ei and gender update on 22-7 final

7/27/2019 EI and Gender Update on 22-7 Final

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Bachelor of Arts (Hons) Marketing and Management

Semester 3

(2012/2013)

STRATEGIC LEADERSHIP HKU ASSESSMENT

Module Code: 26243

Emotional Intelligence, Gender and Leadership

Module Leader: Sumona Mukhuty

Local Tutor: Mr Anthony Yip

Date of Submission: 22 July 2013

Word Court: 4952

Hull Student no.: 201200358


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Table of Contents

LIST OF FIGURE 3

LIST OF TABLES 3

INTRODUCTION 4

EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE AND LEADERSHIP 4

Definition of Emotional intelligence 4

Model of Emotional Intelligence 6

Four Branch Model 6-9

Mixed Model 9-12

Relationships between EI and Leadership 12-13

Relationships between EI and Transformational Leadership 13-14Relationships between EI and Transactional Leadership 14-15

Emotional Intelligence and Leader-Member-Exchange 15-16

Criticism of emotional intelligence and leadership 16-18

GENDER AND LEADERSHIP 19

Gender stereotypes and prejudice 19-20

Role incongruity 20-21

Glass Ceiling 21-22Glass Cliffs 22-23

An Local Example of Gender and Leadership in Hong Kong 23-24

Gender and Transformational Leadership/ Transactional Leadership 24-26

Criticism of Gender on glass ceiling 26-27

EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE AND 28-29

GENDER IN LEADERSHIP

CONCLUSION 30

REFERENCES 31-35


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LIST OF FIGURE

Figure 1 Four Branch Model (ability model of EI) 6

Figure 2 Affective Events Theory 9

Figure 3 Comparison of Five components of EI conception and 17

the Five Factor Model of Personality

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1 Description of Four Branch Model 7

Table 2 The Five Components of Emotional Intelligence at Work 11

Table 3 Components of Bar-Ons conception of Emotional Intelligence 12


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INTRODUCTION

This essay will evaluate the relationships between emotional intelligence and

leadership first by introducing the ability model (Mayer and Salovey, 2002) and

miedx model (Goleman, 1995 and Bar-On, 2000) and the relationships between

transformational leadership and transactional leadership. The gender and leadership

will be discussed by several characteristics such as stereotypes, prejudice, role

incongruity, glass ceiling and glass cliff. Moreover, further study will develop on

emotional intelligence and gender towards transformational leadership and

transactional leadership by the support of academic journals and some examples.

EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE AND LEADERSHIP

Definition of Emotional intelligence

Emotional intelligence (EI) has been discussed by different scholars, and Salovey and

Mayers first established the concept of EI in 1990. However, there are still many

different versions in describing emotional intelligence.

Some traditional thinking in psychology viewed emotional as inimical to one another

(Woodworth, 1940 cited by Mayer et al., 1990) and a part of a contributor to logical

thought and to intelligence in general (Leeper, 1948 cited by Mayer et al., 1990).

Salovey and Mayer (1984) defined emotional intelligence as a description of the

ability to appraise and express emotions and use them for the decision making

purposes. This regulation of emotion adopted in some ways to enhance living.


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EI is a type of social intelligence that involves the ability to monitor ones own and

others emotions, to discriminate among them, and to use the information to guide

ones think and actions (Salovey & Mayer, 1990, p.185 cited by Myers and Tucker,

2005) and EI is the ability to receive, interpret, analyze, and respond to messages,

both external and internal, is regulated by ones emotional intelligence. (Myers and

Tucker, 2005)

However, EI theory can provide information for leaders on improving the internal and

interpersonal communication skills for doing business or managing the organization.

Many enterprises are trying to improve the EI of the staffs to develop the business

such as improving customer service (Cavelzani et al., 2003)


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Model of Emotional Intelligence

Four Branch Model (Ability model of EI) (Mayer and Salovey, 2002)

Figure 1 The process of Mayer & Salovey : Four Branch Model (ability model of EI)

PERCPTION

Emotions are perceived

and exposed

Emotions are sensed;

automatic influences on

cognition begin

2 FACILITATION

Emotions enter the

cognitive system as

noticed signals and

as influences on

cognition

3 UNDERSTANDING

Emotional about

relationships are

understood, including how

they might change with

time and events

4 MANAGEMENT

Thoughts promote

emotional intellectual

and personal growth

Management

encourages

openness to feelings

EMOTIONAL

INTELLIGENCE


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Table 1 Description of Four Branch Model (as described by Mayer and Salovey, 1997)


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There are additional models used to further explain the definitions and factors of EI

like the Four Branch Model (Mayer and Salovey, 2002) and the Mixed Model.

