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PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT: NEW PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT PROCESS…… 

Product development process is expensive, risky and time consuming. Though world-shaping

innovations have emerged from the ‘garages’ and will continue to do so, companies cannot depend

solely on flashes of brilliance and inspiration to provide their next bread earner or even their next

 blockbuster. It is too frightening. In absence of any better method to bring out new products a formal

 process with review points, clear new product goals, and strong marketing orientations underlying

the process is being relied upon by companies to achieve greater success.

New product strategy:

Senior management should provide vision and priorities for new product development. It should

give guidelines about which product or market the company is interested in serving. It has to provide

a focus for the areas in which idea generation should take place.

By outlining their objectives, for instance, market share, profitability, or technological leadership for

new products, the senior management can provide indicators for screening criteria that should be

used to evaluate these ideas.

A development team is likely to achieve better results if it concentrates its resources on a few

 projects instead of taking shots at anything that might work. Since the outcome of new product

development process is unpredictable, a company might believe that it is taking a risk by working on

only a few new ideas.

Idea generation:

Sources of new product ideas can be internal to the company. Scientists, engineers, marketers,

salespeople, designers can be rich sources of new ideas.

Companies use brainstorming to stimulate creation of ideas and financial incentives to persuade people to put forward ideas they have. Though anyone can come up with a brilliant idea, a company

can work systematically to generate great ideas. A company can follow the following practices:

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i. A company can look outside markets that are currently being served. It may not be manufacturing

the precise product which the new market requires, but it may realize that it has the competence and

the technology to serve the needs of the new market. When a company scrutinizes its core

competences, it may discover that its various core competences

ii. For too long, companies have viewed a market as a set of customer needs and product

functionalities to serve these needs. But they should begin to ask as to why the product has to be like

this. Can the customer needs be satisfied with some other product form?

iii. A company should question conventional price and performance relationships. It should explore

the possibility of providing the same value at lesser price or try to make the customers pay more by

serving their needs in a new or better way. A more rigorous market research may reveal more

sophistication in customers’ needs which the company can serve with a novel product. 

A company should reject the idea that an existing product is the only starting point for new product

development. The greatest hindrance to development of novel products is the existing product.

Developers keep making mental references to the existing product in terms of how their new product

will be different or better than the existing ones.

iv. Customers rarely ask for truly innovative products. A company can try to lead customers by

imagining unarticulated needs rather than simply following them. It involves a blend of creativity

and understanding the needs, lifestyles and aspirations of people.

The developers have to have an in- depth talk with customers and observe closely a market’s

sophisticated and demanding customers. But an innovation need not always be more sophisticated

than the current products. Customers might be using sophisticated products because they do not have

a choice but may be looking for a much simpler solution.

Idea screening:

Screening of ideas is done to evaluate their commercial worth. At this stage, the company needs to

ascertain whether the new products being developed fit in with the company’s strategy and resource

availability.

Simultaneously, the company also evaluates the market potential for the new product by evaluating

criteria such as projected sales, profit potential, extent of competition and return on investments.

Unique designs that lower costs or give performance advantages are also considered.

Though it is difficult to accurately forecast the success of an idea at this stage, the process helps the

company to check if the idea is in alignment with the company’s objectives and competencies, and

that the idea has reasonable chances of success.

The process helps the company to wean out fanciful ideas. But some such fanciful idea may entice

the management at this stage and the originator of the idea may get permission to go ahead with it.

Concept testing:

At the developmental stage, every idea can be developed into several product concepts. Each concept

is then tested with a small sample of customers from the target market to know their degree of

acceptance. A product concept is a particular combination of features, benefits and price. Alternate

 product concepts are evaluated by customers.

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Though it may still be a description rather than the actual product, customers have something

tangible to react to. This process allows customer feedback to seep into the new product development

 process early enough for marketers to evaluate the degree of acceptance of the potential new product.

As the physical product may not be available at this stage, companies go in for a verbal or pictorial

description of the product to let customers have an idea about the actual product. Prospective

customers present feedbacks regarding the attractiveness of the features and benefits offered by the

 potential product.

Business analysis:

Estimates of sales cost and profits are made. The company identifies the target market, its size and

 projected product acceptance over a number of years. The company considers various prices and

their implications on sales revenues. Costs and breakeven point are estimated.

Sensitivity analysis is done in which variations from given assumptions about price, cost, customer

acceptance are checked to see how they would impact on sales revenue and profit.

Optimistic, most likely and pessimistic scenarios can be drawn up to estimate degree of risk attachedto the project. The idea is to test if the proposed product will generate enough revenues and profits to

 justify the expenses that its development and marketing will entail.

Though it is not possible to draw reliable conclusions from such futuristic analysis, it does force

company’s executives to peep into what the proposed product can or cannot achieve for the

company.

Product development:

The product concept that has found the best acceptance is then developed into a physical product.

Components have to be designed in terms of length, width, diameter, angle etc., and arranged to beassembled in a manner which provides the features and benefits of the selected product concept.

This also allows the company to let various departments work simultaneously than work in stages

using 3D solid modelling,CAD, CAM, thus reducing the time to market, while also reducing the cost

of innovations.

R&D would focus on functional aspects of product whereas marketing would keep the project team

aware of psychological factors. Marketers need to understand and communicate the important

attributes that customers are looking for in the product, even as the product is being developed.

Marketing may brief R&D on product concept and the latter will be responsible for the task ofturning the concept into reality.

Products are set up to fail during this stage of innovation process. It is important to exercise certain

 precautions during this stage.

i. Developers are left to their own devices during this stage. They feel relieved that marketers and

other commercially minded people have finally got off their back. They feel that they can finally get

in their laboratories and on their workstations and do the real things of getting a blockbuster product

to the market. They feel that they can now work in solitude and in isolation.

ii. Developers are wary of showing their incomplete designs to other people in the organization because they fear that anybody and everybody will have a suggestion to make, and if they went about

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incorporating those suggestions there would be nothing in the product that they could call their own.

They insist on releasing only their final design.

And when this final design reaches manufacturing people, they may express their inability to produce

the design or at least not at a reasonable cost. The design is relayed back to the developers who have

to modify the design to make it fit for production.

This may happen many times and lot of time is wasted before developers and manufacturers settle ona design fit for production.

But more dangerously, since the developer is modifying his original design to enhance its

reducibility he may lose sight of the customer needs that his original design was meant to serve.

iii. A developer sets out to serve defined customer needs with available set of technologies. But both

customer needs and technologies are likely to change during the development process itself. The

developer has to anticipate these changes and allow them to be incorporated in the final design.

The developer has to set up mechanisms by which the changing customers’ needs and technologies

are allowed to creep in and the design process forced to pay heed to them. The developer can delayfreezing those parts of the design which are likely to be impacted by changing customer needs and

technologies.

At some point in time the developer has to stop taking cognizance of changing customer needs and

technologies as it may delay the project by an unacceptable period. But a developer has to realize that

it is futile rushing to the market with a product, which is already obsolete at the time of its launch to

serve customer’s needs which no longer exist. 

iv. Product concept has already been tested with customers but a description of the product can never

match the physical product in eliciting real reactions of customers. Before the developer freezes the

design he has to get it approved by customers.

v. It is important to understand that a company should be willing to do ‘anything’ to increase the

 probability of success of a new product. The probability of success of the new product should govern

every decision that the company takes about the innovation process.

