Ethics as AoK

Ethics as AoK“I cannot see how to refute the

arguments for the subjectivity of ethical values, but I find myself incapable of believing that all that is wrong with wanton cruelty is that I don’t like it.”

—Bertrand Russell, 1872-1970“When a stupid man is doing

something he is ashamed of, he always declares it his duty.”

—George Bernard Shaw, 1856-1950

Moral ReasoningMoral Principle:

Cheating on a test is wrong. Snoogles cheated on the test. There what Snoogle did was wrong.

Identify the Moral Principle:Paula shouldn’t have kept the money

she found—it doesn’t belong to her.The CEO accepts bribes. He should

be fired.Bubba should be released from

prison. He didn’t receive a fair trial.

Moral ReasoningConsistency: expect moral judgment to

be applied w/consistencyanti-abortionist who supports the death

penaltyvegetarian who buys leather shoes, belts,

etc.politician who proclaims family values has

an affair

Facts: alleged facts that are basis of moral judgments are truecapital punishment is a deterrentchild labor should be outlawedgenetically modified foods should be

banned

Moral Reasoning

Moral Principle Consistency Facts Value-judgment

What if we do not share the same underlying moral principle?

Moral Relativism

Morals determined by the society in which we grew up

No universal morals: more like customs, i.e. monogamous/polygamous; bury dead/burn dead

Moral Relativism1. Diversity Argument: abundance of

moral practices throughout the world & throughout time means no objective moral values

Slavery; female genital mutilation; sahti; cannibalism

2. Lack of Foundation Argument: no independent moral ‘reality’ to base moral values as a measure of true/false

David Hume, 1711-1776: “tis not contrary to reason to prefer the destruction of the whole world to the scratching of my finger.”

Moral Relativism

Culture of Tolerance: Is it possible with moral relativism?

Problem of Cultural Imperialism Is it always okay to believe that

“they have their values and I have my values and who am I to say he’s wrong”?

Moral RelativismFirst they came for the Jewsand I did not speak outbecause I was not a Jew.

Then they came for the Communistsand I did not speak outbecause I was not a Communist.

Then they came for the trade unionistsand I did not speak outbecause I was not a trade unionist.

Then they came for meand there was no one leftto speak out for me.

--Martin Niemöller

Self-interest Theory Premise: humans are always and

everywhere selfish How does such a theory impact the

notion of morals or ethics?

1. Definitional Argument

2. Evolutionary Argument

3. Hidden Benefits Argument

4. Fear of Punishment Argument

Self-interest TheoryDefinitional Argument True by definition (necessarily

true) that everyone is selfish

What about altruism?

1. Hang with your friends

2. Visit a retirement home

Which action is altruistic?

Self-interest TheoryDefinitional Argument

Is there a difference between Donald Trump and Mother Theresa based on the definitional argument?

Self-interest TheoryDefinitional Argument Criticism:

Definitional argument robs ‘selfish’ of its meaning; how can you criticize something that is the universal motivator of actions

Self-regarding Desires v. Other-regarding Desires

Self-interest TheoryEvolutionary Argument Struggle for survival led us to

being selfish Other people’s interests concern us

only to extent they affect our own interests

Therefore: capitalism is superior to socialism because it taps into human nature

Self-interest TheoryEvolutionary Argument Criticism:

Evidence that supports idea that empathy & altruism is part of our nature

Monkeys refuse pull lever that delivers food if it also caused a shock in another monkey

Babies (about 1 yr. old) will offer a blanket or toy if they see their mother crying

Edward O. Wilson, biologist, “Cooperative individuals generally survive longer and leave more offspring.”

Self-interest TheoryHidden Benefits Argument

We get hidden benefits from being kind to people, i.e. gratitude, praise, positive image

Return a favor or helps our reputation

Self-interest TheoryHidden Benefits Argument Criticism:

People do acts without expecting anything in return, i.e. tip restaurant never visit again

Citizens of Chambon, France who hid Jews from Nazis

Oskar Schindler or Raol Wallenberg

David Hume: “I esteem the man whose self-love, by whatever means, is so directed as to give him a concern for others, and render him serviceable to society; as I hate or despise him who has no regard for anything beyond his own gratifications and enjoyments.”

