english punctuation and orthography slides

8/3/2019 English Punctuation and Orthography SLIDES

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Some remarks for a better understanding


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Punctuation marks have to do both logicaland rhetorical work. Their logical work is

helping to make clear the grammaticalrelations between parts of a sentence orparagraph and the whole or other parts; theirrhetorical work is contributing to emphasis,heightening effect, and regulating pace.

The Fowler brothersHenry and Francis FowlercompiledA Dictionary of

Modern English 1926


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Compare:

Woman without her man is nothing. Woman: without her, man is nothing.


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No comma preceding an object clause:

He said that he had no time.

No comma preceding a complementaryclause:

He promised to be back soon.

No comma with and connecting two words,phrases or short clauses:

Everybody held the honorable and learnedmember in great esteem.


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Separating the terms of a series: words,phrases, and clauses of like construction used

in a series: Half a century ago, when I was a boy, we were still

taught to dislike and fear the Americans, toadmire the English, and to feel inferior to both.

If the sentence continues after the last termof the series, put a comma subsequent to it:

I have desks, chairs, tables, and so forth, for sale.)


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Two adjectives preceding a noun areseparated by a comma if they are of equal

weight. Compare: He is an enterprising, ambitious man.

Moltke was a brilliant military strategist.

brilliant modifies not the noun alone, but thesecond adjective and the noun thought of asa unit, whereas we can substituteenterprising and ambitious in the first case.


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A comma precedes but except when thisconjunction introduces an elliptical clausewith no verb Her style of dress was smart but not gaudy.

A comma precedes other coordinatingconjunctions: or, nor, for, so, still, yet, else,

then He felt no fear, for he was a brave man.

The comma is omitted when the clauses areclosely connected in thought.


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The comma separates a series of subordinateclauses introduced with that

Interpolations introduced by and, or etc.are separated by a comma:

He listened to, and approved of, my proposal.

This is a very good, if not the best, translation. Some modern writers will sink to any level to be

different from, or superior to, ordinary people.


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Essential, or defining, subordinate clauses arenot separated by a comma:

Dont ask for another book until you have finishedthis one.

Non-essential, or descriptive, subordinateclauses are separated by commas:

He has bought a new car, though I doubt if he canafford it.

Exception: The truth is, he is lazy.


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Essential relative clauses:

The man you see at the desk is the secretary.

Non-essential relative clauses: Our wireless set, which has been broken for

weeks, is now mended.

The same rule applies to participles andadjectives without being, infinitives andgerunds.

The old house facing the road is for sale.


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Participles forming a syntactical unit with theverb take no comma: to lie waiting, to come

running, to remain sitting, to stand amazed Gerunds preceded by a preposition are

interpolated parenthetically and are alwaysmarked off by commas:

It is as if the electors, after watching a few distanteruptions, gradually discovered that the groundunderneath them is giving away.


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Interrupting phrases or clauses should alwaysbe marked off by commas: This news, if it can be relied upon, is highly

significant.

It is natural and, indeed, inevitable for humanbeings to err.

But our situation, geologists insist, is by no meanshopeless.

Sir Anthony, by long experience and aptitude, ismost likely to succeed.


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Conjunctive adverbs, adverbs and adverbialphrases that modify an entire clause or sentenceare usually enclosed by commas:

Accordingly, also, anyhow, anyway, besides,consequently, furthermore, hence, however, indeed,likewise, moreover, namely, nevertheless, so, still,therefore

After all, as a rule, at least, by the way, for example, I

believe, on the other hand, to tell the truth,incidentally, oddly enough, on the contrary, in the firstplace, to be sure

This road is, as a rule, closed to the public.


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Words and phrases out of their naturalposition and elements added as an

afterthought are marked off by commas: To the wise and upright, old age brings many joys.

Question tags are marked off by commas:

You dont like this, do you?

Initial adverbs and phrases are marked off bycommas:

In fact, he married her for the money.


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The comma is used to avoid ambiguity: Outside, the house looked bleak and sinister.

?Outside the house looked bleak and sinister.

The day before, John was initiated.

Doctor P. is a recognized authority at home, andabroad his articles are widely read.

However, the incident may be explained in such away as to satisfy public opinion.

However the incident may be explained, theimpression it has left is unfortunate.


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All is quiet; no life but our own breathes amongthe rocks.

He did not go to the city yesterday; he went to the

fair instead. You think I have nothing to do; on the contrary, I

am very busy.

Every step might be deadly; yet there was no timefor overmuch precaution.

He is a graduate from Oxford; hence we expect alearned discussion.


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It encloses parts of a sentence which explainor sum up preceding matter:

In the organic world, Darwin sought to grasp livingthings in their relationships struggle forexistence, natural selection, and survival of thefittest.