Figure 1 and Table 1 briefly explain the concepts of Four Branch Model and how does

it works from four areas: the ability to perceive emotion, use emotion to facilitate

thought, understand emotions and manage emotion.

Mayer, Salovey and Caruso (2002) constructed a series of scale to measure EI such as

The Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT). This is a test to

measure the four branches of EI. The test contains eight tasks and two of them use to

measure each of the four branches of EI.

In branch 1, perception of emotion is measured by emotions in Face and Pictures. In

branch 2, emotional facilitation of thinking is measured by Sensations and Facilitation.

In branch 3, the understanding of emotions is measured by Changes and Blends.

Emotion Management and Emotion Relationships are used to measure management of

emotions.

Emotional information is very important in our daily lives since it will influence our

cognition. And the feelings and therefore, influence oneself behavior and to others.

Emotional intelligence ability can be adopted to different positions such as human

resource and customer service by performance managing, training and selection

(Ashkanasy and Daus, 2002).

Ashkanasy and Daus (2002) used the Affective Events Theory (AET) shown as below

to discuss the relationships between emotions and behavior. The discussion found that

experienced emotions will be affected by personal dispositions like EI or trait affect.


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Therefore, when people perceived emotions, they will generate positive or negative

emotions. Use the workplace as an example, they will have the ability to understand

the emotional information such as job satisfaction or become loyalty. Theses

influences will affect their decision making of the behavior like the ability to improve

personal understanding of emotions.

Figure 2 Affective Events Theory (Ashkanasy and Daus, 2002)

Mixed Model

Beside ability model, some scholars like Goleman (1995) and Bar-On (2000)

introduced the later models include an array of non-cognitive elements such as

general moods and social skills which is known as Mixed Model of EI.


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Goleman (1995, 1998, and 2004) pointed out that EI is a learned competence that can

be nurtured with the right practice. The components of EI in Golemans conception

are self-awareness, self-regulation and self-motivation, empathy and social skill.

Self-awareness means understand of your emotions, feelings, needs, strengths and

weaknesses and people with strong self-awareness are honest. Self-regulation likes an

ongoing inner conversation to manage various emotions and moods by controlling

feelings and impulses. Self-regulation provides ability to one to have judgment on

their emotion and influences their behavior such as seeking out information.

Self-motivation enables people to remain positive and optimistic to achieve the goals.

Empathy is easily to be recognized, it is the ability to read others emotions accurately,

it is important in today workplace because of the rapid growing of globalization.

Interpersonal and Social skills concern the skills to build relationships with others and

maintain positively. Table 2 below is the summary of the five components of

emotional intelligence at work.


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Table 2 The Five Components of Emotional Intelligence at Work (Goldman, 2004)


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Bar-On (1997) developed the Emotional Quotient Inventory (EQ-i) to measure the

emotional intelligence, for example the EIs influences of job performance

Similarly to Goleman, Bar-Ons model emphasises on the personality and competency.

Table 3 below shows the components of Bar-Ons conception of EI used in the further

research. These different concepts and models can give different ways to measure

emotional intelligence.

Table 3 Components of Bar-Ons conception of EI (Bar-On, 2000)

Age Gender Education (years)

Problem solving PS 0.21** -0.06 0.06

Self regard SR 0.19* -0.08 0.09Interpersonal

relationshipsIR -0.08 0.15* -0.01

Social responsibility RE 0.23** -0.08 -0.17*

Independence IN 0.20* -0.01 0.01

Self-actualisation SA -0.03 0.08 0.15

Assertiveness AS 0.16* -0.08 -0.01

Flexibility FL 0.01 -0.07 0.04

Happiness HA 0.01 0.05 -0.03

Stress tolerance ST 0.35*** -0.07* -0.03

Impulse control IC 0.25** -0.15(*) -0.06

Reality testing RT 0.29*** -0.13 -0.09

Relationships between EI and Leadership

Leaders with higher emotional intelligence will be more committed and happier to

their organisation (Abraham, 2000) and they will put more effort to achieve the goals

(Miller, 1999) which may perform better in the workplace (Goleman, 1998a). Some

theories have used to further examine the relationship between EI and leadership such

as transformational leadership and transactional leadership.