Self-interest TheoryFear of Punishment Argument Civil behavior results only from

fear of being punished with a fine, ostracism, imprisonment, shame, etc.

What would have if the police were to go on strike?

Montreal, 17 October 1969

Self-interest TheoryFear of Punishment Argument Criticism

What is the basis of this belief? Cynic might claim Mother Theresa

acted out of fear of eternal damnation, but wouldn’t God know that and judge her accordingly

Ring of Gyges (Plato): ring allows bearer to become invisible… what would you do with it?

Theories of EthicsSystematic Approach Religious Ethics Duty Ethics Utilitarianism Immanuel Kant

Theories of EthicsReligious Ethics

Religion like an authoritative rule book

Source of moral insight & ethical guidance

Does that mean we do not have to think about ethics, that we have no responsibility to reflect on ethics?

Theories of EthicsReligious Ethics What about free will? What about the ‘idolatry of literalism?”

Exodus 35:2 proclaims that anyone who works on the Sabbath should be put to death

spirit of the code or the letter of the code?

Theories of EthicsReligious Ethics Plato (428-348 BCE)

cannot derive ethics from religion

Is something good because God says it is good, or does God say that it is good because it is good?

Theories of EthicsReligious Ethics Plato (428-348 BCE)

God says it is good: what if God decides that murder is good

Good because it is good: are values independent of God? Do we need to appeal to God to justify them?

Theories of EthicsReligious Ethics Matthew 19:24: “It is easier for a

camel to go through the eye of a needle than it is for a rich man to enter the kingdom of God.”—How should we interpret this?

Can a person be a good Catholic if they practice birth control?

Fyodor Dostoevsky (1821-1881): “if God is dead, everything is permitted.”

Theories of EthicsDuty Ethics

ethics centered on fulfilling obligations

duty-based ethics = deontological approach

morality of an action is judge by adherence to rule

Theories of EthicsDuty Ethics

What about rights? duty/rights connected

duty not to steal/right to property right to life/ duty not to kill

How are these justified?

Theories of EthicsDuty Ethics: Kantian Ethics

Immanuel Kant, 1724-1804 duties are not arbitrary and can be

determined by reason categorical imperative:

categorically imputes duties across situational variables

Theories of EthicsDuty Ethics: Kantian Ethics

1. “act only according to that maxim whereby you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law”

2. "act in such a way that you treat humanity, whether in your own person or in the person of any other, always at the same time as an end and never merely as a means”

3. “every rational being must so act as if he were through his maxim always a legislating member in the universal kingdom of ends.”

Theories of EthicsDuty Ethics: Kantian Ethics

1. “act only according to that maxim whereby you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law”

What would happen if everyone did that?

i.e. promises

consistency

Theories of EthicsDuty Ethics: Kantian Ethics special pleading: excuses to justify our

own behavior that we would not find acceptable in others

“If you want to know the foulness of lying, consider the lying of someone else and how you shun it and despise the man who lies and regard his communication as foul. Do the same with regard to all your vices, for you do not realize the foulness of your own case, but from someone else’s.”

--Al Ghazali, 1058-1111

Theories of EthicsDuty Ethics: Kantian Ethics Golden Rule

Buddhism:  Hurt not others in ways that you yourself would find hurtful." Udana-Varga 5:18

Confucianism: "Do not do to others what you do not want them to do to you" Analects 15:23

Hinduism: This is the sum of duty: do not do to others what would cause pain if done to you. Mahabharata 5:1517 

Theories of EthicsDuty Ethics: Kantian Ethics Golden Rule

Islam: “No one of you is a believer until he desires for his brother that which he desires for himself. “      Sunnah

Jainism: "In happiness and suffering, in joy and grief, we should regard all creatures as we regard our own self." Lord Mahavira, 24th Tirthankara

Judaism: "What is hateful to you, do not to your fellow man. This is the law: all the rest is commentary." Talmud, Shabbat 31a.