It introduces an abrupt change of thought: Of course, there is one place safe from lawyers

in heaven.


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It introduces a series, a summary, examples,illustrations, topics, formal quotations and

direct discourse: An Alaskan house is what a home is anywhere: a

center of family life.

There are two ways to do the job: namely, a rightway and a wrong way.

The Prime Minister said: There will be no cavingin to blackmail.


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Final silent : Words ending in silent drop the

before terminations beginning with a voweland retain it before terminations beginningwith a consonant. Double e at the end of theword is retained before every terminationexcept when the termination begins with an. Other double vowels are retained in allcases.


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Hate hated, nice nicest, like likable, Hateful, likely, paleness, solely

Agree agreement, agreeable, agreeing BUT agreed Shampooed, shampooing, tiptoeing

Change changeable Courage courageous

Grace gracious Sacrilege - sacrilegious


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Exceptions to the rule:

To singe singeing (cf. to sing singing)

Compare holy (sacred) vs. holey (full of holes) Mile mileage, rate rateable

Due duly, true truly, argue argument, whole wholly, awe awful, nine - ninth

Mortgage mortgagor, pledge pledgor

Final as an independent syllable: recipe,apostrophe, catastrophe, epitome, facsimile


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The letter preceded by a vowel remainsunchanged before terminations except:

Lay laid, pay paid, say said, day daily The letter preceded by a consonant is

changed to before terminations except:

Citylike, ladyship, clergyman, trying, babyish,dryness, shyness

Die dying, lie lying, tie tying To ski skiing, taxi - taxiing


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Picnic picnicking, picnicked, picnicker Traffic trafficker, panic panicked

Critic criticism, public publicist

Doubling final consonants: A single consonant following the short,

accented vowels a, e, I, o and u is doubledbefore a termination beginning with a vowel.

Bigger, clapped, pottery, muddy, revved


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Admitted, fulfilled, piggery, regrettable Handicapped, kidnapping, zigzagging,

humbugged, nonplussed, worshipped Deterring, stirred, occurred, starry, firry

(according to the rule) Offering, severing, preferable, reference,

referee (the preceding vowel bears no accentor the word is derived from the Latin rootfer)


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In British English is always doubled exceptafter diphthongs. In American English is

doubled only after an accented vowel. Compelling, expelled, rebellion, repellent,

excellent, distilled, controlled, patroller,appalling, enrolled (both in Br. and Am. En.)

Cancelled, travelling, counsellor, libelled,marshalled, towelling (one in Am. En.)


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is not doubled before the suffixes -ic, -ish,-ism, -ist, -ite, -ity, -ize: Angelic, vocalist, civility, equalize, devilish,

liberalism BUT:

Medallist, duellist (one in Am. En.)

idyllic, crystallize, tranquillize, metallic

Cancellation, chancellor, perilous, marvellous,paralleled, woollen

Almighty, already, almost, altogether, until,always, welcome, welfare, fulfil; dullness


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A consonant occurring between a short voweland is always doubled:

Dribble, nibble, huddle, middle, baffle, giggle,battle, rattle, kettle; tackle, tickle

or :

Piece, niece, priest, brief, chief, grief, relief, thief,

believe, achieve, relieve, field, shield, yield

Deceive, deceit, conceive, receive, receipt, ceiling

Exceptions: seize, weird


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Words with the initial sound /di-/ are usuallyspelt de- except:

Digest, dilapidated, dilemma, dimension,diminish, direct, diverge, diverse, divide, divine,division, divorce, divulge

Words with the initial sound /dis-/ are usually

spelt dis- except: Descend, describe, despair, despise, destroy,

destruction, despoil, despond, despondency


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Words with the initial sound /p :/ is spelt per-except:

Purchase, purpose, purport, pursue, pursuit The Latin prefix in-, written im- before labials,

is common in English; in some words it wasderived from a later French form and is spelten- or em-:

Embalm, embark, embrace, encompass,encounter, enroll, entail, endanger, ensnare


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For- vs. fore-:

Forearm, forebode, forecast, forefathers,

forefinger, forego (to precede), foreknow, foresee,foretell these are related in meaning to thewords before, forward

Forbid, forbear, forfeit, forget, forgive, forgo (to

renounce)


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The syllable / bl/ is always spelt ible after [s,ns, z]: accessible, sensible, visible

Exceptions: dispensable, indispensable -able is attached to verbs ending with -ate:

Creatable, debatable, calculable, translatable

-able is attached to verbs ending with vowels:

Agreeable, renewable, pliable, pitiable

-able is used after a long vowel:

Available, unbelievable, notable, desirable


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Exceptions: audible, plausible, exhaustible,deducible, reducible, feasible, discernible,

convertible, coercible Collapsible, combustible, compatible,

credible, edible, eligible, flexible, gullible,horrible, invincible, intelligible, negligible,perceptible, susceptible, terrible, tangible

Dissoluble, soluble, voluble


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Any verb with a noun form ending in /ns/which has no adjectival derivative ending in

/nt/ is spelt -ance in the noun form: Acceptance, alliance, appearance, utterance,

performance, guidance, resemblance

When the accent in the noun form is shifted:

Confer-conference, infer-inference, prefer-preference; also difference, condolence,occurrence, recurrence, concurrence


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Words ending in /nt/, used to denote theagent of the action involved is spelt -ant:

Accountant, assailant, assistant, defendant,deodorant, informant, stimulant, servant etc.

We write -ent and -ence when they arepreceded by i:

Ancient, patient, omniscient, salient, efficient

Exceptions: allegiance, brilliant, luxuriant,radiant, valiant, variant


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Appearance BUT apparent Consistent, insistent, persistent, existent BUT

resistant (the same holds for the noun forms) Pendant (ornament) vs. pendent (suspended) Confidant (friend) vs. confident (trustful) Maintain maintenance Abstain abstinence Pertain pertinent Currant (berry) vs. current (a stream)


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Common words ending in -re in Br. En.:

Cadre, calibre, centre, fibre, litre, macabre, metre,

sabre, sceptre, sepulchre, spectre, theatre, acre,massacre, mediocre, nacre, wiseacre (theunderlined words are spelt -er in Am. En.)


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Words that are not derived from one specificverb end in -or: bachelor, chancellor, juror

Exception: sail sailor Words derived from verbs ending in /aiz/ are

spelt with -er: advertiser, organizer

Exception: supervisor, divisor, incisor

-or always follows ss and -at: agressor,compressor, dictator, legislator, translator

Exception: debater


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-or follows every t in general: ancestor,orator, solicitor, impostor, proprietor

Exceptions: adapter, deserter, interpreter,promoter, corrupter, digester, idolater

Other cases: councillor, counsellor, conquerorgovernor, purveyor, surveyor, survivor,

warrior Beggar, burglar, liar, scholar, friar, vicar, templar


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Verbs ending in -ify: amplify, certify, edify etc. Exceptions: liquefy, rarefy, putrefy, stupefy

-ity is added to form nouns. After use -ety: Notoriety, piety, propriety, society, variety

Chaste-chastity, sane-sanity, severe-severity Safe-safety, sure-surety, subtle-subtlety Baritone, cider, gipsy (gypsy Am. En.), siphon,

siren, syrup (sirup Am. En.), tyre (tire Am. En.),judgment, abridgment, lodgment,acknowledgment, dislodgment (preffered)


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British En. -our, American En. -or: Ardour, armour, behaviour, candour, clamour,

colour, demeanour, endeavour, favour, flavour,

glamour, harbour, honour, humour, odour, labour,parlour, rancour, rigour, rumour, savour,splendour, valour, vapour, vigour, neighbour,saviour

Words ending in -or: error, horror, liquor,mirror, pallor, stupor, squalor, tenor, terror,torpor, tremor, turgor


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Connection, deflection, inflection, reflection(the spelling with -xion is accepted in Br. En.)

Flexion, complexion, genuflexion, crucifixion

(Am. En. Genuflection); BUT fiction When a word is derived from a word in :

Transfixion, fluxion

Words not derived from Latin nouns in -xio: Attraction, putrefaction, direction, injection,

perfection, protection, addiction, constriction,concoction, construction, production etc.


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Words that are not reduced to an Englishword after the termination has been dropped

are spelt with -ise (from Latin past participle) Advertise, advise, baptise, comprise,

compromise, demise, despise, devise, disguise,enterprise, exercise, franchise

Exceptions: capsize, to prize Analyse, catalyse, paralyse, dialyse,

electrolyse (Am. En. Analyze, catalyze etc.)


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Derivatives of current English words are speltwith z (the suffix -ize is derived from Greek)

Authorize, characterize, centralize, criticize,equalize, legalize, realize, specialize, modernize,neutralize, visualize, fertilize, economize,jeopardize, colonize, summarize, dramatize,

systematize, fraternize, hypnotize Note: these are also spelt with s in British

English.


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Cook, Vivian (2008) Second LanguageLearning and Language Teaching, Hodder

Education, Hachette Livre UK (4th

edition) Friedrich, Wolf (1965) English Punctuation and

Orthography, Max Hueber Verlag: Muenchen Visit the Oxford dictionaries website: http://www.askoxford.com/betterwriting/
http://www.askoxford.com/betterwriting/http://www.askoxford.com/betterwriting/

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