eurasian journal eajseof science & engineering issn 2414 ...€¦ · prof. dr. nabil a. fakhre,...

Eurasian Journal of Science & Engineering

ISSN 2414-5629 (Print), ISSN 2414-5602 (Online) EAJSE

i

EDITOR-IN-CHIEF

Dr. Duran Kala, Ishik University, Iraq

EDITORIAL ASSISTANT

Çağrı Tuğrul Mart, Ishik University, Iraq

MEDIA REVIEW EDITOR

Mustafa Albay, Ishik University, Iraq

ASSOCIATE EDITORS

Prof. Dr. Ahmet Öztaş, Ishik University, Iraq

Prof. Dr. Zafer Ayvaz, Ege University, Turkey

Prof. Dr. Ozgur Kisi, International Black Sea University, Georgia

Prof. Dr. Bayan Salim, Ishik University, Iraq

Prof. Dr. Yassin Al-Hiti, Ishik University, Iraq

Prof. Dr. Nabil A. Fakhre, Salahaddin University, Iraq

EDITORIAL BOARD MEMBERS

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Amir Nurullayevich, Russian State Geological Prospecting University, Russia

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Thamir M. Ahmad, Ishik University, Iraq

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Cihan Mert, International Black Sea University, Georgia

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Hassan Hassoon Aldelfi, Ishik University, Iraq

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Suat Karadeniz, Ishik University, Iraq

Asst. Prof. Dr. Cevat Onal, Nigerian Turkish Nile University, Nigeria

Asst. Prof. Dr. Omer Eskidere, Nigerian Turkish Nile University, Nigeria

Asst. Prof. Dr. Serkan Dogan, International Burch University, Bosnia and Herzegovina

Asst. Prof. Dr. Jasmin Kevric, International Burch University, Bosnia and Herzegovina

Asst. Prof. Dr. Nejdet Dogru, International Burch University, Bosnia and Herzegovina

Dr. Mehmet Özdemir, Ishik University, Iraq

Dr. Mutlay Dogan, Ishik University, Iraq

Dr. Doğan Özdemir, Ishik University, Iraq

Dr. Halit Vural, Ishik University, Iraq

Dr. Cumhur Aksu, Ishik University, Iraq

Dr. Gunter Senyurt, Ishik University, Iraq

Dr. Selcuk Cankurt, Ishik University, Iraq

Dr. Zakariya Adel Hussein, Koya University, Iraq

Editorial Office:


Ishik University, Erbil, Iraq

www.eajse.org

http://www.eajse.org/



ii

Eurasian Journal of Science & Engineering gratefully acknowledges the support of Ishik University.

Eurasian Journal of Science & Engineering is particularly indebted to Ishik University Research Center.

Copyright © 2017

All Rights Reserved

Composed by Irfan Publishing, Erbil, Iraq

Printed by Anıl Press, Gaziantep, Turkey

No responsibility for the views expressed by the authors in this journal is assumed by the editors or by

Eurasian Journal of Science & Engineering.

EAJSE (Eurasian Journal of Science & Engineering) is published biannually (December, June) in both print

and online versions by Ishik University.



iii

Table of Contents

1. Analysis of Antenna Types Performance in Mobile Phone Base Station……………....1

Authors: Saba Fadhel Jaf & Muhammed Fadhel Jaf & Niyaz Fadhel Jaf

2. Impact of Cement Replacement Partially by Mosaic powder on

Compressive Strength of Concrete…………………………………………………….…9

Authors: Arass O. Mawlod & Najmadeen M. Saeed

3. The Application of Electrochemical Process as Inner Holes Cleaner…………….…...19

Author: Hiba H.Alwan

4. Engineering and Microstructures Characteristics of Low Calcium Fly Ash Based

Geopolymer Concrete …………………………………………………………………....27

Authors: Akram S. Mahmoud & Ganjeena J. Khoshnaw & Faten I. Mahmood

5. 5G Next Generation Mobile Wireless Technology with Massive MIMO Continue

4G Revolution, Key Technologies and Challenges………………………………….….40

Author: Jalal Jamal Hamad Ameen

6. Wavelet Transform based Score Fusion for Face Recognition using SIFT

Descriptors………………………………………………………………………………..48

Authors: Musa M.Ameen & Bilal Ahmed & Muhammed Anwar & Payam M.Hussein

7. Developing a Novel Approach for Evaluation Performance of the Engineering

Departments Managers Using 360° Technique………………………………………...56 Authors: Faiq M. S. Al-Zwainy & Mohammed S. Kh. Al-Marsomi

8. Raising Environmental Awareness among Young Generation Using Social Media: A

Case “Green It at Ishik University”……………………………………………………..68

Authors: Mehmet Ozdemir & Rasha Alkabbanie



Volume 2, Issue 2; June, 2017

1

Analysis of Antenna Types Performance in Mobile Phone Base

Station

Saba Fadhel Jaf 1 & Muhammed Fadhel Jaf

2 & Niyaz Fadhel Jaf

3

1 University of Kirkuk, Iraq College of Engineering

2 University of Sanbetresburg, Russia College of Computer Engineering

3Kalar university, Iraq College of Engineering

Correspondence: Saba Fadhel Jaf, University of Kirkuk, Iraq College of Engineering, Iraq.

Email: [email protected]

Received: March 24, 2017 Accepted: April 26, 2017 Online Published: June 1, 2017

doi: 10.23918/eajse.v2i2p1

Abstract: The paper is evaluate the usage antenna type k742225 in Kalar towers mobile phone base

station in Asia cell in Kurdistan in south of Sulymaniya. By studying the characteristics of the above

type of antenna in this paper a comparison made between the performance of antenna type k742225

and Kathrein antenna other types for Kalar towers mobile phone base station in Asia cell by using the

Tool Site master. Simulation results indicate that antenna type k742225depends on the network

environment and different environments may lead to different optimization results in terms of capacity

and coverage performance. The result shows that coverage analysis best compare to Kathrein antenna

other types, Kathrein antennas type k742225 still have better performance in term of coverage

enhancement and interference control. This pattern we can see the first NULL of Kathrein antenna

type k742225 show better attenuation than Kathrein antenna other types and also it have bigger

vertical beam width and under the antenna Kathrein have more propagation. To finding the suitable

Kathrein antenna type is a very critical issue in cellular network, since it affects the system

performance, aiming to enhance the signal strengths of serving cells, in addition to reducing the

interference levels with the cellular system.

Keywords: k742225 Antenna, Tower, Mobile Phone, Capacity, Coverage

1. Introduction

Wireless communication has been experiencing development during the past decade. There has

recently been explosive growth in the use of mobile communications. Today's operators of

mobile-communication systems face a problem, more acute than before, of ensuring good quality

of service, which generally means providing not only good coverage but also low interference.

When estimating the coverage or radiation pattern of mobile base station, engineer must rely

on the manufacturer-provided antenna radiation pattern (Saba, 2015). In most cases, carefully

optimizing the down tilt angels produces enhanced signal strength levels at the targeted areas, thus

reducing the interference levels from other covering cells. However, excessive down tilt.

Angle may lead to dramatic coverage shortages, specifically at the edges of the main loop

direction (Huawei Technologies, 2009; Kathrin Antennen Electronic, 2011). Kathrein Panel

antennas are designed, manufactured, and tested using modern computer modeling methods, up-to-

date manufacturing techniques and sophisticated measurement equipment to assure that every

antenna that bears the Kathrin name will provide long, reliable performance, strength, longevity

and reliability. Our antennas are designed to withstand the shock, vibration, moisture resistance,

salt spray, icing and temperature extremes according to rigorous IEC world standards for antennas

mailto:[email protected]




2

(Kathrin Inc. 2013). Fig.1. shows places asking for the Kathrin Panel antennas in the world.

Figure 1: Kathrin Panel Antennas in the World

Designs utilize a production process known as pulltrusion. This method of fabrication forces when

cured has a tensile strength some 4 times greater than injection-molded, thermoformed. Radom

may expand by as much as .117 inches under elevated temperature conditions, while a Kathrein

radom of the same size expands only .016 inches. Of course, better joint stability means better

sealing, which prevents moisture entry. There are commercially available antenna’s that can

remotely change their down-tilt, azimuth and beam width (Kathrin Antennen Electronic, 2010,

2011).

Kathrein’s dual band antennas are ready for 3G applications, covering all existing wireless bands as

well as all spectrum under consideration for future systems, AMPS, PCS and 3G/UMTS. These

cross-polarized antennas offer diversity operation in the same space as a conventional 800 MHz

antenna, and are mountable on our compact sector brackets (Kathrin Inc. 2013).

2. Methodology

The angle of the main beam of the antenna below the horizontal plane is called antenna tilt.

Positive and negative angles are also referred to as downtilt and up-tilt respectively (Huawei

Technologies, 2009). In electrical down tilt, main, side and back lobes are tilted uniformly by

adjusting phases of antenna elements. However, in mechanical down tilt, antenna main lobe is

lowered on one side and the antenna back lobe is raised on the other side because antenna elements

are physically directed towards ground in mechanical down tilt (Huawei Technologies, 2009).

The frequency range for K742225 are 824–960/1710–2180MHz, while for K739686 are 806–

960MHz and for K739684 are 824–960MHz. The three types have the same polarization,

impedance, isolation and VSWR are +45°, –45°, 50 Ω, > 30 dB, and < 1.5 respectively. But for

gain in K742225 is 17/18.5dBi, for K739686 17.5 dBi and for K739684 is 15 dB (Kathrin Inc.

2013; Louis, 2010). Electrical tilt continuously adjustable for K742225 is 0°–7°/0°–6°T as same

K739686, while for K739684 is 0°–14°T. Fig. 2, 3, 4 show the horizontal and vertical pattern for

K742225, K739686 and K739684 respectively.




3

(a) Horizontal Pattern (b) Vertical Pattern

Figure 2. Horizontal and Vertical Pattern for K742225


Figure 3. Horizontal and Vertical Pattern for K739686


Figure 4. Horizontal and Vertical Pattern for K739684.

As shown from kathrein antenna type K742225 Fig. 2 (a) the horizontal pattern are have a wide

main lobe with no back lobe, while for kathrein antenna typesK739686 and K739684 in fig.3 (a)

and fig.4 respectively horizontal pattern are have a wide main lobe with little back lobe. while

for vertical pattern the three last types have same main, side and back lobes as shown in




4

fig.2(b),fig3.(b) and fig.4(b) respectively. The Maximum power are 250 W for Kathrein antenna

type K742225, while for K739686 are 500 W and for K739684 are 400 W (at 50 °C ambient

temperature). The Fig.5 (a), (b) and (c) show the mechanical specification for Kathrin antenna

types K742225, K739686 and K739684 respectively in details (Kathrin Antennen Electronic,

2014).

(a) Mechanical Specification for Kathrein Antenna TypeK742225.

(b) Mechanical Specification for Kathrein Antenna TypeK739684.

(c)Mechanical Specification for Kathrein Antenna TypeK739684.

Figure 5. Mechanical Specification for Kathrin Antenna Types K742225, K739686 and K739684.

As shown from Fig. 4 the same input for each type, so as for Connector position, while for

Adjustment mechanism are 1x, Position bottom, continuously adjustable for each K739686 and

K739684, while the twice for K742225 (Louis, 2010). But for Height of K742225 are 2516 mm

while for K739686 are 2580 mm , and for K739684 are 1296 mm, but the three types have the

same width are 262 mm, also the depth have the same for K739686 and K739684 are 116 mm

but the depth for K742225 are bigger than the two last types (39 mm) (Kathrin Antennen

Electronic, 2014).

3. Results

To finding the suitable Kathrein antenna type is a very critical issue in cellular network, since it

effects on the system performance, aiming to enhance the signal strengths of serving cells, in

addition to reducing the interference levels with the cellular system. Fig. 6 shows Kalar city by

Google Earth Map in Kurdistan in south of Sulymaniya.




5

Figure 6. Kalar City by Google Earth Map

By studying the characteristics of the Kathrein antenna types by choosing Kalar city towers mobile

phone base station in Asia cell in Kurdistan in Suoth of Sulymaniya. As shown in fig.7.

Figure 7. Kalar City Towers.

There are 33 site in kalar city almost of these sites used type K742225 there are: Kalar_0616,

Kalar2_0757, Kalar3_0681, Kalar4_0744, KalarFc_0748, Kalarikon_0743, KalarMk_0760,

NwKalar_0645,Smood2_0729, Kalar3_0681, NwKalar_0645,Smood3_0724, Kalarikon_0743. And

the other lest have the antenna type K739684, K739686, K730378 and K80010305.




6

Table 1:

The Antenna Type And The Number Of Sectors For Each Sites In Kalar City.

As shown from Table1. The antenna types and the number of sectors for each sites in Kalar

city, according to table 1. For kathrein antenna type K742225 there are six sectors used in

Kalar_0616, Kalar2_0757,Kalar4_0744, KalarFc_0748,KalarMk_0760,Smood2_0729 and

Smood3_0724 site respectively. While three sectors used inKalar3_0681.

Kalarikon_0743, Nw Kalar_0645,Kalar3_0681, NwKalar_0645,Kalarikon_0743.