There is an example of a global company that use emotional intelligence


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organizationally is Google. The company develop successfully by hiring the best

people, not just technically, but with many of the emotional intelligence skills, such as

interpersonal relationship skill-encouraging supportive co-workers or teams (Social

Skill). Assertiveness-being satisfied with the work: staffs will do better if they love

the job (Empathy). Independence- putting the right staff in the right place with good

leadership skill (Self-Awareness). Google realizes that people with high emotional

intelligence can manage themselves and require less training to get the job well done.

Google uses a policy called Innovation Time Off as a motivation technique, where

Googles employees are encouraged to spend 20% of their work time to do their own

projects, this can enhance the Self-regulation and motivation of emotional intelligence.

These emotional intelligence skills make Google creative, innovative and success.

Thus, the successful products such as Gmail, Google News, Orkut and AsSense

originated from these skills. (Stein, 2009)

Relationships between EI and Transformational Leadership

Bass and Avolio (1994) (cited by Mandell and Pherwani, 2003) proposed that

transformational leadership consider four main dimensions were known as the Four

Is. They were Idealize Influence, Inspirational Motivation, Intellectual Stimulation

and Individualized Consideration.

Idealize Influence involves leaders as a role model and the followers will have

confidence to trust and follow. These leaders have high standards of ethical and moral

conduct. Inspirational Motivation leaders use emotional support to the followers and

help them to achieve goals and future states. Intellectual Stimulation leaders show


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support by encouraging followers to be creative and rethink their beliefs to enhance

problem solving skills. Individualized Consideration showed by leaders whose show

respect to the followers such as listen carefully to the needs of followers.

(Lopez-Zafra et al., 2012)

Leaders with high emotional intelligence will be more likely to show transformational

behaviours, because they have the ability to manage their own emotions to display

self-control and act as a role model, therefore the followers trust in the leaders and

show respect on the leaders. The leaders who have ability to understand others

emotions would be ideally placed to realize the content of followers expectations.

Leaders whose emphasis on empathy and have the ability to manage relationships can

understand followers needs and interact accordingly. (Barling et al., 2000)

Therefore, transformational leadership is an ability to enhance subordinates

satisfaction and trust by spreading out the own sense of confidence and competence of

the leaders. The followers will be more imaginative that benefits the organizations

(Barling et al., 2000).

Relationships between EI and Transactional Leadership

Transactional leadership only concern on exchange things of value with subordinates

to further boths agendas. Leaders with transactional leadership do not focus on the

needs of follower and their personal development. Transactional leadership consists of

Contingent Reward and Management-By-Exception and Laissez faire management.

Contingent Reward is shown by leaders who give tangible or intangible reward to

followers in order to exchange their efforts and performance. The effort paid by


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followers is exchanged for specified rewards such as money, promotion. Management

By Exception involves leaders by monitoring performance and taking corrective

action. These actions can be active or passive such as watching followers closely to

identify the problems whereas intervene only after situation get worse or standards

have not been met.

In Barling et al. (2000) discussion, the contingent reward involves positive behaviors

when compared with transformational leaderships. The factors such as provide

feedback, achieve goals and give reward are all task-oriented and similar to

transformational leadership. But still there are differences between transactional

leadership and transformational leadership. For example, transactional leadership

focus on daily activities and manage by exception and correct deviation while

transformational leadership emphasises on vision and strategy, inspire staff to

transcend self-interest, activate higher level of needs.

There is a third component named as laissez-faire leadership (Yammarino et al., 1993)

The style of this leadership is do nothing which creates a negative relationship

between leadership and followers performance.