If a new product fails, all the effort, time and money expended in developing it comes to naught. If a

few more million dollars, and a few more months can improve the chances of the new product

succeeding in the market, the company should go ahead and commit itself to them It is never a good

idea to save a few million dollars and few months and sink a few billion dollars and few years in the

 bargain.

Market testing:

So far in the product development process, potential customers have been asked if they intend to buy

the product, but have never been placed in the position of having to pay for it. Now customers are

forced to vote with their money.

The company seeks to have a limited launch for the product in the marketplace so that it can gauge

the initial customer response in true test conditions.

The feedback obtained from this launch guides the company’s decision to continue with the largescale commercialization of the project, or to abandon it.

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Ideally, the feedback that is obtained from the test sample should be as realistic as possible, i.e., the

 profile of the sample of respondents should closely resemble the profile of prospective customers in

the actual marketplace, and they should be buying the product from a realistic retail setup as they

would actually do.

For instance, a sample of customers may be recruited to buy their groceries from a mobile

supermarket which visits them once a week. They are provided with magazines in which

advertisements for the new products appear. Key success indicators such as penetration (the

 proportion of customers who buy the new product at least once) and repeat purchase (the rate at

which purchasers buy again) can be found out.

Thus, when many customers adopt the new product quickly, the diffusion is fast, and the diffusion

rate is high. The new product is successful. And when either the number of customers who adopt the

new product is low, or the process of adoption is slow, the diffusion rate is low. The rate of diffusion

depends on:

i. The characteristics of the innovation, i.e., an innovation having a relative advantage over existing

options in the market, that fulfil the same needs of the customers, is more likely to be successful,

ii. The social system or the target market where the innovation is introduced,

iii. The channels of communication used by the marketer to explain the innovations to prospective

customers and,

iv. The amount of time that has lapsed since the introduction of the innovation.

Fundamentally, all members of the target market are not equally receptive to the new product as they

are in different states of readiness, and ability to take risk varies. It is important that in the initial

 phase of launch, the company targets customers who are more likely to buy the new product than

others.

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Marketers must always remember that consumers give up an existing way of solving a problem in

order to adopt a new one-they do not merely adopt the new product. Therefore, they must evaluate

what the consumer is giving up in order to gain the new product.

The loss experienced by the consumer in giving up the existing solution should not outweigh the

gains that they make from adopting the new product.

Also, he must attempt to ascertain the degree of difficulty that the consumer would experience inorder to give up the existing solution. The more difficult it is for the consumer to give up the existing

solution, the greater is his resistance to adopting the new product.

SEWING MACHINE

Diagram of a modern sewing machine

A sewing machine is a machine used to stitch fabric and other materials together with thread. 

Sewing machines were invented during the first Industrial Revolution to decrease the amount of

manual sewing work performed in clothing companies. Since the invention of the first working

sewing machine, generally considered to have been the work of Englishman Thomas Saint in

1790,[1] the sewing machine has greatly improved the efficiency and productivity of the clothing

industry.

Home sewing machines are designed for one person to sew individual items while using a single

stitch type. In a modern sewing machine the fabric easily glides in and out of the machine without

the inconvenience of needles and thimbles and other such tools used in hand sewing, automating the process of stitching and saving time.

Industrial sewing machines, by contrast to domestic machines, are larger, faster, and more varied in

their size, cost, appearance, and task .

Invention

Charles Fredrick Wiesenthal,  a german-born engineer working in England was awarded the first

British patent for a mechanical device to aid the art of sewing, in 1755. His invention consisted of a

double pointed needle with an eye at one end. 

In 1790, the English inventor Thomas Saint invented the first sewing machine design, but he did not

successfully advertise or market his invention.[3] His machine was meant to be used

on leather and canvas material. It is likely that Saint had a working model but there is no evidence of

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one; he was a skilled cabinet maker and his device included many practically functional features: an

overhanging arm, a feed mechanism (adequate for short lengths of leather), a vertical needle bar, and

a looper.

In 1804, a sewing machine was built by the Englishmen Thomas Stone and James Henderson, and a

machine for embroidering was constructed by John Duncan in Scotland.[5] An Austrian tailor, Josef

Madersperger, began developing his first sewing machine in 1807. He presented his first working

machine in 1814.

The first practical and widely used sewing machine was invented by Barthélemy Thimonnier,  a

French tailor, in 1829. His machine sewed straight seams using chain stitch like Saint's model, and in

1830, he signed a contract with Auguste Ferrand, a  mining engineer,  who made the requisite

drawings and submitted a patent application. The patent for his machine was issued on 17 July 1830,

and in the same year, he opened (with partners) the first machine-based clothing manufacturing

company in the world to create army uniforms for theFrench Army. However, the factory was burned

down, reportedly by workers fearful of losing their livelihood following the issuing of the patent.[6] 

The first machine to combine all the disparate elements of the previous half-century of innovationinto the modern sewing machine, was the device built by English inventor John Fisher in 1844, built

 by Isaac Merritt Singer and Elias Howe in the following years. However, due to the botched filing of

Fisher's patent at the Patent Office, he did not receive due recognition for the modern sewing

machine in the legal disputations of priority between the two Americans.

SAFETY RAZOR  

A safety razor is a shaving implement with a protective device positioned between the edge of

the blade and the skin. The initial purpose of these protective devices was to reduce the level of skill

needed for injury-free shaving, thereby reducing the reliance on professionalbarbers for that serviceand raising grooming standards.

The term was first used in a patent issued in 1880,[1] for a razor in the basic contemporary

configuration with a handle attached at right angles to a head in which a removable blade is placed

(although this form predated the patent).

The first attested use of the term "safety razor" is in a patent application for "new and useful

improvements in Safety-Razors", filed in May 1880 by Fredrik and Otto Kampfe of Brooklyn, New

York, and issued the following month. This differed from the Henson design in distancing the blade

from the handle by interposing, "a hollow metallic blade-holder having a preferably removable

handle and a flat plate in front, to which the blade is attached by clips and a pivoted catch, said plate

having bars or teeth at its lower edge, and the lower plate having an opening, for the purpose set

forth", which is, to "insure a smooth bearing for the plate upon the skin, while the teeth or bars will

yield sufficiently to allow the razor to sever the hair without danger of cutting the skin."[2] The

Kampfe Brothers produced razors under their own name following the 1880

A third pivotal innovation was a safety razor using a disposable double-edge blade that  King Camp

Gillette submitted a patent application for in 1901 and was granted in 1904.[3] The success of

Gillette's invention was largely a result of his having been awarded a contract to supply the American

troops in World War I with double-edge safety razors as part of their standard field kits (delivering a

total of 3.5 million razors and 32 million blades for them). The returning soldiers were permitted to

keep that part of their equipment and therefore easily retained their new shaving habits.