Site Name Antenna

type

No. of Sectors

GrdaGozina_074

6

K739684 3

Kalar_0616 K742225 6

Kalar2_0757 K742225 6

Kalar3_0681 K742225 3

Kalar4_0744 K742225 6

KalarFc_0748 K742225 6

Kalarikon_0743 K742225 3

KalarMk_0760 K742225 6

NwKalar_0645 K742225 3

Pebaz_0693 K739684 3

Smood2_0729 K742225 6

Tazade_0756 K730378 3

BanAsiaw_0820 K730378 2

Kalar3_0681 K742225 3

NwKalar_0645 K742225 3

Bardasur_0799 K80010305 3

Bardasur2_0838 K739686 3

Smood3_0724 K742225 6

Kalar8_0839 K739686 3

Kalar9_0837 K739686 3

Kalar10_0840 K739686 3

Kalar11_0841 K739686 3

Kalar13_0836 K739686 3

Kelabarza_0824 K739686 2

Kalarikon_0743 K742225 3




7

(a) Performance Kathrin Antenna Type K742225

(b) Performance Kathrin Antenna Type K739686

(c) Performance Kathrin Antenna type K739684.

Figure 8. Performance Kathrin Antenna types K742225, K739686 and K739684.

From Fig. 8 shows three curves for performance Kathrin Antenna Types K742225, K739686

AndK739684 respectively. By comparing on performance for the three last types. From fig 8 (a)

the Antenna Type K742225 performance starting with higher than 130 dB more than the curves. In

fig8 (b) for antenna type K739686 where the its lower than the magnitude of 110 dB so as for the

last curve in fig8(c), the Kathrin Antenna Type K739684 better than from Kathrin Antenna Type

K739686 where its magnitude starting at 120 dB, but not reached Kathrin Antenna Type K742225.




8

It’s clear from the curve that Kathrin Antenna Type K742225 have good performing also it is

better than other Kathrin Antenna Type K739686 And K739684. Simulation results indicate that

optimum down tilt angle depends on the network environment and different environments may lead

to different optimization results in terms of capacity and coverage performance.

4. Conclusion

This paper is evaluate the usage antenna type k742225 in Kalar towers mobile phone base station

in Asia cell in Kurdistan in suoth of sulymaniya. By studying the characteristics of the above type

of antenna. In this paper a comparison made between the performance of antenna type k742225 and

Kathrein antenna other types for Kalar towers mobile phone base station in Asia cell. Simulation

results indicate that antenna type k742225depends on the network environment and different

environments may lead to different optimization results in terms of capacity and coverage

performance. The result shows that coverage analysis best compare to Kathrein antenna other

types. Kathrein antennas type k742225 still have better performance in term of coverage

enhancement and interference control. This pattern we can see the first NULL of Kathrein antenna

type k742225 show better attenuation than Kathrein antenna other types and also it has bigger

vertical beam width and under the antenna Kathrein have more propagation. To finding the suitable

Kathrein antenna type is a very critical issue in cellular network, since it affects the system

performance, aiming to enhance the signal strengths of serving cells, in addition to reducing the

interference levels with the cellular system.

References

Saba, F. A. (2015). Comparison between electrical and mechanical antenna tilt angle in

Sulaymaniya mobile phone base stations. Kirkuk University Journal Scientific Studies

(KUJSS), 1093), 1-13.

Huawei Technologies Co. (2009). Base Station Antenna Catalogue. Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd.

Kathrin Antennen Electronic. (2011). 27–512 MHzKATHREIN-Antennas and Antenna Line

Products for Public Safety, Ports, Airports, Distribution, Public Transport, Utilities.

Germany.

Kathrin Inc. (2013). Proffotional antennaandfilter or mobile communications 700-3800 MHz, Scala

Division, USA.

Kathrin Antennen Electronic. (2010). 790 – 6000 MHzBase Station Antennas, Filters, Combiners

and Amplifiersfor Mobile Communications, KATHREIN-Werke KG Rosenheim

Germany.

Kathrin Antennen Electronic. (2014). 694 – 6000 MHz Base Station Antennas, Filters, Combiners

and Amplifiers for Mobile Communications, KATHRIN-Werke KG Rosenheim

Germany.

Louis, J. M. (2010). Electrical and Mechanical Downtilt and their Effects on Horizontal Pattern

Performance. Retrieved from http//:www.commscope.com. Comm Scope, Inc.Director,

Applications Engineering.




9

Impact of Cement Replacement Partially by Mosaic powder on

Compressive Strength of Concrete

Arass O. Mawlod1 & Najmadeen M. Saeed

2

1,2 Civil Engineering Department, University of Raparin, Ranya, Iraq

Correspondence: Arass O. Mawlod, University of Raparin, Ranya, Iraq.




Abstract: Mosaic tile is considered as one of the most popular tiles used as finishing material in

different parts of the buildings, especially, for floor finishing. During the process of the manufactured

mosaic tile, a huge volume of sludge waste has been produced in the stage of polishing and has the

effect towards the environment, so it can be reused as a partial replacement of cement for economical

purpose. The mosaic sludge can be improved to the mosaic powder through the process of normally

drying and sieving. In this paper, an experiment has been conducted to investigate the behavior of

compression strength of the concrete by replacing cement with the mosaic tile dust (MTD) by the rate

of 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25% and 30%. For this purpose, an experimental program was carried out in

which fourteen mixes with different combinations of mosaic tile dust in two different groups of

different w/c ratio of 0.45 and 0.55 respectively. The samples are tested and compared with the

conventional concrete to find out whether the compressive strength increases or decreases with

increasing the rate of replacing the cement by mosaic tile dust (MTD) by the above ratios.

Keywords: Concrete Cube Sample, Mosaic Tile Dust, Compressive Strength, Workability

1. Introduction

Concrete is arguably the most important building material, playing a basic role in all building

structures. Its virtue lies in its versatility, durability and fire resistant. Concrete can be used for all

standard buildings, both single storey and multistorey and for containment and retaining structures

and bridges as discussed by MacGinley and Choo (1990). The concrete technology researchers are

continuously trying to improve concrete design to reach higher concrete strength and at the same

time reduce the consumption of the resources by finding new alternatives. Nowadays a large

amount of mosaic tile sludge in building construction is generated during polishing the tile surface,

which makes around totally dirty. This study presents the solution for the environmental problem

by collecting the waste and drying it to reproduce powder, which is used as a partially cement

replacement in the concrete. Recently, many researches were carried out in order to use ceramic

and marble tile waste as a partial replacement or mixture material in the concrete in order to

improve concrete design.

Ceramic Tile Waste

The studies conducted by Sukesh et al. (2012) and Torgal et al. (2011) have done their research

about the partial replacement of cement in concrete by using of waste materials like ceramic waste.

They have found that the concrete with partial cement replacement by ceramic powder has minor





10

strength loss possess increase durability performance. Manogna and Lakshmi (2015) and Raval et

al. (2013) have investigated that using ceramic waste as a partially replacement of cement up to

30% by weight of cement increases the compressive strength of concrete but further replacement of

cement with tile powder decreases the compressive strength gradually. However, Anwar et al.

(2015) concludes that when the ceramic waste powder is replaced by up to 30% by weight of

cement without affecting compressive strength of concrete, but further replacement of cement with

ceramic waste powder decreases the compressive strength, this result has also been reported by

Patel et al. (2014).

Marble Tile Waste

Pal et al. (2016), Vijaya et al. (2016), Raju et al. (2016), Shirule et al. (2012), Singh et al. (2015),

Sahu (2016), Kumar and Kumar (2015) have discovered that the compressive strength of concrete

increases up to 10% replacement of cement by marble dust powder and further increasing of

percentage of marble dust powder leads to decreasing in compressive strength of concrete.

Nonetheless, Singh and Bansal (2015), Anwar et al. (2015) and Gurumoorthy (2014) have

investigated that the most suitable and optimum percentage replacement of marble dust in concrete

is almost 12%, 20% and 25% respectively. Further, any addition of waste marble dust the

compressive strength is decreased.

The purpose of this paper is to find the compressive strength of concrete while replacing the mosaic

tile dust (MTD) with different proportions in concrete based on experimental investigations and

comparing the characteristic strength at the two water cement ratios, namely, of 0.45 and 0.55.

The outline of this paper is as follow. The experimental materials are presented in Section 2.

Section 3 shows the mix design and considered variables. Sections 4 and 5 introduce the

experimental methodology and the discussion respectively, while a concluding summary is

presented in Section 6.

2. Experimental Materials

2.1 Cement

Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) was used for the entire experimental mixes of the study. The

chemical and physical properties of the cement are shown in Tables 1 and 2 respectively, which are

conformed to IQ.S 5/1984 Standard for Ordinary Portland Cement. The specific gravity of the

cement is 3.14.

2.2 Aggregates

2.2.1 Course Aggregate

In the investigation the crushed gravel is used, which is available locally. In order to obtain the

densest possible concrete, the existing gravel was separated by sieve analysis and remixed by

desired amount according to the specification for having the most well graded course aggregate.

The sieve analysis was carried out for the whole required quantity so as to be fitted with the

standard specification ASTM-C33 (2003) for coarse aggregate, see Table 3 and Figure 1. The

specific gravity and Fineness Modulus of the course aggregate is 2.72 and 2.15 respectively.




11

Table 1: Chemical properties of cement (OPC)

Chemical requirements

IQ.S 5/1984 Standard for Ordinary Portland Cement

Limitation Test Results

Lime saturation coefficient % 0.66-1.02 1.0

Magnesium Oxide (as MgO)% ≤5 3.6

Sulfate content (as SO3) % 2.5 if C3A ≤ 5 2.2

2.8 if C3A ≥5

Loss of ignition (as LOI)% ≤4.0 3.5

Non soluble substance % ≤ 1.5 0.8

Table 2: Physical properties of cement (OPC)

Physical Requirements

IQ.S 5/1984 Standard for Ordinary Portland Cement

Limitation Test Result

Fineness (Blaine) kg/m2 ≥230

343

-Initial setting time minute ≥45 150

-Final setting time hour ≤10 3:20

Soundness (expansion) % ≤ 0.8 0.2

Compressive strength is not less

than (MN/m2)

≥15.0 35.7

≥ 23.0 46.0




12

Table 3: Grading of Coarse Aggregate with ASTM-C33 (2003) limits

No. Sieve No. (mm) % Passing ASTM C33 Limits

1 12.5 100 100

2 9.5 90 85-100

3 4.75 20 10 – 300

4 2.36 5 0 - 10

5 1.18 0 0 - 5

Fineness Modulus 2.15

Specific Gravity 2.72

Figure 1: Grading curve for the coarse aggregate with ASTM-C33 (2003) limits

2.2.2 Fine Aggregates

The locally available river natural sand has been used as fine aggregate in this study. To get the

most dense concrete, the existing sand was separated by sieve analysis and remixed by the desired

amount for having well-graded fine aggregate according to ASTM-C33 (2003) standard

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

1 10 100ASTM Sieve size [mm] (log scale)

Percen

tag

e P

assin

g

Test

Upper ASTM Limit

Lower ASTM Limit




13

specification for fine aggregate (see Table 4 and Figure 2, for more information). The specific

gravity of sand is 2.66 and fineness modulus is 4.66.

2.3 Water

Water is an important component of concrete since it works in the chemical reaction with cement

and it aids to from the strength giving cement gel. In the investigation tap water is used for mixing

and curing. The quality of water was observed carefully, it was free from organic materials and oil.

Table 4: Grading of Fine Aggregate with ASTM-C33 (2003) limits

No. Sieve No. (mm) % Passing ASTM C33 Limits

1 9.50 100 100

2 4.75 96.5 90-100

3 2.36 87.7 75-100

4 1.18 73.2 55-90

5 0.6 41.2 35-59

6 0.3 13.1 8-30

7 0.15 3.2 0-10

Fineness Modulus 4.15

Specific Gravity 2.66




14

Figure

Figure 2: Grading curve for the fine aggregate with ASTM-C33 (2003) limits

3. Mix Design and Considered Variables

One variable, cement replacement partially by mosaic powder, was selected to investigate its effect

on compressive strength of concrete in two different w/c ratios (0.45 and 0.55) as shown in Tables

5 and 6 with their mix design.

Table 5: Mix design w/c =0.45 for 12 liter of concrete batch

All units in gram

Ratio of MTD to the original required cement (3600g)

0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30%

Mat

eria

ls

Cement 3600 3420 3240 3060 2880 2700 2520

MTD 0 180 360 540 720 900 1080

Water 1620 1620 1620 1620 1620 1620 1620

Gravel 14837 14815 14794 14772 14751 14730 14708

Sand 9891 9877 9862 9848 9834 9820 9805

Total 29948 29913 29877 29841 29805 29770 29734

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

0.1 1 10ASTM Sieve size [mm] (log scale)

Pe

rce

nta

ge

Pa

ss

ing

Test

Upper ASTM Limit

Lower ASTM Limit




15

Table 6: Mix design w/c =0.55 for 12 liter of concrete batch

All units in gram

Ratio of MTD to the original required cement (3600g)

0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30%

Mat

eria

ls

Cement 4800 4560 4320 4080 3840 3600 3360

MTD 0 240 480 720 960 1200 1440

Water 2640 2640 2640 2640 2640 2640 2640

Gravel 12569 12540 12512 12483 12455 12426 12397

Sand 8379 8360 8341 8322 8303 8284 8265

Total 28389 28341 28293 28246 28198 28150 28102

4. Experimental Methodology

In this experiment the mosaic tile dust (MTD), which was used as a partially cement replacement

was evaluated. In the investigation two groups of mixes were used with the two w/c ratios of 0.45

and 0.55. Each group of mixes contains seven batches 0%, 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25% and 30% of

original required cement replaced by mosaic tile dust (MTD). For each of the batches 3 cubes were

casted. After 24 hours the cubes were demoulded and placed in the water tank for the curing

purpose for 28 days, then all specimens were tested for compressive strength and the results which

were recorded eventually.