Emotional Intelligence and Leader-Member-Exchange

Some researches have consistently shown that emotional intelligence has a positive

effect on work attitudes and performance for employees on jobs to manage their

emotions. Social skills are important for service workers to develop relationships with

customers. Emotional intelligence is the abilities to build relationships and to show

empathy, leaders with higher emotional intelligence tend to have better interpersonal


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skills and abilities to manage emotional pressure, they will not have emotional

exhaustion and burnout easily. These people have the ability to exhibit higher levels of

work performance.

Therefore EI may moderate the effect between Leader-Member-Exchange and work

performance (Huang et al., 2010).

Criticism of emotional intelligence and leadership

However, there are still some arguments between the relationships of EI and

transformational leadership and the relationships of EI and transactional leadership.

For example, in Lindebaum and Cartwright (2010) research, it was found that there

was no relationship between EI and transformational leadership and the research of

Gardner and Stough (2001) pointed out that there was no relationship between

transactional leadership and emotional intelligence measured by The Swinburne

University Emotional Intelligence Test (SUEIT) which is a measurement of workplace

emotional intelligence developed by Palmer and Stough (2001)


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When compare the five components of EI conception (Goleman, 2004) with the Five

Factor Model of Personality (Costa, Somerfield,& McCrae, 1996), we can found that

there are some relationships between EI and personality from Figure 3 below

Figure 3 Comparison of Five components of EI conception and

the Five Factor Model of Personality

Self-Regulation

Empathy

Self-Awareness

Motivation

Social Skill

Strong relationship less relationship


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On the other hand, when compare the five components of EI and the transformational

leadership, we found that the self-regulation is relate to the idealized influence,

empathy is relate to inspirational motivation, motivation is related to intellectual

simulation and social skill is relate to individualized consideration. Leaders with high

emotional intelligence may affect their behaviors positively and therefore, leaders

with high EI also associate with the transformational leadership.

Lowe and Kroeck (1996) pointed out that any given leader with high emotional

intelligence would be both transformational and transactional. The transformational

leader has self awareness and interest in the organisation, will increase the confidence

of individuals or groups. These leaders are creative with intellectual simulation and

seek new ways of working.


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GENDER AND LEADERSHIP

Gender stereotypes and prejudice

Gender stereotypes and prejudice is a perception of gender role sustained by people.

The perception can be influenced by with different impact of culture, traditional

viewpoints in different countries and egos (Zafra and Rocio, 2011). Males and

females perceive their social roles by the natural and fair perception of the

maintenance of gender inequality (Jost & Hamilton, 2005, cited by Zafra and Rocio,

2011). Base on the social role theory (Eagly, Wood, & Diekman, 2000), roles are the

basis elements influencing gender stereotypes. Gender roles may change as societies

change over time, these changes may affect the perceptions of in gender between men

and women. Because the social may change over time, women assume masculine

roles and men female roles which to form a non-traditional roles.

Different countries have their own culture, some beliefs in men have agentic

characteristics self-assertive and dominant such as the leadership in high positions or

women are expected to be kind and supportive with communal characteristics, like

taking care of others (Zafra and Rocio, 2011). These masculine and feminine roles are

affected by different cultures.

Eagly and Sczesny (2009) pointed out that the equality of men and women to have the

opportunities to access leadership positions is still far from present, even women in

western societies who have more opportunities to access the high positions. Zafra and

Rocio (2011) used an example of Spain and Germany to explain the discrepancy in

the number of male and female leaders in the upper echelons among the culture and

social evolution. For example, the percentage of female managers in leadership


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positions in Germany is higher than in Spain (36% vs 30%, United Nations Statistics

Division, 2010)), it also means that the men in top management positions in these two

countries are discrepancy. Therefore, the culture, social history and economy also

affect the gender stereotype.

Role incongruity

A role incongruity of stereotypes and prejudice toward female leaderships perceived

between role and leadership leads to two forms of prejudice. Firstly, people perceive

women less favorable than men as occupants of leadership roles. Secondly, people

evaluate behavior that appropriate the prescriptions of leader roles less favourably

toward women when compared with men (Eagly and Karau, 2002).

Although the equality of some developed countries such as the United State, 46% of

all workers are female and women make up 45% in executive and manager positions

From Catalyst (2000) research, in the five highest earning officers in Fortune 500

companies, women constitute 4% of those leaders and 0.4 of the CEOs. This research

showed that women in leadership roles evaluated form traditional concepts that

women are lack of qualified, womens family responsibilities and women show fewer

of the traits and motivations which are necessary in achieve success on top

management positions.