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Recent changes razor… 

Gillette introduced the first triple-blade cartridge razor, the Mach3, in 1998, and later upgraded the

Sensor cartridge to the Sensor3 by adding a third blade. Schick/Wilkinson responded to the Mach3

with the Quattro, the first four-blade cartridge razor. These innovations are marketed with the

message that they help consumers achieve the best shave as easily as possible. Another impetus for

the sale of multiple-blade cartridges is that they have high profit margins.[13] With manufacturers

frequently updating their shaving systems, consumers can become locked into buying their proprietary cartridges, for as long as the manufacturer continues to make them. Subsequent to

introducing the higher-priced Mach3 in 1998, Gillette's blade sales realized a 50% increase, and

 profits increased in an otherwise mature market.

BICYCLE 

There are several early but unverified claims for the invention of bicycle-like machines.

The earliest comes from a sketch said to be from 1534 and attributed to Gian Giacomo Caprotti, a

 pupil of  Leonardo da Vinci.  In 1998 Hans-Erhard Lessing described this as a purposeful

fraud.

[1][2]

 However, the authenticity of the bicycle sketch is still vigorously maintained by followersof Prof. Augusto Marinoni, a lexicographer and philologist, who was entrusted by the Commissione

Vinciana of Rome with the transcription of da Vinci's Codex Atlanticus.[3] 

Later, and equally unverified, is the contention that Comte the Sivrac developed a célérifère in 1792,

demonstrating it at the Palais-Royalin France. The célérifère  supposedly had two wheels set on a

rigid wooden frame and no steering, directional control being limited to that attainable by

leaning.[4] A rider was said to have sat astride the machine and pushed it along using alternate feet. It

is now thought that the two-wheeled célérifère never existed (though there were four-wheelers) and it

was instead a misinterpretation by the well-known French journalist Louis Baudry de Saunier in

1891.[5][6] 

The first verifiable claim for a practically used bicycle belongs to German  Baron Karl von Drais, acivil servant to the Grand Duke of  Baden in Germany. Drais invented his Laufmaschine (Germanf or

"running machine") of 1817 that was called  Draisine (English) or draisienne (French) by the press.

Karl von Drais patented this design in 1818, which was the first commercially successful two-

wheeled, steerable, human-propelled machine, commonly called a velocipede,  and nicknamed

hobby-horse or  dandy horse.[7] It was initially manufactured in Germany and France. Hans-Erhard

Lessing found from circumstantial evidence that Drais' interest in finding an alternative to the horse

was the starvation and death of horses caused by crop failure in 1816 ("Eighteen Hundred and Froze

to Death," following the volcanic eruption of  Tambora in 1815).[8] On his first reported ride

from Mannheim on June 12, 1817, he covered 13 km (eight miles) in less than an hour .[9]Constructed

almost entirely of wood, the draisine weighed 22 kg (48 pounds), had brass bushings within the

wheel bearings, iron shod wheels, a rear-wheel brake and 152 mm (6 inches) of trail of the front-

wheel for a self-centeringcaster effect.

The concept was picked up by a number of British cartwrights; the most notable was Denis Johnson

of London announcing in late 1818 that he would sell an improved model.[11]  New names were

introduced when Johnson patented his machine “pedestrian curricle” or “velocipede,” but the public

 preferred nicknames like “hobby-horse,” after the children’s toy or, worse still, “dandyhorse,” after

the foppish men who often rode them

1830s: the reported Scottish inventions

The first mechanically propelled two-wheel vehicle is believed by some to have been built

 by Kirkpatrick MacMillan,  a Scottish blacksmith, in 1839. A nephew later claimed that his uncle

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gillette_Mach3https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Safety_razor#cite_note-Gillette.27s_Five-Blade_Wonder-13https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Safety_razor#cite_note-Gillette.27s_Five-Blade_Wonder-13https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Safety_razor#cite_note-Gillette.27s_Five-Blade_Wonder-13https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gian_Giacomo_Caprottihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonardo_da_Vincihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_bicycle#cite_note-Lessing-1https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_bicycle#cite_note-Lessing-1https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_bicycle#cite_note-Lessing-1https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Codex_Atlanticushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_bicycle#cite_note-On_the_question_of_Leonardo.27s_.27bicycle.27-3https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_bicycle#cite_note-On_the_question_of_Leonardo.27s_.27bicycle.27-3https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_bicycle#cite_note-On_the_question_of_Leonardo.27s_.27bicycle.27-3https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palais-Royalhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_bicycle#cite_note-Baudry-4https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_bicycle#cite_note-Baudry-4https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_bicycle#cite_note-Baudry-4https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_bicycle#cite_note-Seray-5https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_bicycle#cite_note-Seray-5https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_bicycle#cite_note-Seray-5https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freiherrhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Draishttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baden_Germanyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laufmaschinehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_languagehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Velocipedehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dandy_horsehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_bicycle#cite_note-Canada-7https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_bicycle#cite_note-Canada-7https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_bicycle#cite_note-Canada-7https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Year_Without_a_Summerhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Year_Without_a_Summerhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Tamborahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_bicycle#cite_note-Tambora-8https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_bicycle#cite_note-Tambora-8https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_bicycle#cite_note-Tambora-8https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mannheimhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_bicycle#cite_note-Drais-9https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_bicycle#cite_note-Drais-9https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caster_anglehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denis_Johnson_of_Londonhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denis_Johnson_of_Londonhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_bicycle#cite_note-Herlihy-11https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_bicycle#cite_note-Herlihy-11https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_bicycle#cite_note-Herlihy-11https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kirkpatrick_MacMillanhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kirkpatrick_MacMillanhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_bicycle#cite_note-Herlihy-11https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denis_Johnson_of_Londonhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denis_Johnson_of_Londonhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caster_anglehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_bicycle#cite_note-Drais-9https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mannheimhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_bicycle#cite_note-Tambora-8https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Tamborahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Year_Without_a_Summerhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Year_Without_a_Summerhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_bicycle#cite_note-Canada-7https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dandy_horsehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Velocipedehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_languagehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laufmaschinehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baden_Germanyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Draishttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freiherrhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_bicycle#cite_note-Seray-5https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_bicycle#cite_note-Seray-5https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_bicycle#cite_note-Baudry-4https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palais-Royalhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_bicycle#cite_note-On_the_question_of_Leonardo.27s_.27bicycle.27-3https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Codex_Atlanticushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_bicycle#cite_note-Lessing-1https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_bicycle#cite_note-Lessing-1https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonardo_da_Vincihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gian_Giacomo_Caprottihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Safety_razor#cite_note-Gillette.27s_Five-Blade_Wonder-13https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gillette_Mach3

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developed a rear-wheel drive design using mid-mounted treadles connected by rods to a rear crank,

similar to the transmission of a steam locomotive. Proponents associate him with the first recorded

instance of a bicycling traffic offence, when a Glasgow newspaper reported in 1842 an accident in

which an anonymous "gentleman from Dumfries-shire... bestride a velocipede... of ingenious design"

knocked over a pedestrian in the Gorbals and was fined five British shillings. However, the evidence

connecting this with MacMillan is weak, since it is unlikely that the artisan MacMillan would have

 been termed a gentleman, nor is the report clear on how many wheels the vehicle had.