5. Discussion

After all specimens were tested for compressive strength, the results are shown in Table 7, and for

more clarity the results are also shown in Figure 3, which represents compressive strength vs. rate

of mosaic tile dust (MTD) used instead of Ordinary Portland Cement. It is observed that the

compressive strength of the specimens without replacing any amount of MTD with cement are

23.05MPa and 33.39MPa for w/c of 0.55 and 0.45 respectively. However, the compressive

strengths for both w/c of 0.55 and 0.45 peaked with replacing cement by only 5% of mosaic tile

dust (MTD), and the compressive of 28.38MPa and 35.32MPa are recorded. This increasing of

compressive strength are due to the filler like behavior of the mosaic tile dust (MTD), which

cooperates in the filling of the voids, resulting more densifying concrete and make a bit stronger

concrete as compared to the conventional concrete.

Beyond the 10% replacement of mosaic tile dust (MTD) to 30%, which is the maximum amount of

using MTD, the compressive strength starts declining steadily with the rest of increasing mosaic

tile dust (MTD). In other words, the compressive strength decreases by 10%, 6%, 4%, 23.6% for

15%, 20%, 25% and 30% replacement of cement by MTD respectively for the w/c= 0.55. Whereas,

the rate of decreasing in compressive strength are 21%, 13%, 13.65%, 24% for 15%, 20%, 25%,

30% replacement of cement by MTD respectively for w/c=0.45. That is because the growing level

of the partial replacement of mosaic tile dust (MTD) decreases the workability and results the loss

of well compacting and increasing the voids. In the same time, the material works as filler when the




16

material is used instead of cement, the percent of cementitious medium drops and the bond between

the whole matrixes will reduce, leading to decreasing the compressive strength. In conclusion, we

can see that the best rate of using mosaic tile dust (MTD) as a partial replacement of Ordinary

Portland Cement is about 5% for both w/c of 0.55 and 0.45, as shown in Figure 7.

Table 7. The effect of cement replacement by various amount of MTD

MTD% Compressive strength (MPa) for w/c 0.55 Compressive strength(MPa) for w/c 0.45

0% 23.05 33.39

5% 28.38 35.32

10% 24.62 33.56

15% 21.93 31.34

20% 21.68 29.09

25% 20.93 28.83

30% 17.60 25.34

Figure 3: The effect of cement replaced by various level MTD

6. Conclusion

The purpose of this research was mainly to find out and compare the compressive strength of

normal concrete with cement replacement partially by mosaic tile dust (MTD) at the water cement

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

0 5 10 15 20 25 30

Com

pre

ssiv

e S

tren

gth

(M

Pa)

Mosaic Tile Dust (MTD)%

w/c=0.55 w/c=0.45




17

ratios of 0.55 and 0.45 for better fruitful replacement. Based on experimental investigations of the

compressive strength of concrete, the following observations are drawn:

1. Compressive strength of concrete increases up to 10% of partial replacement of cement with

mosaic tile dust (MTD).

2. Compressive strength of concrete decreases when the replacement level increased from 10% to

15%, 20%, 25% and 30% by weight of cement.

3. The optimum percentage for replacement of cement with mosaic tile dust (MTD) with cement is

almost 5%.

4. Utilization of mosaic tile dust (MTD) as a partial replacement of cement has another benefit in

terms of environment and economy because cement industry is one of the main sources of CO2

to the atmosphere, and the mosaic tile dust (MTD) could be obtained without cost.

5. The workability decreases with increasing percentage of mosaic tile dust (MTD) replacement of

cement in the mixes.

References

Anwar, A., Ahmad, S., Husain, S. M. A. & Ahmad, S. A. (2015). Replacement of Cement by

Marble Dust and Ceramic Waste in Concrete for Sustainable Development. International

Journal of Innovative Science, Engineering & Technology (IJISET), 2(6), 496-503.

Astm-C33 (2003). Standard Specification for Concrete Aggregates. Annual Book of ASTM

Standards, ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA.

Gurumoorthy, N. (2014). Influence of Marble Dust as Partial Replacement of Cement in Concrete.

International Journal of Engineering Research and Technology, 3(3),740-743.

Kumar, R. & Kumar, S. K. (2015). Partial Replacement of Cement with Marble Dust Powder.

International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA), 5(8), 106-114.

Macginley, T. J. & Choo, B. S. (1990). Reinforced Concrete: Design Theory and Examples.

Second Edition edn., CRC Press.

Manogna, P. & Lakshmi, M. S. (2015). Tile Powder as Partial Replacement of Cement in Concrete.

International Research Journal of Engineering and Technology (IRJET), 2(4), 75-77.

Pal, S., Singh, A., Pramanik, T., Kumar, S. & Kisku, N. (2016). Effects of partial replacement of

cement with marble dust powder on properties of concrete. International Journal for

Innovative Research in Science & Technology, 3(3), 41-45.

Patel, J., Shah, B. K. & Patel, P. J. (2014). Ceramic powder in concrete by partial replacement of

cement- a literature analysis. Journal of International Academic Research for

Multidisciplinary, 2(3), 712-727.

Raju, Ramya, Jayaraj, G. K. & Shaikh, A. A. (2016). Study of partial replacement of cement by

marble powder. International Journal of Recent Advances in Engineering & Technology

(IJRAET), 4(4), 102-106.

Raval, A. D., Patel, I. N. & Pitroda, J. (2013). Eco-Efficient concretes: Use of ceramic powder as a

partial replacement of cement. International Journal of Innovative Technology and

Exploring Engineering (IJITEE), 3(2), 1-4.

Sahu, C. (2016) .Partial replacement of cement with marble dust powder. Imperial Journal of

Interdisciplinary Research (IJIR), 2(8), 97-104.

Shirule, P. A., Rahman, A. & Gupta, R. D. (2012). Partial replacement of cement with marble dust

powder. International Journal of Advanced Engineering Research and Studies, IJAERS,

1(3):175-177.

Singh, J. & Bansal, E. R. S. (2015). Partial replacement of cement with waste marble powder with

M25 grade. International Journal of Technical Research and Applications, 3(2), 202-205.

Singh, R., Bhutani, M. & Syal, T. (2015) Strength evaluation of concrete using marble powder and

waste crushed tile aggregates. International Journal for Science and Emerging

Technologies with Latest Trends, 20(1), 18-28.




18

Sukesh, C., Katakam, B. K., Saha, P. & Chamberlin, K. S. (2012) A Study of sustainable industrial

waste materials as partial replacement of cement. International Proceedings of Computer

Science and Information Technology, 28,161-166.

Torgal, F. P., Shahsavandi, A. & Jalali, S. (2011). Mechanical Properties and Durability of

Concrete with Partial Replacement of Portland Cement by Ceramic Wastes. In

Proceedings of 1st International Conference on WASTES: Solutions, Treatments and

Opportunities. University of Minho, Guimaraes, Portugal.).

Vijaya, K. Y. M., Shruti, D., Tharan, S. N., Sanjay, S. R. & Sricharan, P. M. (2016). Partial

replacement of cement to concrete by marble dust powder. International Journal for

Modern Trends in Science and Technology, 2(5), 111-122.




19

Application of Electrochemical Process as Inner Holes Cleaner Hiba H.Alwan

1

1Petroleum Engineering Department, College of Engineering, Knowledge University, Iraq

Correspondence: Hiba H. Alwan, Knowledge University, Iraq.


Received: April 11, 2017 Accepted: May 22, 2017 Online Published: June 1, 2017


Abstract: Electrochemical process is a relatively important method for removing unwanted scales by

anodic dissolution. In this work an Electrochemical process was used to remove the corrosion from the

inner holes of the work pieces (medium carbon steel 0.35% C) by immersing it in electrolyte sodium

carbonate, Na2CO3. The tool used was made from brass. This work focuses on surface roughness of

the work pipes.

Keywords: Electrochemical Process, Electrolytic Cell, Surface Finish

1. Introduction

Electrochemical process is a removing rust by anodic dissolution method and it has no cutting

forces and stresses because the process depends mainly on electrical conductivity of materials and

chemical reaction between the electrolyte and the workpiece (Alwan, 2011). No thermal damages

occur to the workpiece structure which produces surface stresses. Thus, high surface finished is

obtained (Singh, 2008). There are various methods for rust removal, but they are unsuitable for

being old or due to their being old techniques, they tend to be destructive in use. Dissolving the rust

with acids such as phosphoric acid or even vinegar can produce good results, but this process can

remove surface features which may have been preserved in the rust. These methods were

considered inappropriate. also known as electrolysis, which involves using the passage of an

electric current in an alkaline solution, or electrolyte, to do the job of trying to convert some of the

corrosion products into a more stable form, whilst loosening the remaining corrosion by converting

it into a loosely bound, easily removed deposit (Westcott, 2010).

Electrochemical cleaning has a working mechanism that is similar to that of electro polishing.

Unlike the electro polishing, the electrochemical method of cleaning is deemed far more portable,

and it can also be applied locally. One would not be wrong in saying that the electrochemical

method of cleaning is indeed more advantageous than other methods such as electro polishing, acid

cleaning or even mechanical cleaning. When it comes to electro cleaning, you don’t have to deal

with the annoying problems of dirt, buffing compounds (Eliyan, Mahdi & Alfantazi, 2012).

Bicarbonate (HCO3-) plays a critical role in the dissolution reactions of internal and external sides

of pipeline structures. Many works were reported on the electrochemically-enhanced stress

corrosion cracking when bicarbonate-saturated ground water is in contact with pipeline surfaces. It


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium_carbonate

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium_carbonate




20

was reported that bicarbonate is a major agent in the dissolution of pipeline steels although of the

reported controversy on its role in acidic CO2-saturated flows. In another study, bicarbonate was

also proposed to contribute in formation of complexation of iron carbonate. In most pipeline

corrosion studies, the mechanisms conventionally involved a solution of H2CO3 in driving the

cathodic reactions in deoxygenated media (Harle & Beavers, 1993).

Bicarbonate was reported to be a key corrosive agent involved in anodic and cathodic reactions.

More specifically, the determining steps were found to be fundamentally associated with

bicarbonate as they are, for example, reduced directly to produce adsorbed hydrogen atoms and/or

hydrogen gas represented by Eqs. (1)–(3) as:

HCO3- + e

- → Hads + CO3

2- (1)

HCO3- + Hads + e

- → H2 + CO3

2- (2)

2HCO3- + 2 e

- → H2 + 2CO3

2- (3)

The corrosion rates and polarization characteristics were found dependent on bicarbonate content

(Videm & Koren, 1993).

2. Procedure

2.1 Cathode tool

The material used for Electrochemical tools should be electrically conductive and easily Machin

able to the required geometry. The tool used in the process is made from brass metal as cylinder

shape with diameter Ø13 mm.

2.2 Anode Work Piece

For this work, the work piece is a cylinder pipe medium carbon steel (0.35%) with the chemical

composition show in table (1a,b)

Table (1a): The material specification

Material standard DIN system

Material of the workpiece Medium carbon steel (Ck35)

Steel group Special structural steels

Designation symbol Ck35

Material number 1.1181

Density of the alloy 7.85 g/cm3




21

Table (1b): Composition of the alloy

Element Wt% Density

(g/cm3)

Atomic

weight

Valence

C 0.35 2.26 12.011 4

Mn 0.81 7.84 54.938 4

Si 0.19 2.33 28.086 4

P 0.011 2.93 30.97376 3

S 0.023 1.819 32.066 2

Ni 0.3 8.92 58.693 2

Cr 0.07 7.19 51.996 6

Mo 0.01 10.22 95.94 3

Cu 0.02 8.97 63.546 2

Al 0.05 2.71 26.98 3

Remain 98.436 7.86 55.845 2

2.3 Electrolytes

Na2CO3 is used with water as an electrolyte with weights (250g) and (1 litter) of water.

2.4 Electrochemical cell

The electrochemical process was done by placing the workpiece in the cell with fixture to oscillate

the workpiece during the process. The tool is made of brass having a cylinder shape and fixed in

the tool holder using drilling machine. The gap between the tool and the workpiece is controlled

manually. After that the negative pole of the power supply is connected to the tool and the positive

pole to the workpiece. Then both tanks are filled with the electrolyte. During the process and after

power supply is turned on, the electrolyte with the sludge is sending out to the storage tank. From

the other side of the storage tank the electrolyte is send to a filtration unit to remove the sludge and

is pumped to the reaction zone (Alwan, 2011).

In this work, the experiment is focused on the roughness and the surface cleaning of the workpiece.

3. Result and Discussion

The free anodic dissolution can involve OH_ to form iron (2) hydroxide:

Fe 2+

+ 2OH - → Fe (OH)2 + 2e

- (4)

The cathodic reactions involve the simultaneous reduction of bicarbonate and dissolved oxygen:

HCO3- + e

- → ½ H2 + CO3

2- (5)

HCO3- + e

- → Hads + CO3

2- (6)

OH- involvement in the dissolution processes results in a defective hydrous film capable of




22

0

2

4

6

8

1 1.5 2 2.5 3

5.21 5.07 5.09 5.89 6.01

2.9 3.05 3.22 4.32

4.88

SUR

FAC

E C

LEA

NIN

G (

µm

)

Gap size(mm)

Ra before Ra after

decelerating the current densities.

