emile)

Neo-Classical Art/Arch.: imitate classical Greece & Rome

Enl. Thinkers

Voltaire (Candide): cynical & believed in knowledge through experience; freedom of speech/religion

Rousseau (Social Contract): innate goodness of man

corrupted by civilization glorified “noble savage” Govt’s: agents of the people through “contracts”

Montesquieu (The Spirit of the Laws): no perfect gov’t separation of powers (3 branches gov’t)

Thomas Hobbes (Leviathan): pro absolute monarchy

Enlightened Despotism

Ideas of the philosophes popular w/ some rulers:

Catherine the Great of Rus. Fred. the Great (invited Voltaire to Prussia) Maria Therese (Austria)

Joseph II

governing in best interests of people…

Critics of Enlight.

David Hume: “empirical” data only truthEdmund Burke: felt Fr. Rev. too

radical..started idea of conservatismMary Wollstonecraft: females equal

Romanticism: anti neo-classical art/literature emotion, feeling, nature

THE FRENCH REVOLUTION

Immediate Cause: bankruptcy extravagance & high costs of wars called for higher taxes

Political Causes: corruption “divine-right” to rule weak king (Louis XVI & Marie Antoinette)

Economic Causes: inflation unfair tax system

Estate System

1st estate = Clergy (2% of pop) 2nd estate = Nobility (1%) 3rd estate = peasants, middle class (97%)

poll tax, income tax, Church tax corvee “forced” labor NO weapons bourgeoisie: commercial middle class (no

political power) cahiers de dolences: leaders of phase 1 of the

revolution

Intellectual Causes

ENLIGHTENMENT WRITERS!

Voltaire Montesquieu Diderot’s Rousseau

Phase I

refusal to grant Louis new taxesEstates-General called together…

3rd Estate boycotts & forms National Assembly Tennis Court Oath: create a new constitution for Fr. July 14, 1789: storming of the Bastille (start of Fr. Rev.) burn estates of nobles & “Bread Riots” “March of the Fishwives”: Parisian women marched on

Versailles demanding cheaper bread (captured royal family)

Declaration of the Rights of Man & of the Citizen Constitution of 1791 confiscated Church lands

Declaration of the Rights of Man

Men are born free & equalPurpose of Gov’t is to protect these rightsFreedom from arbitrary arrestFreedom of assembly, speech, religion &

the press Major ideas came from philosophes

Phase II (1792-1795):

poorer landless peasants/urban workers dissatisfied food shortages, inflation, & unemployment

Jacobins: ultra-radical party representing “sans-culottes” Leaders: Robespierre, Marat controlled National Assembly at

Hotel de Ville

Girondists: less radical

The Radical Turn

National Assembly abolished monarchy a new constitution & gov’t (National Convention) Nat. Con. declared Fr. a republic universal male suffrage (only 10% voted) Convention splits: Jacobins (“Mountain”, led by

Robespierre) & Gironde (led by Condorcet)

King Louis XVI: executed in 1793

First Coalition

After execution: Eng., Sp., Neth., Austria, & Prussia united in First Coalition declared war on Fr.

Spring 1793: Jacobins oust moderate Girondists from Nat. Con.

Why would the French Revolution be seen as a threat to Austria, Prussia and other European countries?

Reign of Terror

Robespierre used foreign threat to establish reign of terror

“Republic of Virtue”; the “Incorruptible”quell counter-revolutioncontrol moderates in countrysidecontrol economyhelp the poorCommittee of Public SafetyCommittee of General Security

Effects

25,000 executed (guillotine) “levee en masse”: military draft censorship price controls (the “Maximum”) confiscated land anti-Church free public educ. & military school metric System adopted new calendar… Roman styles in dress & art; address each other

as “citizen”

Thermidorian Reaction: Phase III (1794)

began w/ execution of Robespierre (9th of Thermidor)

bourgeois moderates took control of Convention

Jacobins ousted eliminated “Maximum” mob riots

White Terror: many emigres moved back as counter-revolutionaries

many Jacobins murdered

Constitution of 1795 (Year III)

middle-class constitution bill of rights elections Separation of Powers:

Council of 500 Council of Elders Directory (Napoleon crushes 2 coup d’etat attempts)

Problems of the Directory: still at war w/ Austria & Eng. independent generals coup of Fructidor (1797): legislature controlled by

army Napoleonic war in Egypt (loss to Eng. by Lord Nelson) 2nd Coalition formed

Coup of Brumaire (1799)

Napoleon seizes Directory in a coup

established the Consulatemilitary dictator: “1st Consul for life”

• established a hereditary monarchyConstitution of 1799:

• ALL male citizens could vote for electors

Napoleon’s Rule

dictator, but instituted reforms in gov’t, law, the Church, education, & banking

centralized gov’t: appointed prefects secret police censorship appointed loyal family members & lower class individuals Concordat of 1801: w/ Pope Pius VII, recognized Fr.

gov’t & Church lands were returned…but Fr. got to appoint bishops, but had to pay their salaries

Catholicism the “religion of the majority of Frenchmen”

1804: elected Emperor for Life

Napoleonic Code (1804-1810)

created one simplified code of lawspread through conquered areasguaranteed equality before the lawbut torture still permitted…fathers given dictatorial power over

wives/children provided for marriage & divorcebanned labor unions

Education & Finance

free public schools (“lycees”)technical schools University of France (1808 )National Bank of Francetax reform for everyone

Foreign Policy

War of 2nd Coalition (1798-1802): Fr. vs. Russia, Austria, & Eng.

War of 3rd Coalition: Eng. declared war on Fr. (Napoleon sold Louisiana to pay for war)

Battle of Trafalgar (1805): Eng. defeated French navy Nap. reorganized German states Francis II forced to abandon title of Holy Roman

Emperor (*official end of HRE empire)

Continental System: economic blockade against British (failed due to smuggling & Russia’s refusal)

1812: height of power

Napoleon’s Empire in 1812

Downfall of Napoleon

Spanish War (1808-13): Nap. invaded Portugal Spain revolted against Nap.’s brother

German Resistance: German nationalism led by philosopher Fichte who glorified Ger. past

1812: failed invasion of Russia 1/2 million men left; 20,000 returned Russians used “scorched earth policy”; harsh “general”

winter

Battle of Leipzig (1813): “Battle of Nations” Napoleon abdicated & exiled to island of Elba

March 1815, Napoleon returned for 100 days defeated at Battle of Waterloo by Wellington exiled to St. Helena

Napoléon Invades Russia: 1812Napoléon Invades Russia: 1812

Over 500,000 French troopsOver 500,000 French troops

Napoléon’s Retreat (Early 1813)Napoléon’s Retreat (Early 1813)

Less than 40,000 survive!Less than 40,000 survive!

Lasting Results of Napoleon

liberal ideals of equality, limited gov’t spread, but a conservative backlash

rise of middle class to powerNapoleonic code spread to C. & E. Europe

led to later revolutions