1870s: the high-wheel bicycle

The high-bicycle was the logical extension of the boneshaker, the front wheel enlarging to enable

higher speeds (limited by the inside leg measurement of the rider) ,[15][16][17][18]the rear wheel

shrinking and the frame being made lighter. Frenchman Eugène Meyer is now regarded as the father

of the high bicycle[19]  by the ICHC in place of  James Starley. Meyer invented the wire-spoke tension

wheel in 1869 and produced a classic high bicycle design until the 1880s.

DEFINITION OF ENGINEERING DESIGN

1.1 Introduction:

The economic future of India depends on our ability to design, make and sell competitive products.

Excellent design and effective manufacture are the pre-requisites of a successive industry. There is a

general impression that the quality of Indian products can still be improved. The fact that consumers

have lost their confidence on Indian-made products cannot be denied. This problem can be solved

only by designing and manufacturing better products through improved methodology. Keeping this

in view, the subject “Design and manufacturing” purpose to present the methods and procedures of

design and manufacture.

Although engineers are not the only people who design things, the professional practice ofengineering is largely concerned with design. It is usually said that design is the essence of

engineering.

The ability to design is both a science and an art. The science can be learned through procedures

developed by eminent scholars. But the art can be learned only by doing design.

Types of Products

A product is the tangible end result of a manufacturing process and is meant for satisfying human

needs. The product can be classified as follows: -

• Convenience goods 

These are less expensive and are clustered around shops and restaurants. These can be purchased at

consumer's convenience.

E.g. Cigarette, Candy, Magazines etc.

2. Shopping goods 

These are expensive and people buy it less frequently.

E.g. Jewellary garments etc.

3. Specialty goods 

These are purchased, taking extra pain.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treadleshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steam_locomotivehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glasgowhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gentlemanhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_bicycle#cite_note-15https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_bicycle#cite_note-15https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_bicycle#cite_note-17https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_bicycle#cite_note-17https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eug%C3%A8ne_Meyer_(inventor)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_bicycle#cite_note-19https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_bicycle#cite_note-19https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_bicycle#cite_note-19https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Cycling_History_Conferencehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Starleyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spokehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spokehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Starleyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Cycling_History_Conferencehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_bicycle#cite_note-19https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eug%C3%A8ne_Meyer_(inventor)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_bicycle#cite_note-17https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_bicycle#cite_note-17https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_bicycle#cite_note-15https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_bicycle#cite_note-15https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gentlemanhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glasgowhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steam_locomotivehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treadles

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E.g. Rare objects like stamps.

4. Industrial goods. 

These are items used in the production of other items.

Eg. Raw materials.

Another way of classifying products is into,

(a) Continuous Products, and

(b) Discrete products

The continuous products are those which are produced in a continuous fashion. For example, plates,

sheets, tubes and bars etc are produced in very long lengths, and then these are cut into desired

lengths.

On the other hand, discrete products are produced one after another, each in separate units.

On the basis of the output product, the Industry is usually named as continuous industry and discreteindustry.

1.3 Requirements in a good product 

• Customer Satisfaction 

• Profit 

How to achieve customer satisfaction?

-The product should function properly.

-It must have desired accuracy

-It must have desired reliability

-It must be easy to operate

-It must be serviceable

-It must make minimum space utilization

-It must withstand rough handling

-Pleasant appearances.

-Reasonable price.

How can it be profitable?

-It must be easy to manufacture

-The raw material must be cheap and easily available

-The manufacturing process has to the decided on the basis of quantity to be produced

-It must use standard parts

-It must be easy to pack and distribute.

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1.4 Definition of Design: 

Designing is such a vast field that it is defined in several ways. Various definitions of designing as

 pronounced by well-known designers are “Design is that which defines solutions to problem which

have previously been solved in a different way” “ Design is the conscious human process of planning

 physical things that display a new form in response to some pre-determined need”. “Design is an act

of collecting all pertinent information for the production of goods and services to meet some human

need”. 

The design of any component includes two things,

• Product design 

• Process design 

The product design involves the development of specification for a product that will be functionally

sound, good in appearance, and will give satisfactory performance for an adequate life.

The process design involves developing methods of manufacture of the products so that the

component can be produced at a reasonably low cost.

1.5 History of Design Process

• Design by Single Person 

• Over -the-wall design

• Simultaneous Engineering 

• Concurrent Engineering

• Integrated design and Manufacture. 

In olden times one person could design and manufacture an entire product. Even for a large project

such as the design of a ship or a bridge, one person had sufficient knowledge of the Physics,

Materials and manufacturing processes to manage all aspects of the design and construction of the

 project. This period is referred to as the period of design by single person in the history of design.

By the middle of the 20th century products and manufacturing processes became so complex that,

one person could not handle all aspects of design and manufacturing. This situation led to over-the-

wall design process.

In this method each functional departments were separated from others, as shown by wall. There was

only one-way communications between Customer, Marketing, Engg. Design and production

department. The customers ‘throw' their needs to marketing department. The marketing departmentmay throw the customer needs to the design department, in many instances, orally. The Engg. Design

department may conceive a design and hands it over to the manufacturing sections. The

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manufacturing department interprets that design and makes the product according to what they think

suitable. Unfortunately, often what is manufactured by a company using over-the-wall process is not

what the customers had in mind. This is due to lack of interaction between the different departments.

Thus, this single direction over-the-wall approach is inefficient and costly and may result in poor

quality products.

By the early 1980's the concept of simultaneous engineering emerged. This philosophy emphasized

simultaneous development of the manufacturing process- the goal was the simultaneous development

of the product and the manufacturing process. This was accomplished by assigning manufacturing

representatives to be members of design team, so that they could interact with the design engineers

throughout the designs process.

In the 1980's the simultaneous design philosophy was broadened and called concurrent engineering.

A short definition of concurrent engineering is the simultaneous progression of all aspects, at all

stages of product development, product specification, design, process and equipment etc. In

concurrent engineering the primary focus is on the integration of teams of people having a stake in

the product, design tools, and techniques and information about the product and the processes used to

develop and manufacture it. Tools and techniques connect the teams with the information. Although

many of the tools are computer-based, much design work is still done with pencil and paper. In fact,

concurrent engineering is 80% company culture and 20% computer support.

With the advent of computer technology, drastic changes have taken place in the field of design and

manufacturing. The result was a completely integrated design and manufacturing system. This

system makes a good use of technologies such as CAD/CAM, FMS etc. The computer integrated

manufacturing systems (CIMS) moves towards the ‘Factory of the future'. CIMS is necessary for

 better quality, efficiency and productivity.

TYPES OF DESIGNS

2.1 The design can be classified in many ways. On the basis of knowledge, skill and creativity

required in the designing process, the designs are broadly classified into three types

• Adaptive Design

• Variant Design

• Original Design 

• Adaptive Design 

In most design situations the designer's job is to make a slight modification of the existing design.

These are called adaptive designs . This type of design needs no special knowledge or skill. E.g.

converting mechanical watches into a new shape.

• Variant Design 

This type of design demands considerable scientific training and design ability, in order to modify

the existing designs into a new idea, by adopting a new material or a different method of

manufacture. In this case, though the designer starts from the existing designs, the final product may

 be entirely different from the original product.