The film, could be hydroxide-based developed within a short potential range, which was illustrated

in a Fe–H–C–O Pourbiax diagram, (Hirnyi, 2001) as:

Fe + 2OH -→Fe(OH)2

- (7)

Fe + HCO3 - → FeHCO3

(8)

Fe(OH)2 + OH

- → FeCO3 + H2O + e

-

(9)

3FeCO3 + 4OH - → Fe2O3 + 2HCO3

- + H2O + 2e

- (10)

4Fe (OH)2 + O2 → 2Fe2O3 + 4H2O (11)

The results of the effect of gap size on the surface cleaning is gaven in table (2) at operation time of

T = 10 minutes and current density 2.856 Amp/cm2.

Table (2): The surface Cleaning & the gap size before and after the operation

Fig (1) shows the effect of increasing the gap between the tool and the workpiece causing the

surface cleaning rather poor after Electrochemical process due to the increase in the distance

between the tool and the work piece that causing dicrease in the conductivity of the electrolyte

(increase in ohmic resistance) causing unequal distribution of the current density on the surface

which cause unequal anodic dissolution on the machining surface of the workpiece.

Fig (1 ): The relationship between the gap size on the surface cleaning

Gap size

(mm)

Workpiece Roughness Before

the operation

(µm)

Workpiece Roughness

After the operation

(µm)

1 5.21 2.6

1.5 5.97 3.05

2 5.09 3.22

2.5 5.89 4.32

3 6.01 4.88




23

7.79 7.59 7.3048 6.8967 6.5294

0.191 0.186 0.179 0.169 0.16

1 1.5 2 2.5 3

Dis

solu

tio

n r

ate

(cm

/se

c)

Gap size(mm) roughness Reamoving metal

The increasing of the surface roughness and efficiency of cleaning indicate at gap size (3mm)

reaching to (46.7%) compared with gap size of (1mm). The poor cleaning of workpiece surface as

shown in fig (2) and table (3), these due to the increase in the distance between the tool and the

work piece which causing increasing in Ohmic resistance of the electrolyte reducing the amount of

the current and decreasing the amount of anodic dissolution.

Table (3): Surface cleaning & the gap size on the dissolution rate

Fig (2) the relationship between the gap size on the dissolution rate

The dissolution rate decreases with the increases of the gap size, and the best result for the high

dissolution rate is at the small gap sizes. For this reason (1 mm) gap size has been chosen as a best

size for the tests.

The results of surface roughness at different current values are given in the table (4). These are at

time of operation T = 10 min and the gap size between the tool and the work piece = 1 mm.

Gap

size

(mm)

Workpiece

Weight Before

the operation

(g)

Workpiece

Weight After

The operation

(g)

MRRs x10-2

(cm3/sec)

Dissolution

ratex10-5

(cm/sec)

1 149.5 140.5 0.191 7.79

1.5 113.6 104.8 0.186 7.59

2 157. 4 148.9 0.179 7.3048

2.5 152.8 144.8 0.169 6.8967

3 190.2 182.6 0.16 6.5294




24

Table (4) surface cleaning & the current density before and after the operation

Fig (3) shows that the effect of the current density on the cleaning surface increases at increasing

the value of current density, while the roughness decreases rapidly arriving at the value of (1.8

µm) that decreased (31%) as shown in table ( 5) with a current density is (3.6728 Amp/cm2) that is

because the high value of current causes a better decrease in the peaks of the workpiece surface

and good surface cleaning and high current density distribution at all the machining surface of the

work piece.

Figure (3) the relationship between the current density on the surface cleaning

Table (5): The MRRg

Current

density

(Amp/cm2)

Workpiece Roughness

before the operation

(µm)

Workpiece Roughness

after the operation

(µm)

2.4485 3.677 2.687

2.856 3.59 2.49

3.2647 3.55 2.08

3.6728 3.48 1.855

Current

density

(Amp/cm2)

Workpiece

Weight before

the

operation (g)

Workpiece

Weight after

the

operation (g)

MRRg

(g/sec)

2.4485 639 632 0.0116

2.856 674 665 0.015

3.2647 684 673 0.0183

3.6728 648 634 0.0233

2.687 2.49

2.08 1.855

2.4485 2.856 3.2647 3.6728

surf

ace

cle

anin

g(µ

m)

Current density (Amp/cm2)

roughness




25

The better declining of these values was at high current values so the value (3.6728 Amp/cm2)

gives the best decreases of the surface roughness and metal rust arrived to (46.69%) when

compared with the surface roughness before the operation. Fig (4) shows that the theoretical

surface is cleaning a increasing with current density arrived to (93.9%) at a gap size of (1mm). The

high value of current is rushing the chemical reaction in the medium of operation which gives the

best results.

Figure (4) The effect of current density on MRRg

Figure (5): The Workpiece before the operation

Figure (6): The workpiece after the operation

0.01658 0.0193

0.022113 0.0248

2.4485 2.856 3.2647 3.6728 Mat

eri

al R

em

ova

l Rat

e(g

/se

c)

current density (Amp/cm2)

MRRgth




26

6. Conclusion

The following points can be concluded:

1- Poor surface cleaning is due to larger distance between tool and workpiece.

2- The dissolution rate decreases with increasing in the distance between the tool and the work

piece.

3- The gap size has an effect on the efficiency of the process. The best value that gives a high

efficiency (77.7%) is at the (1 mm) gap size.

4- Dissolution rate increases with increasing a current density and the best results were at (3.6728

Amp/cm2). The efficiency arrived to (93.9%).

References

Alwan, H. (2011). Study of Electro Chemical Machining Characteristics of Steel. MSc Thesis,

University of Technology, Baghdad.

Singh, M.K. (2008). Unconventional Manufacturing Process. New Delhi: New Age International

Publishers.

Eliyan, F., Mahdi, E., & Alfantazi, A. (2012). Electrochemical evaluation of the corrosion

behavior of API-X100 pipeline steel in aerated bicarbonate solutions. Corrosion Science,

58, 181-191.

Harle, B., & Beavers, J. (1993). Technical note: low-ph stress corrosion crack propagation in API

X-65 line pipe steel. Corrosion, 49, 861–863.

Videm, K., & Koren, A. (1993). Corrosion, passivity, and pitting of carbon steel in aqueous

solutions of HCO_ 3 , CO2, and Cl-. Corrosion, 49, 746–754.

Hirnyi, S. (2001). Anodic hydrogenation of iron in a carbonate-bicarbonate solution. Materials

Science, 37, 491–498.

http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0010938X12000492

http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0010938X12000492




27

Engineering and Microstructures Characteristics of Low Calcium Fly

Ash Based Geopolymer Concrete

Akram S. Mahmoud1 & Ganjeena J. Khoshnaw

2 & Faten I. Mahmood

3

1Civil Engineering Department, Engineering College, University of Anbar, Ramadi, Iraq

2Erbil Technical institute, Erbil Polytechnic University, Erbil, Iraq

3Civil Engineering Department, Engineering College, University of Anbar, Iraq

Correspondence: Akram S. Mahmoud, University of Anbar, Ramadi, Iraq.


Received: April 11, 2017 Accepted: May 22, 2017 Online Published: June 1, 2017


Abstract: This paper reports an experimental study on some mechanical properties and durability

characteristics for geopolymer concrete. The mechanical properties were (compressive strength,

splitting tensile strength and bonding strength). While the durability characteristics included

(permeability, water absorption and exposure to sulphate attack). Also study in-depth microstructure

of concrete by the SEM test. All these tests conducted for both geopolymer and normal concrete at 28

days, to show the difference in behavior for the tow concretes. Results show that the compressive

strength for geopolymer concrete gain most of its strength at early age as compared with normal

concrete, also the results indicate that the bond performance of geopolymer concrete higher than

normal concrete by 18.7% and thus proves its application for construction. Geopolymer concrete have

good durability comparison with normal concrete, it has shown less permeability, water absorption

than normal concrete with high resistance to sulphate attack compared with normal concrete. In

addition to that SEM test results show difference in microstructure between geopolymer and normal

concrete.

Keywords: Geopolymer Concrete, Durability, Bonding Strength, SEM

1. Introduction

Environmental pollution is one of the major problems today. Manufacture of O.P.C produce 1 ton

of CO2 for all 1 tone of O.P.C (Davidovits, 1994; McCaffrey, 2002; Mehta, 2001; Malhotra, 2002).

For this reason an attention is given to industrial waste utilization to building construction due to

their advantages of greenhouse gases reduction from Portland cement production. Fly ash is

produced as a residual by the combustion of coal. Due to its availability worldwide, disposal

remains a challenge. Sustainable construction practice aims at utilizing these waste materials as

construction materials. To save the environment from global warming and to prevent further

depletion of natural resources, Geopolymer concrete (G.P.C) is an alternative as it totally replaces

cement with waste materials such as fly ash.

Geopolymer concrete consists of materials of geological origin or by – product materials such as

fly ash that is rich in silicon and aluminum (Davidovits, 1999). The name geopolymer was formed

by a French Professor Davidovits in 1978 to represent a broad range of materials characterized by

networks of inorganic molecules (Geopolymer Institute, 2010). The geopolymers depend on

thermally activated natural materials like Metakaolinite or industrial byproducts like fly ash or slag

mailto:1%[email protected]




28

to provide a source of silicon (Si) and aluminum (Al). These Silicon and Aluminum is dissolved in

an alkaline activating solution and subsequently polymerizes into molecular chains and become the

binder. In geopolymer concrete water is not involved in the chemical reaction of geopolymer

concrete and instead water is expelled during curing and subsequent drying. This is in contrast to

the hydration reactions that occur when Portland cement is mixed with water, which produce the

primary hydration products calcium silicate hydrate and calcium hydroxide. This difference has a

significant impact on the mechanical and chemical properties of the resulting geopolymer concrete,

and also renders it more resistant to heat, water ingress, alkali–aggregate reactivity, and other types

of chemical attack (Rangan, 2008). In the case of geopolymers made from fly ash, the role of

calcium in these systems is very important, because its presence can result in flash setting and

therefore must be carefully controlled (Rangan, 2008). The source material is mixed with an

activating solution that provides the alkalinity (sodium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide are often

used) needed to liberate the Si and Al and possibly with an additional source of silica (sodium

silicate is most commonly used). The temperature during curing is very important, and depending

upon the source materials and activating solution, heat often must be applied to facilitate

polymerization, although some systems have been developed that are designed to be cured at room

temperature (Davidovits, 2008). It can be observed from international researchers that the

geopolymer concrete has not been studied much in detail in Iraq. In this work 4 geopolymer

concrete mixes with 100% replacement of O.P.C. are studied. The production of geopolymer

concrete consist of 75% - 80% by mass of aggregate, which is bounded by a geopolymer paste

formed by the reaction of the silicon and aluminum in fly ash with the alkaline liquid made up of

sodium hydroxide solution and sodium silicate solution with addition of super plasticizer

2. Objective And Scope

The main objective of this study is evaluated durability properties and bond behavior of

geopolymer concrete mixture. In addition to that making workable and high strength geopolymer

concrete containing fly ash without use of ordinary Portland cement and to prove if the geopolymer

concrete useful in construction application.

3. Significance

This paper aims to reduce the use of ordinary Portland cement and to improve the usage of the

other by product materials such as fly ash. This product helps in reducing the carbon emissions

caused by the conventional concrete. This also produces high strength concretes with the use of

nominal mixes when compared to conventional concrete.

4. Materials Used In Experimental Program

4.1 Cement

Cement used in this study was O.P.C (type I) manufactured by mass cement company in Iraq, this

cement conforms to the Iraqi standards (Iraqi Specification, 1984). Table (1) shows chemical

composition of cement.

Table 1: Chemical composition of cement (mass %)

I.M L.O.I L.S.F SO3 MgO Fe2O3 Al2O3 CaO SiO2

1.16 1.11 0.86 2.37 1.92 3.17 5.21 62.83 22.20




29

4.2 Fly Ash

Fly ash used in this study was low calcium class F obtained from power station Iskanderun in

Turkey this type of fly ash conforms to ASTM C 618 (ASTM, 2005) requirement. Table (2) shows

the chemical composition of fly ash as determined by X-Ray fluorescence (XRF) analysis

Table 2: Composition of class f fly ash as determined by (XRF) (mass %)

L.O.I Fe2O3 MnO CaO K2O SO3 P2O5 SiO2 Al2O3 MgO Na2O

3.34 11.72 0.14 7.93 1.56 0.37 0.16 47.69 25.39 1.27 0.08

4.3 Alkaline Liquid

Sodium silicate solution which is the weight ratio of SiO2/Na2O equal to 2.4, Na2O% 13.4%,

SiO2% 32.5% and water 54.1% and sodium hydroxide that is used in this work in pellet form

(NaOH with 99% purity), was dissolved in a distilled water in order to avoid the effect of unknown

contaminants in the mixing water

4.4 Super Plasticizer

The type of superplasticizer based on modified sulfonated naphthalene formaldehyde condensate

4.5 Aggregate

Natural sand was used with maximum size 4.75mm having specific gravity 2.67 and the coarse

aggregate was crushed gravel with maximum size of 14 mm. The aggregate met Iraqi standard

specification (Iraqi Specification, 1984).

5. Experimental Program

5.1 Mixing, Casting and Curing of Geopolymer Concrete

After preparation all ingredients of geopolymer mixes. It can be started to mix the dry material

(aggregate and the fly ash) together in a pan mixer for 3 minutes. Then super plasticizer was mixed

together with alkaline liquid, to form the final alkaline liquid then added to the dry materials in the

mixer and the mixing continued for another 3-4 minutes (Hardjito & Rangan, 2005; Rangan, 2010).