However, prejudice is one of the causes of role in incongruity and prejudice can arise

from peoples perception of the characteristics of male and female in a social group.

Role incongruity exists when people hold a stereotype about a social group that are

thought to be potential for success in social roles. Role incongruity is affected by


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social role of the content of gender roles and leadership roles, from the inherent

concepts, people typically have the dissimilarity to the expectations about leaders

(Eagly and Karau, 2002).

Since the incongruity between the female gender role and the leader role is more

likely to be more extreme at the higher levels of leadership. Eagly and Karau (2002)

suggested that the masculinity of leader role can reduce the incongruity between

female gender role and leader role arise from the perception of women as less

qualified for leadership by spontaneously categorizing women as leaders or potential

leaders.

Glass Ceiling

Glass ceiling is a description of the imaginary barrier that stop a women or groups

from progressing to a higher position in an organization. In the hierarchy, the

disadvantages of gender become stronger from lower level to the top and the

disadvantages get worse later in ones career (Cotter et al., 2001).

From a human capital point of view, some countries have different cultures in

societies, such as Chinese people have a traditional culture that female should work at

home and male tend to have more opportunities to have their education in some of the

middle-east countries.

By the stereotypes, biased perceptions, biased evaluations of top leader who is male,

glass ceiling is presented to block womens progress to higher corporate levels from

remain them at lower levels. Moreover, glass ceiling is a type of gender inequality


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cannot use the job characteristics of the employee to explain. The outcome of glass

ceiling inequality is greater at higher level than lower level and the glass ceiling

inequality will increase over the course of a career.

Perhaps there are different corporate cultures or different clienteles within an

organization in a specific industry that may attract greater supply on female

employees, but the glass ceiling is a barrier to block them to the top level.

To overcome the demand-side barriers, Matsa and Miller (2011) suggested a potential

role that women serve in a top leader position helping other women advance to higher

level positions. In their research, companies with more women on board tend to hire

more female top management employees and greater supply of female managers. It is

because women may have some skills that are difference from men which are more

valuable in different environments.

One example by Cotter et al. (2011) is the CEO of Hewlett-Packard, named Carleton

Fiorina. She was the first female chief executive officer of a Fortune 500 company.

Her appointment was heralded as no need to focus on the gender that glass ceiling no

longer exists. The accomplishments of women in different industries demonstrate that

there is not a glass ceiling.

Glass Cliffs

Glass cliff is a description of the tendency for womens leadership positions to be

more unstable than those positions occupied by men and to be linked with greater risk

of failure and criticism (Ryan and Haslam, 2009)Furthermore, women managers

seem to receive greater scrutiny and criticism than men. When women perform the


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same leadership roles as men, they are still be evaluated less favorably than men

managers. This reflects the differences between male and female of symptom barriers

that women encounter once they have broken through the glass ceiling.

Eagly and Karau (2002) argued that when compared to men, less favorable evaluation

will be taken on the potential of women and the bebavior of women will be evaluated

less favorable consistently. In this situation, women leaders are often in a

disadvantage and cause of glass cliffs. Women can be seen as a management leader

who better suited to crisis than men. Women are better to deal with emotional

challenges when crises presented which men may not be suited to. On the other hand,

men are better in deal with task demands success which women are people oriented

that may not be suited to.

An Local Example of Gender and Leadership in Hong Kong

Dr Margaret Chan- the Director-General of World Health Organization (WHO) who

was the first female in China appointed by the world health Assembly in 2006

Before joining to WHO, she was the Direct of Health in Hong Kong (1994-2003).

During her work as director in Hong Kong, she confronted the first human outbreak of

H5N1 avian influence in 1997 and she successfully defeated the spate of severe acute

respiratory syndrome (SARS) in Hong Kong in 2003(World Health Organization,

2013). In the cases, she showed the effective masculine leadership role to make the

decision of eliminating all the poultries which have suffered from illness to stop the

SARS to spread out and this method is adopted by many countries to prevent the

SARS nowadays.