Theories of EthicsDuty Ethics: Kantian Ethics Golden Rule

Taoism: “Regard your neighbor’s gain as your gain, and your neighbor’s loss as your own loss.”     Tai Shang Kan Yin P’ien

Zoroastrianism: “That nature alone is good which refrains from doing another whatsoever is not good for itself.”   Dadisten-I-dinik, 94,5

Theories of EthicsDuty Ethics: Kantian Ethics Veil of Ignorance: John Rawls,

1921-2002

Assume that you arrive at the bargaining table with no knowledge whatsoever of your social status, economic power, ethnicity, religion or gender. Then, asks Rawls, what kind of society would you want to set up?

Theories of EthicsDuty Ethics: Kantian Ethics

Values & Dignity

Kant: no individual should be given preferential treatment/ no individual should be discriminated against

never right to sacrifice an individual’s life for the greater good

Theories of EthicsDuty Ethics: Kantian Ethics Values & Dignity

Dual Concept of the Self

Individual is one among many but also a me

should never be treated as a mere means to an end

Theories of EthicsDuty Ethics: Kantian Ethics Values & Dignity

Kant: difference between objects and humans

objects have value

humans have dignity

Theories of EthicsDuty Ethics: Kantian Ethics Moral Value

moral value of an action determined by motive for which it is done not the consequences that derive from it—accident v. revenge

actions should be motivated by reason not feeling

what if you feel like helping Person A, but not Person B?

only do good things when you want to

Theories of EthicsDuty Ethics: Kantian Ethics Moral Value Motives for Doing Good

1. expect something in return

2. sympathy

3. duty

Theories of EthicsDuty Ethics: Kantian Ethics Criticisms:

moral absolutism, i.e. lying rule worship

respect traffic, but it’s OK to drive through red light if you’re late for work

respect traffic laws, but it’s OK to drive through red light if you’re rushing someone to the emergency room

Theories of EthicsDuty Ethics: Kantian Ethics Criticisms:

conflicts of duty If a person is unfaithful to their partner,

should they confess and make their partner unhappy or say nothing and deceive them?

If your grandmother and a famous doctor are trapped in a burning building, do you rescue your grandmother because she is family or the doctor because she is more useful to society?

If your child is dying of a rare disease and you cannot afford the drugs to save him, are you justified in stealing the drugs?

Theories of EthicsUtilitarianism Jeremy Bentham, 1748-1832 John Stuart Mill, 1806-1873

Moral Principle: the greatest happiness of the greatest number

“It is the greatest good to the greatest number of people which is the measure of right and wrong.”

--Jeremy Bentham

Theories of EthicsUtilitarianism Moral Principle: the greatest happiness

of the greatest number actions are right in so far as they tend

to increase happiness and wrong in so far as they tend to decrease it

“Actions are right in proportion as they tend to promote happiness; wrong as they tend to produce the reverse of happiness. By happiness is intended pleasure and the absence of pain.”

--John Stuart Mill

Theories of EthicsUtilitarianism

Happiness = presence of pleasure and the absence of pain

maximize pleasure minimize pain

Theories of EthicsUtilitarianism

democratic system rational theory: short-term & long-

term egalitarian system

Theories of EthicsUtilitarianism Criticisms: What is pleasure? ice cream, education,

freedom, lack of responsibilities… What is happiness?

“To be without some of the things you want is an indespensable part of happiness.”

--Bertrand Russell

Theories of EthicsUtilitarianism Criticisms: What is happiness?

you earn $50,000/year & four friends earn $25,000/year

you earn $100,000/year & your four friends earn $250,000/ year

Love & Marriage & Adultery?

Theories of EthicsUtilitarianism Criticisms: Bad Pleasures:

malicious pleasures: derived from suffering of others

empty pleasures: do not help us develop as humans or obtain our full potential

Theories of EthicsUtilitarianism Criticisms: Judges Actions

right or wrong action depends on its outcome or consequences

what about the actions to get to the end

do means justify ends?

Theories of EthicsUtilitarianism Criticisms: Obligations & Rights

Pugnacious is a malicious member of a community. Beneficence decides to do something about Pugnacious. She hides behind tree and, as Pugnacious passes by, hits him in the head with a baseball bat. She then drags his unconscious body to the river and throws him in.