The fresh concrete had a cohesive consistency and was shiny in appearance, the mixture was cast in

a molds with a manual strokes in addition to a vibrating table. After casting immediately the

samples were covered by a film and left in laboratory temperature for the specified rest period

(Rangan, 2010). The specimen then cured in an oven at as specified temperature 70°C for a

selected period of time 24 hr in accordance with the specified test variables. The aim of covering

the samples was to reduce the loss of water due to excessive evaporation during curing at an

elevated temperature. The samples removed from the oven after specified curing time temperature

and kept in the molds for 5-6 hours in order to avoid drastic changes of the environment. The

specimens then removed from the molds left to air dry at room temperature until the specified age

test.




30

5.2 Design Mixes

Tables (3) & (4) represent normal and geopolymer concrete mixes respectively.

Table 3: Normal concrete mixes

Mi.

No.

Coarse aggregate

Kg/m3

Fine

Agg.

cement W/C curing Slump

mm

f´c

MPa

12.5

mm

10

mm

5

mm

7

day

28

day

N.C1 300 400 495 670 400 0.36 water 6 30.7 43.6

N.C2 300 400 495 670 400 0.4 water 15 28.7 42.4

N.C3 300 400 495 670 400 0.45 water 48 27.1 40.8

Table 4: Geopolymer concrete mixes

G.C4 G.C3 G.C2 G.C1 Consisting

300

400

495

300

400

495

300

400

495

300

400

495

12.5mm

10mm

5mm

Coarse

aggregate

670 670 670 670 Sand

400 400 400 400 Fly ash

51 41 41 41 NaOH

8 8 8 8 (M)

129 103 103 103 Na2SiO3

2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 S/H

0.45 0.36 0.36 0.36 A/F

1.5% 1.5% 1.5% 1.5% S.P

----- 20 30 40 E-w

1hr 1hr 1hr 1hr R.P

70C 70C 70C 70C Curing T.

44 69 172 196 Slump

38.1 29.0 22.9 22.2 f′c at 7day

38.8 30.7 23.9 22.3 f′c at 28day

M: Molarity of NaOH solution, S/H: Sodium silicate solution/sodium hydroxide solution

A/L: Alkaline liquid /fly ash, E-w: Extra water, R.P: Rest period, S.P: Superplasticizer

5.3 Mechnaical Properties of Geopolymer Concrete

The mechanical properties of geopolymer concrete include of compressive strength test was

determined according to BS 1881 (1989), using 100 mm cubes. This test conducted for normal and

geopolymer concrete at 7 & 28 days. Figures (1) & (2) represent pattern of failure for normal

concrete and geopolymer concrete respectively. Splitting tensile strength test is carried out

according to ASTM C 496 (2004), cylinder of (100x200) mm. Figure (3) represent splitting tensile

strength for geopolymer concrete. It is calculated as follows:

ft = (2P ) / (π DL) (1)




31

Where: ft: Splitting tensile strength (MPa), p: Applied load at failure (N), D: Diameter of cylinder

specimen (mm), L: Length of cylinder specimen (mm)

Bonding strength conducted according to RILEM RC6 (1996), cubic specimen having

(150×150×150) mm. The that used in this test has the diameter (16) mm and the embedment was

(150 )mm. Figures (4) & (5) represent the machine of the test and the details of the specimens after

test for normal and geopolymer concrete. The bonding strength ( ) is calculated by dividing the

tensile force by the surface area of the steel bar embedded in concrete as follow

= F/(π ×d × L) (2)

Where:- F: tensile load at failure (N), d & L: diameter (mm) and embedment length (mm) of the

reinforcing steel bar respectively.

Figure 1: (a) & (b) Pattern of failure Figure 2: Pattern of failure for Figure 3: Splitting

for N.C for G.P.C strength for G.P.C

Figure 4: Pullout test machine Figure 5: A) N.C & B) G.P.C failures due to bond test

5.4 Durability of Geopolymer Concrete

5.4.1 Permeability Test

The scope of this test is to be measured the depth of penetration of water under pressure of concrete

hardening, according to the BS EN 12390 standard (2000). This test was carried out for

geopolymer and normal concrete by the of use three samples (150×150×150) mm cube size. As

shown in figures (6) & (7) the maximum depth of penetration measure in mm. Permeability

coefficient can be calculated from the equation (3) as follow:

K = L / T (3)

A B

A B




32

Where :-K : Permeability Coefficient in mm/sec , L : Length in mm & T : Time in sec

Figure 5: Permeability test machine Figure 6: ( a) N.C & (b) G.P.C Permeability after test

5.4.2 Water Absorption

Water absorption test is conducted according to the specification ASTM C642 (2004). Three

samples for each type of concrete. Water absorption was calculated as follow:

Water Absorption % = [( B – A ) / A] ×100 (4)

where: A: Oven dry mass at a temperature of 105°C for not less than 24 h.

B: Saturated mass after immersing the specimen in water for not less than 48 h.

5.4.3 Sulphate Resistance Test

After 28 days the samples of geopolymer and normal concrete have been put in sulphate solution.

MgSO4.7H2O was the type sulphate that used in this study. The time of exposure of samples to the

sulphate solution was 28 days.Figures(8) & (9) show the samples during and after exposure to

sulphate solution in addition to that figure (10) represent the all samples of this study. The visual

appearance, change in weight and the residual compressive strength were measured, the change in

weight compute as follow:

Change In Weight (%)=[(B-A) /A] × 100 (5)

where:-

A:Initial weight of sample after curing period & B :weight of specimen after exposure

While the change in compressive strength was calculated as a residual compressive strength based

on the following formula:-

Residual Compressive Strength (%)= [D/C] × 100 (6)

where:-

C: Initial compressive strength ay age of 28 days & D: Compressive strength after exposure

A B




33

Figure 8: Sample

during exposure

Figure 9: Samples after

exposure

Figure 10: Sample of this

study

5.5 Microstructure of Geopolymer and Normal Concrete

Using Sem Test

Figure (11) represents machine of SEM test Its name VEGA

III ,TESCAN. The test is conducted in the labs of Ministry of

Science and Technology in Iraq

6. Results and Discussions

Normal concrete mix NO. 3 is selected with Geopolymer

concrete mix NO. 4 to work all the tests among other mixes because these two mixes are equivalent

in compressive strength at 28 days age.

6.1 Mechanical Properties

Geopolymer concrete attain most of its strength at early age usually 7 days (Davidovits, 1994). Test

results show that the For 7 days the compressive strength was 98% from the 28 age test, while in

normal concrete the 7 days compressive strength were 66.4%from 28 days compressive strength as

shown in tables (3) , (4) and in figure (12). Splitting tensile strength results for normal and

geopolymer concrete at 7 & 28 days as shown in table (5). It’s shown that geopolymer concrete

splitting tensile strenghth at 7 days represent 90.2% from its value at 28 days, while in normal

concrete at 7 days splitting tensile strength represent 80.9% from its value at 28 days as shown in

figure (13).

Table 5: Splitting tensile strength results for normal & geopolymer concrete

Age

day

Normal concrete

Splitting strength MPa

Geopolymer concrete

Splitting strength MPa

7 3.4 3.7

28 4.2 4.1

Figure 11: SEM machine




34

Figure 12: Compressive strength for Figure 13: Splitting strength for

N.C & G.P.C N.C &G.P.C

Bonding strength test results shown in table (6) noticed that G.P.C bonding strength higher than

bonding strength N.C by 18.7%. The higher bonding strength for geopolymer concrete may be

attributed to the high bonding between the aggregates and alkaline solution (Doguparti, 2015).

Figure (14) illustrates the difference in bonding strength between geopolymer and normal concrete.

Table 6: Bonding strength result for fly ash_ based G.P.C&N.C

Geopolymer concrete Normal concrete

P kN at

28 day

Average MPa

Average P kN at

28 day

Average MPa

Averag

88.38

89.5

11.72

11.87

69.5

76.1

9.2

10

86.82 11.51 80.0 10.6

93.29 12.4 79.0 10.4

Figure 14: Bonding strength for N.C and G.P.C at 28 day

0

10

20

30

40

50

27.1

38.1

com

pre

ssiv

e st

rength

MP

a

types of concrete

7 day

28 day

0

1

2

3

4

5

3.4 3.7

spli

ttin

g s

tren

gth

MP

a

types of concrete

7 day

28 day

0

5

10

15

N.C G.P.C

10 11.87

bon

din

g s

tren

gth

in

MP

a

Type of Concrete

N.C N.C G.P.C G.P.C




35

6.2 Durability Tests

6.2.1 Permeability Test Result

Table (7) shows the test results of permeability for both G.P.C & N.C. From the results it is clear

that permeability of geopolymer concrete less than normal concrete by 64.6%. It is due to dense

microstructure of geopolymer concrete than normal concrete. Figure (15) shows the difference in

permeability for fly ash-based geopolymer concrete and normal concrete.

Table 7: Permeability test results for both G.P.C&N.C

6.2.2 Water Absorption Test Results

Water absorption test results for G.P.C & N.C are shown that geopolymer concrete water

absorption was less than normal concrete by 38% that is due to less porous nature of G.P.C.

because fly ash is fine than O.P.C. (Luhar & Khandelwal, 2015). And according to Nevill (2012)

most good concretes have an absorption value well below 10%by mass. Results are shown in table

(8) and in figure (16).

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

N. C G.P.C

115

40

per

mea

bil

ity m

m

type of concrete

Geopolymer concrete

Normal concrete

Per.

mm

K.coefficient

mm/sec

Aver.

mm/sec

Per.

mm

K.coefficient

mm/sec

Aver..

mm/sec

45 1.73×10-4

1.53×

10-4

130 5.0×10-4

4.36×

10-4

45 1.73×10

-4 120 4.62×10

-4

30 1.15×10-4

90 3.47×10-4

Figure 15: Different in

permeability for N.C & G.P.C




36

Table 8:

Water absorption results for G.P.C & N

Geopolymer

concrete

Normal concrete

Water

absorption

%

Averag

%

Water

absorption

%

Averag

%

2

2

2.6

3.23 1.9 3.4

2.1 3.7

Figure 16: Water absorption for N.C & G.P.C

6.2.3 Sulphate Exposure Test Results

The visual appearance for the surface of samples that exposure to sulphate attack received weight

deposits throughout the duration of exposure, these deposits were soft and Powderly as shape flaky

or needle at the early age. While the change in weight results are shown in table (9) & in figure

(17) these increasing in weight might be due to white deposits within the surface pores (Patil et al.,

2014). Table (10) & figure (18) illustrate the results of changes in compressive strength, which

refers to decrease in compressive strength for both geopolymer and normal concrete. Ca(OH) that

is produced from hydration of cement did not exist in geopolymer concrete for this reason the

attack of salts and sulphate is less in geopolymer concrete than in N.C (Mehta & Monteiro, 2006).

Table 9: Weight Gain for the fly ash-based Geopolymer Concrete and Normal Concrete immersed

in MgSO4.7H2O

Geopolymer concrete Normal concrete

Sample

No.

Wight gain

%

Average % Sample

No.

Wight

gain%

Average

%

1 1.33

0.94

1 1.5

1.64 2 0.85 2 1.6

3 0.64 3 1.7

Table 10: Compressive strength for fly ash _based Geopolymer Concrete at 28

days immersed in MgSO4.7H2O

N.C

G.P.C

0

1

2

3

4 3.23% 2%

wat

er a

bso

rpti

on %

types of concrete

Geopolymer Concrete

Normal Concrete

fć

before

Expos

MPa

fć

after

Exposur

MPa

F׳c

Residual

%

Change

%

fć

befor

exposure

MPa

fć

after

exposure

MPa

F׳c

Residual

%

Change

%

38.8

36.3 93.5 - 6.4

40.8

35.0 85.7 -14.2

37.9 97.6 - 2.31 34 83.3 -16.6

36.2 93.3 - 6.7 35.8 87.7 -12.25




37

Figure 17: Weight gain for N.C&G.P.C Figure 18: Residual strength for N.C& G.P.C

6.3 Microstructure of Normal and Fly Ash-Based Geopolymer Concrete Using Sem Test

N.C SEM test results are illustrated in figure (19). Figure (19)a with magnification 5000 X explain

C-S-H gel (calcium silicate hydrate), figure(19)b with magnification10000 X represent Ca(OH)2

that considers also gel, which results from the hydration of the silicate in cement and because of

its shape roofing hexagon cause weakness in resisting cement paste and the last picture(19)c with

magnification 50000 explain calcium sulphote aluminate or etrringite ( C3AH6 ,C4AH8 ) that

represents from hydration of aluminate in cement that takes the shape needle and prism shape, the

un-hydrated particle of cement seem clear white point.

A) magnification 5000X B ( magnification10000X C) magnification 50000X

Figure 19: SEM test results of normal concrete

Figure (20) illustrates geopolymer concrete SEM test results, with magnification 5000X infigure

(20)a show spaces, pores, micro cracks appeared in clear shape due to loading during compressive

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

N.CG.P.C

1.64%

0.94%

wei

ght

gai

n %

types of concrete

80

85

90

95

N.CG.P.C

85.56%

94.8%

resi

du

al c

om

pre

ssiv

e s

tre

ngt

h%

types of concrete




38

strength or because shrinkage due to the water evaporation during the curing ,as well un –reacted

fly ash particles can be observed. In figure (20) b that has the magnification 10000 X can notice

crystallesxisting (needle shape particles) these consist because the concentration of sodium

hydroxide orabundant alkali solution surrounded the fly ash particles in the geopolymer paste, the

unreacted alkali precipitated formed the needle shape particles. Also the figure show gel phase and

ITZ between fly ash particles and the gel. Also fig.(20)c shows the growth of hydration product on

un-hydrated fly ash particle.