E.g. converting mechanical watches into quartz watches. Here a new technology is adopted.

• Original Design 

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Here the designer designs something that did not exist previously. Thus, it is also called new design

or innovative design. For making original designs, a lot of research work, knowledge and creativity

are essential. A company thinks of new design when there is a new technology available or when

there is enough market push. Since this type of design demands maximum creativity from the part of

the designer, these are also called creative designs.

2.2 On the basis of the nature of design problem, design may be classified as

• Selection design 

• Configuration design 

• Parametric design 

• Original design 

• Re-design

• Selection Design. 

It involves choosing one or more items from a list of similar items. We do this by using catalogues.

Eg. -Selection of a bearing from a bearing catalogue

-Selection of a fan for cooling equipment

-Selecting a shaft.

• Configuration / Layout / Packaging Design (W 97, S'02)

In this type of problem, all the components have been designed and the problem is how to assemble

them into the completed product. This type of design is similar to arranging furniture in a living

room.

Consider the packing of electronic components in a laptop computer. A laptop computer has a

keyboard, power supply, a main circuit board, a hard disk drive, a floppy disk drive and room for two

extension boards. Each component is of known design and has certain constraints on its position. For

example, the extension slots must be adjacent to the main circuit board and the keyboard must be in

front of the machine.

Keyboard

Main Circuit board

Extension slots

Floppy drive

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 Power supply

The different components are shown above. The designer's aim is to find, how to fit all the

components in a case? Where do we put what? One method for solving such problems is to  –  select a

component randomly from the list and position it in the case so that all the constraints on thatcomponent are met. 

Let's take keyboard first. It is placed in the front. Then we select and place a second component. This

 procedure is continued until we reach a conflict, or all the components are in the case. If a conflict arises, we

 back up and try again. Two potential configurations are shown above.

• Parametric Design 

Parametric design involves finding values for the features that characterize the object being studied.

Consider a simple example –  

We want to design a cylindrical storage tank that must hold 4 m 3 of liquid.

The volume is given by

V = r 2 l

The tank is described by the parameters, radius 'r', and length l .

Given V = 4 m 3 = r 2 l

r 2 l = 1.273

We can see a number of values for the radius and length, that will satisfy this equation. Each combination-

values of r and l gives a possible solution for the design problem.

• Original Design 

As described in an earlier section, an original design in the development of an assembly or component that did

not exist before.

• Redesign 

The redesign is a modification of an existing product to meet new requirements. It is same as adaptive design.

Most design problems solved in industry are for the redesign of an existing product. Suppose a manufacturer

of hydraulic cylinders makes a product that is 0.25m long. If the customer needs a cylinder 0.3m long, the

manufacturer might lengthen the outer cylinder and the piston rod to meet this special need.

2.3. On the basis of the objective or strategy the designs are of following main types.

• Production Design

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• Functional Design 

• Optimum Design 

• Production Design 

In production design , the designer designs something in such a way that the cost of producing the product is

minimum. That is, the first responsibility of the designer is reduction of production cost. Hence, a production

designer is concerned with the ease with which something can be produced, and that at a minimum cost.

• Functional Design

In functional design , the aim is at designing a part or member so as to meet the expected performance level.

Functional design is a way of achieving given requirements.- but the same may the unproducible or costly to

produce. A good designer, then, has to consider the production aspects also. A product designed without

keeping all these aspects into account, wastes time, money and efforts.

• Optimum Design

It is the best design for given objective function, under the specified constraints.

2.4 On the basis of the field/ area or the domain of design, the following types are important.

• Mechanical Design

• Machine Design 

• System Design 

• Assembly/sub-assembly design

• Computer aided design 

• Mechanical Design 

It means use of scientific principles, technical information and imagination in the design of a structure,or

machine to perform prescribed functions with maximum economy and efficiency.

• Machine Design 

It is the process of achieving a plan for the construction of a machine.

• System Design 

System Design is an iterative decision making process to conceive and implement optimum systems, to solve

problems and needs of society.

• Assembly/sub-assembly design [S 93]

In the design of Assembly/sub-assembly the major criterion is the fulfillment of functional requirements. The

assembly has to be designed to meet broad technical parameters and purpose for which it was meant.

The characteristic features are:

• The total number of parts used in the design must be minimum. 

• Sub-assemblies should be capable of being built separately in order to give maximum manufacturing

flexibility.

• Standard parts may be used.

• Flexible parts should be avoided, as they are easily damaged during handling and assembly. 

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• Computer aided design [CAD] 

It is a design methodology in which the designs take the advantages of digital computer to draw concepts,

analyze and evaluate data etc. Computers are largely used in a design office for simulation and prototype

study. In modern design, computers have become an indispensable tool.

Other types of designs are

Probabilistic Design

Industrial Design

Probabilistic Design [S 96]

It is a design approach in which design decisions are made using statistical tools. Generally, the external load

acting on a body, the properties of materials etc are liable to vary. In probabilistic design, the designer takes

into account the variations of such parameters.

Industrial Design [W 93]

It is the design made by considering aesthetes, ergonomics and production aspects.

Although the process of design may be considered 'creative,' many analytical processes also take place.

In fact, many industrial designers often use various design methodologies in their creative process.

Some of the processes that are commonly used are user research, sketching, comparative product

research, model making, prototyping and testing. These processes are best defined by the industrial

designers and/or other team members. Industrial designers often utilize 3D software, computer-aided

industrial design and CAD programs to move from concept to production. They may also build a

prototype first and then use industrial CT scanning to test for interior defects and generate a CAD

model. From this the manufacturing process may be modified to improve the product.

Product characteristics specified by industrial designers may include the overall form of the object, thelocation of details with respect to one another, colors, texture, form, and aspects concerning the use of

the product. Additionally they may specify aspects concerning the production process, choice of

materials and the way the product is presented to the consumer at the point of sale. The inclusion of

industrial designers in a product development process may lead to added value by improving usability,

lowering production costs and developing more appealing products.

Industrial design may also focus on technical concepts, products, and processes. In addition to

aesthetics, usability, and ergonomics, it can also encompass engineering, usefulness, market placement,

and other concerns — such as psychology, desire, and the emotional attachment of the user. These values

and accompanying aspects that form the basis of industrial design can vary — between different schools

of thought, and among practicing designers.

DESIGN PROCESS AND ITS STRUCTURES

3.1. Introduction

Developing a manufacturable product is not an easy job. This chapter presents some methods that help achieve

quality products. Rather than making a detailed study, only an overview of designing process is attempted

here.

3.2. Features of design process 

The following features can be observed in a design process.

• Iteration 

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• Decision-making

• Conversion of resources 

• Satisfaction of need 

Design is completed in many phases. In each phase, repeated attempts are required to accomplish the aim. A

satisfactory conclusion can be reached on, only after a number of trials.

Decision-making is essential for a designer to select one out of several. A designer often comes across severalequally acceptable alternatives to meet some end. In such conflicting situations, designer has to make the best

decision.

In any design process, there is conversion of resources such as time, money, talent, materials and other natural

resources.

All designs are aimed at satisfying some human need. Needs, whether important or unimportant is the starting

 point of design.