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In these cases, she showed a high level of leadership in handle risky challenges such

as empathy and social skills to communicate with citizens and media. As a Chinese

woman, she broke the traditional social culture as in China that men perform better in

a leadership role. She demonstrated that women in different industries can show

effective leadership. Therefore, glass ceiling does not exist in some ways.

Gender and Transformational Leadership/ Transactional Leadership

The relationship between transformational leadership and gender become more

important in the fast changing and competitive of the globalized economic

environment. Reuvers et al. (2008) pointed out that the effect of transformational

leadership on innovative work behavior is stronger for male leaders than female

leaders. Furthermore, superior levels of innovative work behavior will be exhibited

when employees in same gender superior followers dyads. The research found that

transformational leadership by men managers has a higher level of innovative work

behavior when compared to women managers.

In most cultures in different countries, masculine men are perceived as

quintessentially leaders who are decisive, assertive and independent what it means to

be a leader. On the other hand, women are evaluated as friendly, unselfish, taking care

to others, but lack of qualities for the potential success in leadership roles. In Asian,

people typically think women as passive, lack in ambition and overemotional. These

characteristics are associated with disqualify of women in leaderships.

Women in leadership performance aggressive or not aggressive enough will be

thought by men that they are abrasive, arrogant or self-promoting. For example,

African American women are easy to associate with such stereotypes and risk.


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Traditionally, when women perform man role will be seen as conforming to feminine

stereotypes and they will not be respected (Ely et al., 2011).

The research of Eisner (2013) found that from the transformational aspect, both male

and female most used idealized influence in their leadership roles. While inspirational

motivation is less used by both male and female leaders. Moreover, women are more

likely than men to use individual consideration, this can associate with the caretaking

characteristic of women. Moreover, Eagly et al. (1995) pointed out that overall men

and women were equally effective leaders, they were more effective in leadership

roles congruent with their gender and women were less effective to the extent that

leader role was masculinised. Women were less effective than men in military

positions while they were performed better in education, government and social

service organizations. Furthermore, Eagly et al. (2003) found that women tend to use

more transformational leadership than men and they engage in more contingent

reward behaviors than men.

Gender and Transformational Leadership/ Transactional Leadership Cont

According to different cultures in different organizations, women are trying to show

an effective leadership style from getting to higher level. Therefore some forms of

masculinity and hegemonic forms in particular. These forms appropriate in different

genders. If men act as a femininity leadership role that makes them to be a more

caring manager, they are rewarded. Whereas women use femininity leadership role as

men do , they are just seen to be reached what they are expected to do or even

unqualified (White and Ozkanl, 2011).

Eagly et al. (2003) discussed that transformational, transactional and laissez-faire


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styles of men and female may difference in some extension. Because of role

incongruity such as the influence of gender role on behavior by means of the spillover

and internalization of difference gender norms. Women tend to more favor with

transformational leadership because it can help them to overcome the dilemma of role

incongruity. On the other hand, if organizations do not emphasis on hierarchical roles,

a command-and-control leadership or transformational leadership. Thus, transactional

leadership for women can be an effective leadership that encompasses some behaviors

that are similar with the female gender roles demand caretaking, supportive and

considerate behaviors. Contingent reward behaviors, involving noticing and admiring

followers good performance, may also develop positive, supportive work

relationships. In summary, transformational leadership as well as the contingent

reward aspects of transactional leadership also provide a particularly congenial

context for womens enactment of competent leadership

Criticism of Gender on glass ceiling

The ranking on United Nations Gender Empowerment Measure (GEM) and the

Gender-related Development Index (GDI) shows that countries ranked high on the

indices are those western countries such as Canada, USA and the UK. Countries that

ranked on medium to low are some eastern countries like Iran and Turkey (Ghorbani

and Tung, 2007). By and large, many studies on gender has been confined to research

in high GDI countries, there is a virtual absence of studies on gender research in

medium and low GDI countries. Because women in those medium and low GDI

countries are oppressed and prevented their opportunities in the labor force as

professional and executives in the higher level of management.


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There are some existed forms of glass ceiling for Iran that Ghorbani and Tung had

mentioned that include: women are less employ in the professional or top

management positions; women are less opportunity to have higher education; women

must wear the chador (a heavy veil and cloak that covers the person from head to toe

while leaving the face clear) in public, women are segregated from men and they have

limitation in interact with others and activities in society; legislation by government

and society discriminate against women and Islam is biased against non-Muslims.