(a) magnification 5000X (b) magnification10000X C) magnification 50000X

Figure 20: SEM test results of geopolymer concrete

7. Conclusion

(1) The G.P.C mixes can be produced easily as alternative materials of concrete, also using the

same tools that are used in normal concrete

(2) Higher sustainability achievement can be acquired from fly ash _based G.P.C rather than

O.P.C, because the resistance of durability tests of G.P.C is more than N.C

(3) Compressive strength of geopolymer concrete at early age is more higher than normal

concrete, it is equivalent to approximately 1.4 to normal concrete compressive strength,

because of enhancement in physical properties of geopolymer concrete ingredient such as

the finesses, and including the pozzolanic materials.

Splitting tensile strength for G.P.C higher than N.C at age 7 days by 8.8% .

(4) Geopolymer concrete can be used as a construction material, because it have a good

compressive strength in addition other mechanical properties.

(5) G.P.C has a higher bonding strength of reinforcement than N.C it is higher by 18.7% than

normal concrete, therefore it can be used in reinforced sections and members.

(6) Fly ash _based G.PC compressive strength increase with decrease of the extra-water.

(7) Geopolymer concrete shows dense microstructure and this explain the less water

absorption and permeability than normal concrete by 38% and 64.6% respectively.

(8) SEM test studied showed that the morphology of fly ash geopolymer gel contain un-

reacted fly ash particles, micro cracks and pores embedded in a continuous matrix, but it is

show that micro structure of G.P.C more dense than N.CUSIONS

Growth of hydration

product on

unhydrated FA




39

References

ASTM C 496, (2004). Standard Test Method for Splitting Tensile Strength for Cylindrical

Concrete Specimens. American Society for Testing and Materials

ASTM C 618, (2005). Standard Specification for Coal Fly Ash Row or Calcined Natural Pozzolan

for use in Concrete. American Society for Testing and Materials

ASTM C 642, (2004). Standard Test Method for Density, Absorption and Voids in Hardened

Concrete. American Society for Testing and Materials

B.V. Rangan, (2010). Proceedings of the International Workshop on Geopolymer Cement and

Concrete. Allied Publishers Private Limited, Mumbai: India.

BS 1881: Part 116, (1989). Method for Determination of Compressive Strength of Concrete

Cubes. British Standards Institution.

BS EN 12390 – 8 (2000). Standard method for depth of penetration of water under pressure.

British Standards Institution

Davidovits, J. (1994). Global Warming Impact on the Cement and Aggregates Industries. World

Resource Review, 6(2), 263-278.

Davidovits, J. (1999). Chemistry of Geopolymer systems, terminology. In Proceedings of

Geopolymer ’99 International Conferences, Geopolymer Institute, Saint-Quentin,

France.

Davidovits, J. (2008). Geopolymer Chemistry and Applications. Institut Géopolymère, Saint-

Quentin, France.

Doguparti, R. (2015). A study on bond strength of geopolymer concrete. International Journal of

Civil Environmental, Structural, Construction and Architectural Engineering, 9(3), 355-

358.

Geopolymer Institute. (2010). What Is a Geopolymer? Introduction. Institut Géopolymère, Saint-

Quentin, France. Retrieved on January 29, 2010, at

http://www.geopolymer.org/science/introduction

Hardjito, D., &Rangan, B. V. (2005). Development and Properties of Low Calcium Fly Ash Based

Geopolymer Concrete. Research Report GC1, Faculty of Engineering, Curtin University

of Technology.

Iraqi Specification, No. 5/ (1984). Cement tests.

Iraqi Specification, No.45/ (1984). Aggregate from Natural Sources for Concrete and

Construction.

Luhar, S., & Khandelwal, U. (2015). A study on water absorption and sorptivity of geopolymer

concrete. SSRG International Journal of Civil Engineering (SSRG-IJCE), 2(8), 1-10.

Malhotra, V. (2002). Introduction: Sustainable development and concrete technology. ACI Concrete

Journal, 1147-1165

McCaffrey, R. (2002). Climate Change and the cement Industry. Global Cement and Lime

Magazine, Special Issue, 15-19

Mehta K., & Monteiro, P. (2006). Concrete Microstructure Properties and Materials. 3rd

addition, McGraw-Hill Companies.

Mehta, P. (2001). Reducing the Environmental Impact of Concrete. ACI Concrete International, 23

(10) 61-66.

Neville, A. (2012). Properties of Concrete. 5th Edition, Wiley, New York: Longman.

Patil, A., Chore, H., & Dode, P. (2014). Effect of curing condition on strength of geopolymer

concrete. Advances in Concrete Construction, 2(1), 29-37.

Rangan, B. V (2008). Low-Calcium, Fly-Ash-Based Geopolymer Concrete. Concrete

Construction Engineering Handbook. Taylor and Francis Group, Boca Raton, FL

RILEM RC 6. (1996). Recommendations for the testing and of constructions material bond test for

reinforcement steel. 2pull-out test, p. 3.

http://www.geopolymer.org/science/introduction




40

5G Next Generation Mobile Wireless Technology with Massive MIMO

Continue 4G Revolution, Key Technologies and Challenges

Jalal Jamal Hamad Ameen1

1Salahaddin University, College of Engineering, Electrical Engineering Department, Erbil, Iraq

Correspondence: Jalal Jamal Hamad Ameen, Salahaddin University, Erbil, Iraq.




Abstract: Mobile telecommunication system has grown very fast by motivating the companies to plan

continuously and work from first generation until fourth generation, many companies in this field

planned and started their scenarios toward fifth generation (5G) mobile, this is because of the need of

higher data rate transmission and wireless system radio network, many challenges expected will be

problem during this project, this paper is an attempt to contribute in this field to give more details

about these challenges and then toward overcome these problems in order to give continuous working

according to the time table planned which is about 2020 and beyond.

Keywords: Mobile System, 4G mobile, 5G mobile, MIMO System

1. Introduction

One of the fastest growing and most demanding communication industries is mobile

telecommunications. The stages of evolution of these systems are known as “generations”, 1G

system process began with the designs in the 1970s. The earliest systems were implemented based

on analog technology and the basic cellular structure of mobile communications. Global system for

mobile communications (GSM) was the second generation (2G) that was first used in the early

1990s in Europe. GSM provides voice and limited data services, GSM uses digital modulation

Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying (GMSK). Adding the General Packet Radio Service (GPRS) 2G

became 2.5G through which the user was able to access to the network but limited access.

Universal Mobile Telecommunication System (UMTS) which is third generation mobile system

(3G) has been designed with higher data rate transmission and different multiple access code,

division multiple access (CDMA) system, and Wide-Band CDMA (WCDMA) became 3.5G,

because of the demand of more higher data rate and wide access to the internet, fourth generation

(4G) starting with Long Term Evolution (LTE) and then advanced LTE has been designed which

data rate indoor and outdoor rates were 1Gbps and 100 Mbps respectively. For higher data rate

transmission, mobile companies and designers planned for fifth generation (5G) which was

expected be complemented beyond 2020. Table 1 is the major mobile evolution and standards from

1G to 5G, it is given that all different parameters and access with different technologies, 1G was

analog system, from 2G until 4G are digital, 5G also will be digital but with different features.





41

Table 1: All mobile generation comparison

Source: 5G Mobile Technology by Spakal & Kadam, 2013

2. Mobile Wireless Technology

The 5G wireless communication system will be a converged system with multiple radio access

technologies integrated together. It can support a wide range of applications and services to

comprehensively satisfy the requirements of the information society by the year 2020 and beyond.

From the technology perspective, 5G will be the continuous enhancement and evolution of the

present radio access technologies, and also, the development of novel radio access technologies to

meet the increasing demand of future. 5G can be characterized as data, connectivity and user

experience (Osserian, 2013), as a technical requirement of the 5G, preliminary technical

requirements of 5G are given in Figure 1.

Figure 1: Key capabilities of 5G

Source: 5G Mobile Technology by Spakal & Kadam, 2013




42

3. Major 5G Activities by Companies

Many mobile and wireless companies started their proposals and plans toward 5G, according to

their plans, about 2020 5G will be ready for the final test, for example:

a. Mobile and wireless communications enablers for twenty twenty (2020) information

society (METIS ) the European group started the project on November 2012.

b. The China IMT 2020 promotion group began the project on February 2013, the 5G –

related activities in China are primarily centered on two main for a. these two for a are the

IMT-2020 promotion group and Ministry of Science and Technology (MOST) 863-5G

project.

c. Korean 5G Forum as an ambitious plan started on June 2013.

d. The Japanese ARIB established new Ad Hoc started their project on October 2013. The

association of Radio Industries and Businesses (ARIB) “2020 and beyond” Ad Hoc group

was established in September 2013 with the objective to study system concepts, basic

functions and distribution/architecture of mobile communication in 2020 and beyond,

additionally, the Tokyo Institute of Technology in cooperation with NTT DoCoMo is

currently undertaking research for a new 5G network with the intent of reaching 10 Gbps

transmission speeds.

e. The other European Union projects like 5GNOW, LTE and LTE-advanced leverage

orthogonal wave forms (OFDMA). The 5th Generation Non-Orthogonal waveforms for

asynchronous signaling (5GNOW) will investigate non-orthogonal waveform and develop

a proof of concept with hardware demonstrator, 5G PPP. The 5G Infrastructure Public

Private Partnership (5G PPP) is part of Horizon 2020. 5G PPP is a joint initiative between

the European Information and Communications Technology (ICT) industry, small/medium

enterprises (SMEs) in the research community and the European Commission to rethink

the infrastructure and create the next generation of communication networks and services

that will provide ubiquitous super fast connectivity and seamless service delivery in all

circumstances, COMBO (Convergence of fixed and Mobile Broadband access/aggregation

networks) will propose and investigate new integrated approaches for Fixed/Mobile

Converged (FMC) broadband access/aggregation networks for different scenarios.

COMBO architecture will be bases on joint optimization of fixed and mobile access /

aggregation networks around the innovative concept of next generation point of presence

(NG-POP), iJOINT (Internetworking and Joint Design of an open access and backhaul

network architecture for small cells based on cloud networks) introduces the novel concept

of RAN as a Service (RANAAS), where RAN functionality is flexibility centralized

through an open IT platform based upon a cloud infrastructure. Massive MIMO for

Efficient Transmission (MAMMOET) is to advance the development of Massive MIMO.

Mobile Opportunistic Traffic Offloading (MOTO) proposes a traffic offloading

architecture that exploits in a synergistic way a diverse set of offloading schemes. Figure 2

shows the European user equipment program structure.

f. 5G related activities in America like SWARM Lab is a research program at UC Berkeley,

Berkeley wireless research center (BWRC), Broadband wireless access and application

center (BWAC), center for wireless systems and applications (CWSA), Intel strategic

research alliance (ISRA),..etc.




43

Figure 2: User equipment European 5G program structure

4. 5G Key Technologies

Mobile networks will increasingly become the primary means of network access for person to

person and person to machine connectivity, these networks will need to match advances in fixed

networking in terms of delivered quality of service, reliability and security, to do so, 5G

technologies will need to be capable of delivering fiber like 19 Gbps speeds to make possible ultra-

high definition visual communications and immersive multimedia interactions. These technologies

will depend on ultra-wide bandwidth with sub-millisecond latencies, the main 5G key technologies

can be summarized as:

a. The frequency spectrum for 5G system expected will be millimeter wave communication

30-300 GHz bands, therefore, the cell coverage will be smaller than that in 4G and more

base stations (C-Node-B), the letter C means cloud, and lower powered radio access nodes

and then picocells and femtocells.

b. MIMO system with higher order spatial multiplexing (Massive MIMO system), LTE

MIMO is 2x2 , LTE advanced is 4x4, 4G mobile is 8x8 MIMO, for 5G will be 24x24 and

higher may be about 64x64 which leads to higher size, a comparison between MIMO for

4G and expected for 5G given in results section in this paper.

c. To the boost spectral and energy efficiency, new concepts will be in 5G because traditional

methods for radio resource and interference management (RRIM) in single and two tier

networks may not be efficient.

d. Smart cities, 5G will provide the foundational infrastructure for building smart cities,

which push mobile network performance and capability requirements to their extremes,

low latency and extremely high reliability, however, there will also be essential

requirements for the likes of mobile industrial automation, vehicular connectivity and other




44

applications. Applications like smart sensors and text based messaging are examples of

extremely high volume applications that will require very low data rates and will not be

sensitive to latency.

e. Necessary break through, new breakthrough in multiple access and advanced waveform

technologies combined with advances in coding and modulation algorithms are essential

for realizing continuing improvements in spectral efficiency, this will accommodate the

necessary scalability for massive connectivity and drastic reductions in access latency

multi-Carrier CDMA (MC-CDMA) expected the most efficient multiple access for 5G.

5. 5G Expected Challenges

The main five expected challenges for 5G system are: great service in crowd, very high data rate,

ubiquitous things communicating (very low energy, cost, massive number of devices), mobility and

very low latency, these five challenges are summarized in Figure 3.