3.3. How a design is born?

In a broad sense there are two methods by which a design comes into existence.

• Design by evolution (Traditional Design) 

• Design by innovation (Modern Design) 

• Design by evolution 

This implies the traditional method of design in which the objects and articles that we see around has taken its

 present form by gradual change of time. If one looks at history it can be seen that most of the tools,

equipments, implements, took a long time to acquire their present form. Things changed gradually with the

 passage of time. Each change was made to rectify some defects or difficulties faced by the users. Bicycles,

calculators, computers, steam locomotives etc. all went through a process of evolution in which designers tried

one concept after another. Even today this process is being used to some extent. However, this evolutionary process is very slow. i.e., it took a very long period of time to occur even a slight modification. The main

reason for this slow evolutionary process of design was the absence of proper information and design data

records.

In modern design situations the evolutionary methods are not adequate because of the following reasons.

1. The traditional designing did not consider the interdependence of products. They were concerned about

only one component /product. But in the modern world, the existence of one product is dependent on another

in some way or other.

2. In the past, production was on small scale. Thus the penalty of a wrong design was tolerable. But, in the

 present time, production is on large-scale basis. As a result, any penalty of a wrong design will cost great loss.

3. Requirements of the customers of today's world changes so frequently. Traditional design lags behind the

advanced product & process technologies available today.

3.6. Design Process- Simplified Approach 

A simplified approach to designing as outlined by Morris Asimow is given below. According to him the entire

design process in its basic forms consists of five basic elements as given below.

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Design operations imply the various processes done during designing. These

include

• Searching for possible alternatives systems to satisfy a need. 

• Formulating a model for analysis purpose. 

• Materials selection, etc. 

But in order to carryout the above processes (i.e., design operations) a lot of information is required. The

required informations may be broadly classified into two.

1. General Information

E.g. Scientific Laws

Information on market trends etc.

2 . Specific information .

E.g. Information on manufacturer's catalogue

Once the designer has obtained the necessary information he can start design operations. The design

operations give outcome s. The outcome may be in the form of Computer print outs, or drawings.

Next stage is the evaluation of this outcome. The purpose of evaluation is to decide whether this outcome is

able to meet the need. Here a comparison between the capabilities of the outcome and the need is carried

out. If the outcome is sufficient to meet the need, the designer goes on to next step, otherwise the design

operation is repeated

7 Detailed Morphology of Design 

A design project goes through a number of time phases. Morphology of design refers to the collection of

these time phases. The morphology of design as put forward by Morris Asimow can be elaborated as given

below. It consists of seven phases.

Phase 1. Feasibility Study.

This stage is also called conceptual design. A design project always begins with a feasibility study. The

purpose and activities during feasibility study are

• To ascertain there really exists a need [ie the existence of need must be supported by necessary

evidences, rather than the outcome of one's fancy]

• Search for a number of possible solutions 

• Evaluate the solutions 

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i.e. is it physically realisable?

Is it economically worthwhile?

Is it within our financial capacity?

Phase 2 Preliminary (Embodiment) Design.

This is the stage art which the concept generated in the feasibility study is carefully developed. The

important activities done at this stage are:

• Model building & testing

• Study the advantages and disadvantages of different solutions. 

• Check for performance, quality strength, aesthetics etc. 

Phase III: Detail Design

Its purpose is to furnish the complete engineering description of the tested product. The arrangement, from,

dimensions, tolerances and surface properties of all individual parts are determined. Also, the materials to

be used and the manufacturing process to be adopted etc. are decided. Finally, complete prototype istested.

Phase IV: Planning for manufacture

This phase includes all the production planning and control activities necessary for the manufacture of the

product. The main tasks at this phase are

• Preparation of process sheet, i.e. the document containing a sequential list of manufacturing processes.

• Specify the condition of row materials. 

• Specify tools & machine requirements. 

• Estimation of production cost. 

• Specify the requirement in the plant. 

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• Planning QC systems. 

• Planning for production control. 

• Planning for information flow system etc.

Phase V: Planning for Distribution

The economic success of a design depends on the skill exercised in marketing. Hence, this phase aims at

planning an effective distribution system. Different activities of this phase are

• Designing the packing of the product.

• Planning effective and economic warehousing systems. 

• Planning advertisement techniques 

• Designing the product for effective distribution in the prevailing conditions. 

Phase VI Planning for Consumption/use

The purpose of this phase is to incorporate in the design all necessary user- oriented features. The various

steps are

• Design for maintenance 

• Design for reliability 

• Design for convenience in use 

• Design for aesthetic features 

• Design for prolonged life

• Design for product improvement on the basis of service data. 

Phase VII: Planning for Retirement.

This is the phase that takes into account when the product has reached the end of useful life. A product may

retire when

• It does not function properly

• Another competitive design emerges 

• Changes of taste or fashion 

The various steps in this phase are

• Design for several levels of use 

• Design to reduce the rate of obsolescence. 

• Examine service-terminated products to obtain useful information.

3.8. Methods of Innovative Design

As we know, innovative design is an organized, systematized and logical approach for solving a design

problem. There are two design methods for innovative design.

• Design by creative design route 

• Engineering Design 

• Design by creative routs [Creative Design] 

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This is a design method that demands maximum ‘creativity' from the part of the designer. Hence this

method is also called creative design. Here the designer finds solutions to problems by allowing his creativity

aspects grow in a particular manner.

Creativity

Majority of designs belong to variant design, where the designer simply modifies an existing system. But the

success of engineering design depends on the modes of thinking and acting distinctively different from

others. A creative designer is distinguished by his ability to synthesize new combinations of ideas and

concepts into meaningful and useful forms. Design is commonly thought of as a creative process involving

the use of imagination and lateral thinking to create new and different products.

Qualities of a creative designer

The creative designer is generally a person of average intelligence, a visualiser, a hard worker and a

constructive non-conformist with average knowledge about the problem at hand.

Generally, a creative designer has the following qualities.

• Visualization ability. 

Creative designers have good ability to visualize, to generate and manipulate visual images in their heads.

• Knowledge 

All designers start their job with what they know. During designing, they make minor modifications of what

they already know –or, creative designers create new ideas out of bits of old designs they had seen in the

past. Hence, they must have knowledge of past designs.

• Ability to manipulate knowledge

The ability to use the same knowledge in a different way is also an important quality of a designer.

• Risk taking 

A person who does not take the risk of making mistakes cannot become a good designer. For example,

Edison tried hundreds of different light bulb designs before he found the carbon filament.

• Non-conformist

There are two types of non-conformists:-constructive and obstructive. Constructive non-conformists are

those who take a firm stand, because they think they are right. Obstructive non-conformists are those who

take a stand just to have an opposing view. The constructive non-conformists might generate a good idea.

But the obstructive non-conformists will only slow down the design process. Creative designers are

constructive non-conformists, and they want to do things in their own way.

• Technique 

Creative designers have more than one approach to problem solving. They are prepared to try alternative

techniques, till they reach a satisfactory solution.

• Motivation 

They always motivate others in the design team. In such a favourable environment creativity is further

enhanced.

• Willingness to practice 

Creativity comes with practice. Creative designers are ready to practice for a long enough period.