Compared with other Islamic countries such as Turkey, the educational levwl has

been growth rapidly in the past 20 years. Based on the foundation of Turkish

universities reforms introduced by Atatrk in 1923 which established the Turkish

Republic, women had the equal opportunities with men by adopting secularism,

unifying education and enshrining the principle of equality in the constitution.

Therefore, glass ceiling is affected by the government, social cultures, history of the

country, education level. To provide the equal opportunities for women, government

should promote equality between male and female by replacing the legislations which

against women; eliminate discrimination on the basis of sex, marital status and respect

to dismissals, family responsibilities; prevent violence against women and sexual

harassment at work, in educational institution.


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EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE AND GENDER IN LEADERSHIP

In Mandell and Pherwani (2003) research found that differences in gender have an

effect of differences in the emotional intelligence and the differences in the leadership

styles. Moreover, the emotional intelligence will affect the leadership style such as

transformational leadership, it is one of the most effective leadership to lead people.

Beside, social and emotional skills need to be developed to face the fast moving and

challenges economy and society. To develop such important skills, emotional

intelligence is one of the most effective ways for the best-trained managers to be a

great leader.

Goleman (1995) described the subcomponents of emotional intelligence as empathy,

motivation, self-awareness and self-confidence which a transformational leader

always exhibits. Bass (1990) established that trust in the major component of

transformational leadership style. Transformation leaders are able to gain respect from

the followers and give confidence for them to trust.

Another component linked with the transformational leadership and EI is motivation.

Transformational leaders use motivation to communicate with followers to achieve

high expectation goals. The essential components of emotional intelligence include

self-confidence, self-control, conviction, ability to handle conflict (Bass, 1990b).

These characteristics also are associated with transformational leadership and EI.

Transformational leaders with high emotional intelligence show their leadership from

the senses of confidence and competence, motivate people to be more creative and

innovative. Goleman (1995) pointed out that these components of transformational

leadership are also essential components of emotional intelligence.


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In Mandell and Pherwani (2003) research, no significant interaction between gender

and EI was found when associated with transformational leadership. As a result, it can

establish that significant impact in the relationship between transformational

leadership style and emotional intelligence for men and women. This can further

explain that the interaction between gender and emotional intelligence would have no

effect on transformational leadership from emotional intelligence.

The research also found that women are better on managing their emotions and the

emotions of the others when compared with men. Moreover, there were no gender

differences between men and women managers on transformational leadership while

some researchers found that females are more transformational than male (Carless,

1998)

The positive relationship between transformational leadership and emotional

intelligence can benefit the organizations by hiring and promoting employees to

leadership positions. Organizations with transformational leaders can be developed

more effective and profitable. If emotional intelligence is considered as most need

ability for effective leadership, female may have better interpersonal skills than male.

As a result, the research suggested that female may have better performance such as

empathy and social when evaluating emotional intelligence, and male are better on

motivation and self regulation Mandell and Pherwani (2003). Furthermore, women

are more supportive and affective when involved in the transformational leadership of

emotional intelligence. In general, women perceived as more emotional intelligence.


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CONCLUSION

On this essay, we have discussed the relationship between emotional intelligence and

leadership by comparing the model of emotional intelligence- the ability model and

the mixed model. People who have the ability to manage their emotions will have

higher emotion intelligence. These characteristics of the components in emotional

intelligence can be associated with the characteristics of the components in

transformational leadership which means that there are relationship existed between

emotional intelligence and transformational leadership.

In the criticism part, we can also see that there are particulars relationship between the

personality and emotional intelligence which when someone perceived the emotions,

will have the ability to manage and influence the behavior.

From the gender, there are further research can be hold on the eastern countries, to

discuss whether the gender is affected by the social cultures or traditional point of

view, and the glass ceiling and glass cliff can be reduced by the government,

education or change of organization. Examples used to show that glass ceiling may

not exist in some industries and organizations.

Finally, from the available academic journals, we can found that the emotional

intelligence is more likely to associate with transformational leadership and there is

relationship exist whereas gender has less relationship affecting the transformational

leadership.


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