Figure 3: The five challenges and scenarios for 5G system

Source: The 5G and Wireless Communications System by Osserian, 2013

6. Results for Some Expected 5G Features

This paper is an attempt to contribute in 5G mobile design and plan which expected will be

completed about 2020, many conferences and papers have been done and published in related to

this field, as mentioned in this paper, the main key technologies for 5G are massive MIMO, higher

data rate (amazingly fast), lower latency compared to other mobile systems specially 4G, about




45

MIMO system. Figure 4 shows the ergodic capacity (in bits/transmission) for 4G system 8x8

versus signal to noise ratio (in dB). Figure 5 shows the same relation as in Figure 4 but for 5G

MIMO system 64x64, as shown ergodic capacity in bits per transmission for 5G will be about eight

times that of 4G, this is because the higher number of channels use higher number of transmitting

and receiving antennas.

Figure 4: Ergodic capacity vs average signal to noise ratio (SNR) for 8x8 MIMO 4G system

Figure 5: Ergodic capacity vs average signal to noise ratio (SNR) for 64x64 MIMO 5G system

Another key technology is the amazing fast (higher data rate) for 5G, Figure 6 shows the

comparison between 4G and 5G expected data rates which is relation between data rate in Mbps

and signal to noise ratio (SNR). It is shown that 5G expected data rate will be about six times that

of 4G system, this is because the massive MIMO system and higher bandwidth with smarter radio

networks.




46

Figure 6: Data rate vs SNR for 4G and 5G systems comparison

Because of higher frequency bandwidth for 5G system, path loss will be higher and the cell

coverage will be less compared to that in 2G, 3G and 4G. Figure 7 shows the relation between path

loss in dB and frequency, it is shown that 5G received power will be decreased because of higher

path loss, C-Node-B base stations coverage are smaller causes the use of higher number of base

stations (C-Node-B) which leads more difficult cell planning and higher interferences (co-channel

and adjacent channel interferences).

Figure 7: Received power vs cell radius for different frequencies




47

7. Conclusion

Next generation mobile system (5G) will be the integration for other mobile systems, there will be

some challenges should be solved during the projects toward this system, this paper is an attempt to

contribute in this field to give more details will be needed 5G, as shown in the results, ergodic

capacity for 5G will be about eight times greater than that for 4G systems because of the use of

massive MIMO system, in addition, the data rate for 5G will be greater about six times than that for

4, but the cell radius will be smaller in 5G, therefore, higher number of base stations this is because

of higher frequency bandwidth for 5G system.

References

Jain, S., Agrawal, N., & Awasthi, M. (2013). 5G–the future mobile wireless communication

networks. Advance in Electronic and Electric Engineering, 3(5), 569-574.

Osserian, A. (2013). The 5G and Wireless Communications system. ETSI Future Mobile Summit,

World class standards. Ericson METIS project coordinator.

Singh, S., & Singh, P. (2012). Key concepts and network architecture for 5G mobile technology.

International journal of scientific research engineering and technology (IJSRET), 1(5),

165-170.

Sood, R., & Garge, A. (2014). Digital Society from 1G to 5G: A comparative study. International

Journal of Application, Innovation in Engineering and Management, 3(2), 186-193.

Spakal, R., & Kadam, S. (2013). 5G Mobile Technology. International Journal of Advanced

Research in Computer Engineering and Technology (IJARCET), 2(2), 568-571.

Taduzarov, A. (2011). Protocols and algorithms for next generation 5G Mobile systems. Network

Protocols and Algorithms, 3(1), 94-114.




48

Wavelet Transform based Score Fusion for Face Recognition using SIFT

Descriptors

Musa M.Ameen1 & Bilal Ahmed

2 & Muhammed Anwar

3 & Payam M.Hussein

4

1Computer Engineering Dept., Ishik University, Erbil, Iraq

2,3,4Information Technologies Dept., Ishik University, Erbil, Iraq

Correspondence: Musa Ameen, Ishik University, erbil, Iraq. Email: [email protected]

Received: February 15, 2017 Accepted: April 12, 2017 Online Published: June 1, 2017


Abstract: One of the main areas in computer vision is automatic face recognition which deals with

detecting human face autonomously. Developments and the progress in the field of face recognition

have shown that many face recognition systems and applications the automated methods outperform

humans. The conventional Scale-Invariant Feature Transform (SIFT) is used in face recognition where

they provide high performances. However, this performance can be improved further by transforming

the input into different domains before applying SIFT algorithm. Hence, we apply Discrete Wavelet

Transform (DWT) or Gabor Wavelet Transform (GWT) at the input face images, which provides

denser and extra information to be used by the conventional SIFT algorithm. Matching scores of SIFT

from each subimage is fused before making final decision. Simulations show that the proposed

approaches based on wavelet transforms using SIFT provides very high performance compared to the

conventional algorithm.

Keywords: SIFT, Face Recognition, Wavelet Transform, DWT, GWT, Score Fusion

1. Introduction

Face recognition is one of the most common biometric systems. Due to its higher acceptability rate,

researchers have developed various algorithms for face recognition purpose. The process of

recognition using these algorithms has been described as a difficult task because of the similarity

nature or shapes of human faces (Betta et al., 2011). Despite the difficulties encountered in

designing these systems, several reasons contributed to the enormous attention in automatic digital

image processing and video processing in a different type of applications, which include wide

variety and availability of cheap and powerful embedded computing and desktop systems. Also, it

has been described as one of the best applications of image processing and analysis (Zou et al.,

2007). Different statistical methods and algorithms such as Principal Component Analysis or

Eigenface (PCA) (Zakariya et al., 2011), Local Binary Pattern (LBP) (Jiang & Guo, 2007) and

Independent Component Analysis (ICA) (Jiang et al., 2008) algorithms have been developed for

face recognition purposes.

Due to continuous research, a significant improvement in recognition performance is obtained over

years (Borade & Adgaonkar, 2011). Characteristic faces are more easily recognized than typical

faces. Low frequency bands contain information that determines the sex of the specific subjects,

while recognition of individuals depends on the high frequency features. The global description is

determined by the low frequency, while the finer descriptions high frequency modules give to the

finer information required for the identification procedure (Yunyi et al., 2009; Shen et al., 2007;




49

Kasinski et al., 2008). The core task of this paper work is to investigate how the recognition

performance can be enhanced and speeded up. Therefore, image transformation approach is used as

a pre-processing stage before the feature extraction stage.

The rest of the paper is organized as follows; section 2 briefly describes SIFT algorithm, wavelet

transform and proposed approach, section 3 shows the results using PUT face database and

pertaining discussions, finally section 4 includes the conclusion.

2. Feature Extraction Method

2.1 Scale-Invariant Feature Transform

Scale-Invariant Feature Transform (SIFT) was developed by D. Lowe (Eleyan et al., 2008). SIFT is

able to detect and extract distinctive features from different face images in order to achieve robust

and stable matching between different face images of the same subject (person) with various facial

expressions, face poses, and the features extracted form face images are scale, illumination and

rotation invariance.

Figure 1 shows four important stages involved for detecting keypoints in the SIFT algorithm.

Figure 1: SIFT features extraction process.

In the initial stage a difference of Gaussian (DoG) (Lowe, 2004) was used to detect specific

features and points which are orientations and scale invariance. In the stage of localizing key

points, they are filtered with a predefined model which is based on their stability. A few

orientations are given to the results using local image gradient. In the final stage, around each key

point region; at different selected scales measurements applied on the image gradients. Figure 2

shows examples of key points extracted with SIFT features.

Figure 2: Interest points in face image.




50

2.2 Wavelet Transform

2D-DWT and GWT are mostly used as tunable filters suitable in detecting and extracting

orientation information from the image. Apart from orientation, invariant to illumination property

makes them appropriate to capture phase information of the pixels. Additionally, it is also an

effective method to capture the texture of images. A Gabor wavelet filter is a Gaussian kernel

function modulated by a sinusoidal plane wave as in Equation (1).

( )

( ) ( )

x’ = x cos θ + y sin θ, (1)

y’ = y cos θ − x sin θ,

where f is the dominant frequency of the sinusoidal plane wave, α is the sharpness of the Gaussian

along the major axis parallel to the wave, θ is the anticlockwise rotation of the Gaussian and the

envelope wave, and β is the sharpness of the Gaussian minor axis perpendicular to the wave. γ = f/α

and η = f/β are used to keep frequency and sharpness ratio in constant state. The 2D Gabor wavelet

as defined in Equation (2) has Fourier transform:

( ) ( (( )

))

(2)

Figure 3 shows the magnitude and phase of the Gabor wavelets for 1 scale and 8 angels,

respectively. At all levels the wavelet is a Gaussian bandpass filter. Gabor wavelets have various

features and properties that could be used in different ways and applications. One of the most

distinctive and important features is directional selectivity. With this feature, one can orient Gabor

wavelets in any desired direction.

Image features that are aligned in the same direction respond strongly while the features that are in

other directions respond weakly. Space frequency analysis was used to detect local features

precisely in any face image. One of the best methods that can be used between spatial resolution

and frequency resolution is Gabor functions. the maximum amount of information can be extracted

from local regions of an image by Gabor wavelets using their optimal frequency-space localization

property (Eletan et al., 2008).

(a)

(b)

(c)

Figure 3: (a) The original image, (b) the magnitude and (c) the phase of the Gabor kernels at one

scale and eight orientations




51

The 2D-DWT of a signal is performed by repeating the 2D analysis filter bank on the low pass sub

image. Here, in the processing of each scale four sub images are used instead of one. 2D wavelet

transform has relation with three wavelets. Repetition of the filtering and decimation process on

low-pass outputs made multiple levels (scales).

In Figure 4 DWT transformation applied on face image, outputs four different sub images, namely;

approximate, horizontal, vertical and diagonal.

Figure 4: 2D-DWT transform on face image

3. Proposed Approach

The proposed approach uses transformation of face images using DWT or GWT. SIFT is used to

extract features from generated sub images. Figure 5 describes the block diagram of our proposed

approach.

At first stage, face images transformed by applying DWT or GWT. Application of DWT or GWT

will generate 4 sub images or 8 sub images, respectively. Gabor wavelets have various features and

properties that could be used in different ways and applications. One of the most distinctive and

important features is directional selectivity. While DWT has limited directional selectivity

restricted to four namely; approximate, horizontal, vertical and diagonal. SIFT algorithm will be

applied on these sub images to get the interest key-points. Salient features will be extracted from

key-points. After comparison with sub images stored in the database, scores will be assigned to

each subject for each sub image. At final stage, the scores obtained from each sub image will be

fused as the final score and then decision will be made based on the highest recorded score.

Figure 5: The block diagram of the proposed approach




52

4. Experimental Results

Experiments are performed to evaluate the performance of the proposed approach, and the results

are compared with that of using SIFT. The dataset we used in the experiment is PUT dataset

(Kasinski et al., 2008) were images have different head pose variations and are taken at different

times. There are 100 subjects with 10 images per subject making a total of 1000 images. For most

of the experiments in each dataset, 5 randomly chosen face images is considered as the gallery

(train) set and the remaining face images are considered as the probe (test) set.

In all of the experiments, performances of SIFT, DWT-SIFT and GWT-SIFT approaches are

compared using the average results of 10 runs of the program. At each run, different randomly

gallery images were chosen for each subject. At first experiment, SIFT was applied with 50% of

images are used in probe set while the rest are used as the gallery set. The results of using different

number of subjects are shown in Table 1. Just like other biometric systems increasing the number

of subjects will affect the performance of the system. With less number of subjects, we obtained

high performance (98.4% for 10 subjects). Increasing the number of subjects degraded the

performance of the system (93.9% for 100 subjects).

Table 1: Performance of SIFT using PUT face database

# of subjects Recognition Rate %

10 98.40

30 96.73

40 96.60

60 94.40

80 94.28

90 94.38

100 93.90

Average 95.52

In second experiment, we applied 1 scale and 2 scales transformations on images, using different

transformation filters (like Daubechies wavelets). Daubechies wavelets (db1, db2, db3, …)

numbers refers to the number of vanishing moments. Basically, the higher the number of vanishing

moments, the smoother the wavelet and longer the wavelet filter. For DWT-SIFT we can conclude

that there is approximately ~4% difference between 1 scale and 2 scales transformation. The

highest score goes to (db5) which was for 1-scale (88.92%) and 2-scales were (92.15%). Figure 6

shows differences between 1-scale and 2-scales transformation with different filters.




53

Figure 6: Performance of DWT-SIFT with 1-scale and 2-scales transformation

In third experiment, the performance of our proposed approach was completely different when we

applied GWT on images before extracting features from it. 1 scale and 8 orientations were used. As

the resulting 8 subimages from GWT were complex, the SIFT did not work properly on real or

imaginary parts separately. To overcome this problem, we performed our approach using the

magnitude (GWT(Mag)-SIFT) or both magnitude and phase (GWT(Mag+Phs)-SIFT) of each subimage.

The performance of proposed approach is tabulated in Table 2.

Table 2: Recognition rate of GWT-SIFT using 1 scale and 8 orientations

# of Subjects GWT(Mag)-SIFT GWT(Mag+Phs)-SIFT

10 99.80 100.00

30 99.27 99.20

40 99.25 99.15

60 99.27 99.16

80 99.39 99.36

90 99.22 99.25

100 99.07 99.09

Average 99.32 99.32

The performance of proposed approach using phase of transformed images is ~4% higher than

conventional SIFT algorithm. The rate of recognition performance of proposed approach

decreasing slowly compared to SIFT. In forth experiment, different number of subjects in gallery

set is used to test the performance of SIFT, DWT-SIFT and GWT-SIFT. As shown in Figure 7 the

performance of GWT-SIFT was always higher compared to SIFT and DWT-SIFT.