Methods to enhance Creativity

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• Use of analogy

• Asking question from different view points 

• Memories of past designs 

• Competitive products 

• Deliberate day-dreaming

• Reading science fictions, etc. 

Creative Design Route

Creative design route is the procedure through which a creative design is born. The success of this design lies

with the creativity of the designer. Creative design route can be practiced by following the sequences shown

in figure.

During preparation period, the designer analyses the need and collect all the necessary information required

at various stages.

Concentration is the period when the designer digests all the aspects of the problem situation and tries

various possible combinations.

The next step is the incubation period. The designer relaxes away from the problem for some time.

Illumination is the sudden insight and throwing up with a solution.

The final step is the verification. Now, testing and inspection of the design is done and the details are

completed.

For a designer using creative methods for design, habitual or familiar methods must be avoided.

(ii) ENGINEERING DESIGN 

Another procedure for obtaining innovative design is Engg. Design. Apart from creativity-approach, this is a

logical and intellectual attempt to solve design problems. It largely depends on discoveries and laws of

science.

The different steps in Engg. design process is given below: -

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Recognition of need

Definition of the problem

Gathering of Information

Conceptualization

Evaluation of concepts

Communication of the design

Since all design projects are meant for satisfying some need, any design work starts withRecognition of the

need . The need for a design is initiated by either a market requirement, the development of a new technology

or the desire to improve an existing product.

Once the need has identified, the next step is to define the design problem . This is the most critical step in the

design process. The definition of the problem expresses as specifically as possible, what the design is intended

to accomplish. It should include objectives and goals, definitions of any special technical terms, the

constraints on the design and the criteria that will be used to evaluate the designs.

The success of a design project depends on the clarity in the definition of the problem. Need Analysis is thetechnique used to define the problem(Chapter 6).

The next step is collecting information . In many phases of deign process a large quantity of information may

 be required. The required information can be obtained from textbooks, journals, or other agencies (See Art.

6.4)

The conceptualization step involves, finding several design ideas to meet the given need. Inventiveness and

creating is very important in this step.

The different ideas conceived are weighted and judged in the evaluation step. The advantages and

disadvantages of each idea against its performance, cost aesthetics etc is valued.

After evaluation, the best design is emerged. This final design with every detail is furnished in last step-ie communicating the design

Common features between Creative Design & Engg. Design (W.94)

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• The preparation phase in creative design and need analysis in Engg. Design is more or less common. Both

steps deal with analyzing the need.

• In both design methods brainstorming and Synetics can be applied. 

• Reviewing is applicable in both design methods. 

• For both deigns, the success depends on the clar ity with which the need statement is prepared.

• Testing and inspection is applicable for both designs. 

Difference between Creative Designs & Engg, Designs (W 94)

• Intelligence is not a must for creative design-but the same is desirable in Engg. Design.

• Creative design is based on use of analogy and synthesis of alternatives –  but engineering design is based on

 proven laws and past experience.

• Creative design involves phases like incubation, illumination –  but no such philosophy is followed in

engineering designs.

• Creative person is highly intuitive and independent in thinking and usually resists working in group –  but

engineering designers like teamwork.

• Customs, habits and traditions are enemies of creativity –  but the same are required in engineering design.

3.9. Divergence, Transformation & Convergence

The entire design process can be said to have composed of three distinct phases Viz. Divergence,

Transformation and Convergence phases.

The problem definition, need analysis and conceptualization etc. aims at generating as many ideas as possible

to solve a given design problem. Thus, these activities belong to the Divergence phase.

That activity wherein the concept is converted into physical object is termed as transformation phase. The

convergence is a narrowing process, where the best optimal solution is tried for, by eliminating unwantedideas.

3.10. Design Process Using Advanced Technology 

Although Engineering is a major sector of the economy in a developing country. It has not been benefited

greatly from advances in computer technology. Engineers still use computers only in peripheral tasks, such as

drafting and analyzing, but not in making fundamental design decisions. Current computer tools such as

‘computer -aided drafting' are restricted to the end of the design process and play no fundamental role in aiding

design. It aids only in the final drafting of the specifications. Computer-aided Design, (CAD) means a class of

tools for crating drawing, or the physical description of the object. CAD systems have been sophisticated and

2D and 3D models are available.

The CAD allows the designer to conceptualize objects more easily. The design process in CAD system

consists of the following stages.

• Geometric modeling 

• Analysis and optimization 

• Evaluation 

• Documentation and drafting. 

IDENTIFICATION OF NEED

4.1. What is a need?

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A need can be defined as a personnel unfulfilled vacancy which determines and organizes all psychological

and behavioral activities in the direction of fulfilling the vacancy

A product can be product and marketed only if it is ‘needed' by the customer. A person buys a pen because he

‘needs' to write. A patient ‘needs' something that can cure his illness. These examples show that needs are

nothing but a scarcity or problem or wants felt by a person, device or a system. In fact a designer's goal is to

find solutions to such problems

4.2. Hierarchy of Human needs

Maslow developed a hierarchy of human needs as given below

1. Physiological needs

- These are the basic needs of the body- For example, thirst, hunger, sex, sleep etc.

2. Safety and security needs

For a person whose physiological needs are met, the new emerging needs are safety needs. These include,

 protection against danger, threat etc.

3. Social needs

Once the physiological and safety needs are met, the next dominant need is social need. For example he/she

want to love and be loved, he want to be “in group”, etc. 

4. Psychological needs

These are the needs for self-respect and self- esteem, and for recognition.

5. Self-fulfillment needs

These are the needs for the realisation of one's full potential through self-development, creativity, and self-

expression.

4.3. Identification/Recognition of Needs (W 96)

The beginning of any design process is the recognition of need or problem. When a turner hears an awkward

noise from some part of the lathe he identifies/ recognises a need. i.e. the lathe requires repair. When the sales

 personnel observes that their customers are always complaining of poor performance of the products, a need to

develop a better product is identified. Similarly, when the customers are unsatisfied with the present ‘model', a

new need is recognised.

 Needs can be identified from,

• Careful market analysis 

• Statements made by politicians from their observations• Interpretations of a community's requirements 

• Trends in other parts of the world 

4.4. Variety of Needs [S'00]

Following are the needs, which can generate ideas for the development of new products.

(i). Variation of an existing product.

This could be a change in a single or a few parameters of an existing product.

Eg - Changing the length of a cylinder.

-Changing the power of a motor, etc.

• Improvements in the existing product. 

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This implies the need to redesign some of the features of an existing product. Such needs can arise, when

-Customers want a new feature or better performance than existing features

-A vendor can no longer supply components or materials that had been used so far

-Manufacturing or assembly departments identifies a quality improvement

-Invention of a new technology that can be incorporated in the existing design.

(iii) A change in production model

Whenever the production model changes from job-shop to mass, a corresponding change in product design

may be demanded. For example, there is more tendency to buy off-the shelf components for short-run

 products.

Whatever may be the situation, a company has to identify or locate a need before the production of any device.

This crucial step is called Recognition/ Identification of need.

Examples:

1. With the free-entry of Chinese products to Indian market, manufacturers in India recognize a need to sell

their products at a lower price.

2. When a company observes that their products do not perform well, the company recognizes a need to re-

design it.

4.5 Need Statement 

Once the need has recognized, the next step is to prepare the need statement. It is a general statement

specifying the problem for which a solution is required. In other words-It is the objective of design, expressed

in the form of a statement.

PRODUCT PLANNING

5.1 Introduction

Once the top management of an organisation recognized a need to develop a product, it will go for product

design, only if,

- the purposed product will guarantee a handsome profit

- the market conditions are favorable in respect of competition.

- the necessary resources are available

- the purposed design is worthwhile.

5.2 Feasibility Study. 

The starting point of a design project is a need. Once the need has been identified, the company has to ensure

the worth of the project. Feasibility study is a preliminary analysis for making a decision regarding the design

 project, to be forwarded or not. If the feasibility study reveals that the proposed design project does not bring

comfortable revenue, or the design demands huge investments beyond the capacity of the organisation, the

 project is dropped.

5.3 .Product Planning [S 01]

Planning is the process used to develop a scheme for scheduling and committing the resources of time, money

and people. A plan shows how a project will be initiated, organized, co-coordinated and monitored. A product

 plan is a decision-making as regards to the design and manufacture of a product, by considering the revenuesfrom different products. For example assume that a company already manufacturing 3 products, say P 1 , P 2

and P 3 identifies a need to design a new product ‘N'. Owing to the design and manufacture of the new

 product, the production volume, and hence revenue from products P 1 , P 2 ,and P 3 may be affected (due to

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re-allocation of company resources such as raw materials, machineries). In this situation, the company has to

decide a time-schedule for the design and manufacture of the new product. Such plan made by the

management is called the product plan. It must contain the time-as well as resource allocation for each of the

 products. More over it will result in optimum and efficient use of resources. After the product plan in made,

the management begins a project for a new product design.

5.4. Organisation Of Design Group 

The complexity of mechanical devices has grown rapidly over the last 200 years. For example Boeing 747aircraft (which has over 50,000 components) required over 10 thousand persons' years of design time.

Thousands of designers worked over a three-year period on the project. These show that, design work is

generally done by a team or group. A design team may include thousands of design and manufacturing

engineers, material scientists, technicians, purchasing agents, drafters, and quality control specialists, all

working over many years.

The first phase in any design process is identification of needs. Needs may be identified by market survey, the

desire to improve an existing product or even by the development of a technology.

Since any design activity consumes company resources like money, people and equipments etc. – the planning

of these resources is the next phase after need- identification. Planning means allocation of resources such as

money, people etc. The first step in planning is to form a design team.

5.5. Members of Design Team 

Following is a list of individuals needed in a design team. Their titles may vary from company to company.

1. Design Engineer.

This person is responsible for suggesting ideas for the proposed product. For that, he must clearly understand

needs for the product as well as its engineering requirements. Hence, he must posses both creative and

analytical skills. He must be an engineering graduate having vast experience in the particular product area.

2. Marketing Manager.

He is responsible for success of the product in the market. He is a link between the product and the customer.

He always sees “whether the customer like this product? 

3. Manufacturing Engineer.

He knows the best manufacturing process suitable for the production of the particular product. He can give

advice on the various manufacturing processes available in the industry.

4. Detailer

In many companies the design engineer is responsible for specification development, planning, conceptual

design and the early stages of product design. The project is then turned over to detailers who finishes the

details, develops manufacturing and assembly documents.

5. Drafter

A drafter aids the design engineer and detailer by making drawing of the product. In many companies the

detailer and the drafter are the same individual.

6. Technician.

The technicians aid the design engineer in developing test-apparatus, performing experiments etc.

7. Materials Specialist.

In some products, the choice of the material is based on availability. In some other cases, a certain material isto be chosen according to some features of the product. Material specialist can give advice on properties of

different materials.

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8. Quality Control Specialist.

A quality control specialist observes how well the product meets specifications. This inspection is done on

finished products as well as raw materials purchased from vendors.

9. Industrial Engineer.

Industrial designers are responsible for how a product looks and how well it interacts with customers. They

generally have background in fine arts and in human factor analysis.

10. Assembly Manager.

The assembly manager is responsible for putting the product together. Note that assembly process is an

important aspect of product design.

11. Suppliers' Representative.

As part of product development, the company may purchase components or sub-assemblies from out-sources.

In that case, the representative of the supplier of the specified component must be included in the design team.

5.6 Organisational Structure of Design Teams 

Since a design project requires individuals with different fields of expertise, they can be organised intodifferent structures. Listed below are the five organisational structures. The number in the bracket shows the

 percentage of design projects that use that particular organisation structure.

1. Project matrix, (28%)

It is an organisation structure having the features of project and matrix organisations.

2. Functional matrix (26%)

It is another organisational structure obtained by combining functional as well as matrix organisations.

3. Balanced Matrix (16%)

Here the project manager and functional manager work together. A project manager is assigned to oversee the

 project, and the responsibility and authority for completing the project rests with functional managers.

4. Project Team (16%)

A project manager is put in charge of a project team composed of a core group of personnels from several

functional areas or groups assigned on a full time basis.

5. Functional Organisation (13%)

Each project is assigned to a relevant functional area or group within a functional area. A functional area

focuses on a single discipline.

5.7. Task Clarification [S 01]

A project plan is a document that defines the tasks necessary to be completed during a design process. A

 project plan is used to keep the project under control. It helps the design team and management to know how

the project is actually progressing.

There are five steps to establish a plan. They are,

• Identify the task  

• State the objective of each task

• Estimate Personnel's, time, resources required. 

• Develop a sequence for these tasks. 

• Estimate product development cost. 

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Step 1 Identify the tasks

In the first step of the planning of the design project, the different tasks needed to bring the problem from its

initial state to the final products are identified. The tasks are the activities to be performed during the design

 process. Given below is a list of tasks drafted by a design team, for the development of a certain product.

a. Collect and evaluate customer requirements and competition scenario.

 b. Establish two concepts for product development.

c. Develop final prototype.

d. Test prototype No1 and select one design for finalisation.

e. Redesign and produce proto type No2.

f. Field test prototype No2.

g. Complete production documentation.

h. Develop marketing plan.

i. Develop quality control procedures.

 j. Prepare patent applications.

k. Establish product appearance.

l. Develop packaging.

Step .2. State the objective for each task.

Even though the tasks are initially identified, they need to be refined to ensure that the results of the activities

are the stated objectives. For example, for the task No. (a) above, the objective is to collect information

required for developing specification.

Step 3: Estimate the Personnel, Time & other Resources Required.

Completion of each of the tasks listed above will consume resources such as personnel, time etc. An estimate

of the requirement of resources may look like:

Task Personnel/time

Collecting data Two market surveyors, two months

Concept generation Two designers, two week.

Step 4 Develop a Sequence for the tasks

The next step is scheduling of tasks-the purpose is to ensure that each task is completed, before its result isneeded. CPM is the best method to accomplish this.

Step 5 Estimate Product Development Cost

On the basis of the above steps, the costs for developing the product can be estimated. Normally design cost is

only about 5% of manufacturing cost.