65

70

75

80

85

90

95

100

db1 db2 db3 db4 db5 haar

Rec

og

nit

ion

Ra

te %

Wavelet Filters

1-scale 2-scales




54

Figure 7: The performance of SIFT, DWT-SIFT and GWT-SIFT with different size of subjects

5. Conclusion

In this paper, SIFT was used to extract features from face images. The approach is based on

wavelet transforms which are proposed to improve the recognition performances of SIFT

descriptor. The first approach is based on DWT namely; DWT-SIFT. The second approach is based

on GWT namely; GWT-SIFT. The DWT or GWT is applied to the image as a preprocessing stage

before conventional SIFT is applied. SIFT is applied on the obtained subband images separately.

The recorded scores from each subband image is then fused together to get the final score and

make more accurate decision. The results obtained show that the fusion of matching scores of SIFT

descriptor on the multiresolution images substantially improved the recognition performance.

References

Betta, G., Capriglione, D., Liguori, C., & Paolillo, A. (2011). Uncertainty Evaluation in Face

Recognition Algorithms. IEEE on Instrumentation and Measurement Technology

Conference (I2MTC).

Borade, S., & Adgaonkar, R. (2011). Comparative Analysis of PCA and LDA. IEEE International

Conference on Business, Engineering and Industrial Applications (ICBEIA).

Eleyan, A., Özkaramanli, H., & Demirel, H. (2008). Complex Wavelet Transform-based Face

Recognition. EURASIP Journal on Advances in Signal Processing, 1, 1-13.

Jiang, B., Yang, G., & Zhang, H. (2008). Comparative Study of Dimension Reduction and

Recognition Algorithms of DCT and 2DPCA. IEEE International Conference on Machine

Learning and Cybernetics.

Jiang, Y., & Guo, P. (2007). Comparative Studies of Feature Extraction Methods with Application

to Face Recognition. IEEE International Conference on Systems, Man and Cybernetics

(ISIC).

Kasinski, A., A. Florek, A., & Schmidt, A. (2008). The PUT Face Database. Image Processing and

Communications, 13(3),59-64.

Lowe, D. (2004). Distinctive Image Features from Scale-Invariant Keypoints. International

Journal of Computer Vision, 60(2), 1-28.

Shen, L., Bai, L., & Fairhurst, M. (2007). Gabor Wavelets and General Discriminant Analysis for

Face Identification and Verification. Image and Vision Computing, 25(5), 553-563.

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Rec

og

nit

ion

Ra

te %

# of subjects in gallery set

SIFT

DWT-SIFT

GWT-SIFT




55

Yunyi, W., Chunqing, H., & Xiaobin, Q. (2009). Multiple Facial Instance for Face Recognition

based on SIFT Features. IEEE International Conference on Mechatronics and Automation

(ICMA).

Zakariya, S., Ali, R., & Ahmed, L. (2011). Automatic Face Recognition Using Multi-Algorithmic

Approaches. 4th International Conference IC3 on Contemporary Computing.

Zou, J., Ji, Q., & Nagy, G. (2007). A Comparative Study of Local Matching Approach for Face

Recognition. IEEE Trans. Image Processing, 16, 2617-2628.




56

Developing a Novel Approach for Evaluation Performance of the

Engineering Departments Managers Using 360° Technique

Faiq M. S. Al-Zwainy1 & Mohammed S. Kh. Al-Marsomi

2

1,2Department of Civil Engineering, Al-Nahrain University, Iraq

Correspondence: Faiq M. S. Al-Zwainy, Ministry of Planning, Erbil, Iraq.


Received: February 17 , 2017 Accepted: April 23, 2017 Online Published: June 1, 2017


Abstract: This paper deals with creating evaluation criteria for the planning, design, execution

managers in Housing Directorate, which is very important for the service quality in work. Results of

the study proved the possibility of the use of 360° technique in evaluating the performance of managers

in the Housing Directorate, which means the possibility of circulation in the construction sector.

Moreover, the study showed in general of gaps between self-evaluation and individual evaluation

process, which indicates the need for an organizational culture that encourages objectivity in passing

judgments and accepts the views of others. The existence of negative gaps in responses between the

parties of the evaluation process appears the manager's overstatement in the existence of the

evaluation criteria in them. Therefore, the final degree of evaluation was (4.28) v. Good for planning

manager, (4.56) excellent for design manager and (3.84) v. Good for execution manager.

Keywords: Performance of Individuals, 360 Techniques, Residential Complexes Projects

1. Introduction

Performance evaluation (PE) is necessary to measure performance of the employees and the

organization to check the progress towards the desired goals and aims. (PE) includes all formal

procedures used to evaluate personalities, contributions potentials of group members in a working

organization. PE helps to develop individuals, improve organizational performance and feed into

business planning. PE in organization is considered as a key human resource management practices

for measuring effectiveness and efficiency (Cinar & Vardarlier, 2014).

Building a performance evaluation system which aims at constant improvement, provides

appropriate feedback and directs to the career targets will enable organizations to work more

efficiently, that’s why; (PE) will have great contributions in construction sector for bringing the

construction services to the desired level (Rani et al., 2014). In order to evaluate and measure the

performance should be clarified clearly and be shared with engineers. Also, to evaluate manager’s

performance, managers should specify this performance’s qualifications and terms.

2. Methods of Performance Individual Evaluation

There are two types of measures are used in performance Individual evaluation:

a. Objective measures which are directly quantifiable.





57

b. Subjective measures which are not directly quantifiable.

Figure (1) shows the method of performance evaluation that can be broadly classified into two

categories: Traditional methods and modern methods (Espinilla, 2013), the propose method in this

study was 360° technique to evaluate the performance of planning manager, design manager and

execution manager.

Figure 1: Method of Performance Evaluation (3)

3. Concept of 360° Technique

One of the newest and most popular approaches to performance evaluation is the usage of

multisource performance and feedback. What has made 360° performance evaluation system

obligatory are that many personnel in organizations start work together with a great number of

people, and emergence of the necessity for receiving more comprehensive and correct feedback

about the workers from different perspectives (Tarus, 2014), 360° review, also referred to as 360°

performance assessments or multi-rater feedback, is a method and a tool to provide employees

feedback from their peers, co-workers, clients, those who are direct reports, and direct supervisors,

thereby offering multiple perspectives of the employee’s overall job performance, this type of

evaluation helps the employee gain a better understanding of her/his skills and behaviors as they

relate to the organization’s mission, values, goals and vision, Additionally, this feedback is geared

to assist each employee in understanding her or his strengths and weaknesses, and can contribute

insights into areas of work that may need professional development (Kaur, 2013).

4. Benefits of 360° Technique

360° evaluation gives chance to all levels of employees to give their input and contributes towards

achievement of the organization goal, the 360-degree evaluation also can help the employees or

managers discover their own strengths and weaknesses (Kaur, 2013). A number of distinct benefits

can be realized from this type of evaluation, and this tool has been gaining widespread popularity




58

among small businesses. Moreover, some benefits as follows (“performance management”).

a. Individuals get a broader perspective as to how they are perceived by others.

b. Can also see where the person needs to improve.

c. Enhanced awareness and relevance of competencies

d. Awareness for senior management too, as they will get to know their need for

development

e. The 360° performance evaluation system has the potential to positively effect on the

performance and productivity of managers and supervisors.

5. Components of 360° Technique

The 360° technique has five integral components, Figure 2 shows summarized of components

Figure 2: Components of 360° Technique

a. Self – Evaluation: This form of performance information is actually quite common but usually

used only as an informal part of the supervisor-employee appraisal feedback session (Rasheed,

2011). This type of evaluation makes the individual thinks of his strengths and weaknesses so as

to overcome the barriers that prevent reach to the effective performance and this becomes

effective source when supervisor and subordinates participates in set future goals for

performance and formulating development plans (“performance management”).

b. Peer – Evaluation: Peers have a unique perspective on a co-worker’s job performance and

employees are generally very receptive to the concept of rating each other, Peer ratings can be

used when the employee’s expertise is known or the performance and results can be observed.

And this evaluation contributes in 360-degree feedback as follow (Basu, 2015).

1. Peer assessment has proven to be excellent predictors of future performance.

2. Peer assessment are remarkably valid and reliable in assessment behaviors and manner

of performance, but may be limited in assessment outcomes that often require the

perspective of the supervisor.

3. The addition of peer feedback can help move the supervisor into a coaching role rather




59

than a purely judging role.

c. Subordinates – Evaluation: Use the evaluation of subordinates by large and small organizations

in order to give managers feedback from the perspective view their subordinates. Moreover,

subordinates in the best position to evaluate their managers because they are in direct contact

with them and have position where they can observe many of the related behaviors performance

(Basu, 2015).

d. Customer – Evaluation: There are two key to use evaluate of customers in judging the

performance of individuals, the first key relates to the work requirements when the work was

required to provide service directly to the customer whenever possible to judge the performance

of the individual through the customer evaluate , The second key relates to the organization

goal when it collecting information about the product or service desired by customers,

contribute customers evaluate in determining the requirements of human resources, which

require a change such as training and reward system towards improving customer service

(McCarthy, 2012).

e. Supervisor – Evaluation: Evaluations by superiors are the most traditional source of employee

feedback. This form of evaluation is conduct by supervisors to evaluating the performance of

manager by senior managers. And this evaluation contributes in 360-degree feedback as follow

(Rasheed et al., 2011).

1. The first-line supervisor is often in the best position to effectively carry out the full

cycle of performance management: Planning, Monitoring, Developing, Appraising,

and Rewarding.

2. The superiors have the authority to redesign and reassign an employee’s work based on

their assessment of individual and team performance.

3. Most Federal employees feel that the greatest contribution to their performance

feedback should come from their first level supervisors

6. Applications of 360° Technique In Management

During the last few years, the use of 360° technique has increased in human resources and has

demonstrated some degree of success. The following literature review provides the importance of

360° technique and reveals that 360° technique has been used successfully in building of individual

performance evaluation system.

Fadime and Pelin (as cited in Cinar & Vardarlier, 2014), in a study on 360° performance

evaluation, which is one of the current and problematic subjects of the human resources

applications, is analyzed and supported by an empirical research. At this study, in which the

theoretical information is discussed, briefly includes the necessity of the performance evaluation in

classical terms and its benefits to the organizations, 360° performance evaluation and feedback

system; there is an empirical practice including the discussion of the views for creating a 360°

performance evaluation criteria and feedback system to evaluate the performances of the nurses

working in a training research hospital

Kipchumba (as cited in Tarus, 2014), the study findings revealed that the 360° affects organization

performance, which suggests that there is a significant relationship between the organizational use

of 360° appraisal tool and its performance. The study recommends that the organizations evaluate

the outcomes of 360° appraisal tool and compare with the past tools. It would be beneficial to

incorporate 360° feedbacks into a larger performance management process, but only with clear

communication on how the 360° feedback will be used. The study contributes largely to the

improvement of performance in local authorities by ensuring that the activities identified take into

consideration the needs of the authorities and individuals. Its findings and recommendations are




60

also important to the management when planning for performance appraisal sessions as well as in

reviewing individual performance. The study also sheds light on the strengths, weaknesses and

opportunities of the 360° feedback system.

Savneet (as cited in Kaur, 2013), through this study, an attempt had been made to understand and

present the methodology behind the 360° performance appraisal and how it can be implemented in

organizations. Various benefits and disadvantages of introducing this method into organizations

have also been listed down. The available literature provides an overview regarding how this

method is beneficial for increasing the overall efficiency of the employee as an individual and the

firm as a whole, and as a result performance improves and training and development leads to real

opportunities for promotion within the company. Employees are also motivated and can have a

positive knock-on effect in areas like customer service.

Tamanna (as cited in Basu, 2015), stated that 360° feedback is considered to be one of the method

of performance Appraisal system which reduces the subjectively of a traditional supervisor

appraisal. In a 360° appraisal system, the employee’s performance is evaluated by his supervisors,

his peers, his internal/external suppliers and his subordinate managers and leaders within

organizations use 360° feedback surveys to get a better understanding of their strengths and

weaknesses. 360° feedbacks can be considered as one of the attribute of performance management

system which is goal oriented and focused on present as well as future performance

Salah et al. (as cited in McCarthy, 2012) in a study focused on using feedback 360° in appraisal of

performance of heads scientific departments in college of Economics and Administration, which

adopted on questionnaire to realize target of study. After the distribution of the questionnaire, the

results were conducted to analyze and calculate averages. The study reached a negative gap

between the responses of the parties in evaluation process of individuals which shows gave their

evaluation in the view of the others parties it higher than it is in fact the field from their

perspective.

Based on the results of the studies reviewed in the literature, 360° technique has a good

performance in many studies in performance evaluation of individuals and there is no study about

this technique in the specialization of project management in Iraq and outside Iraq. So, consider

this study is the first and a novel approach in project management.

7. Methodology of 360° Technique

In order to realize the target of this study, methodology of 360° technique consists of five steps: In

this study, in order to serve as a model for evaluate the performance of managers in a construction

sector, what is intended is to create evaluation criteria from previous studies and literature, this

survey in past studies has led to finalize the list of criteria of performance evaluation included in

the questionnaire, this criterion as follows:

a. Intelligence: In this criteria included the characteristics to provide the capacity to

accommodate the sensitive information and perform the required analyzes to draw the right

results and make good decisions.

b. Leadership: It is the ability to see the overall aspect of the project at all times so that takes

it upon itself to ensure that there will be no ambiguity about his work as a project manager.

c. Productivity: It is the ability to optimum utilization of resources and the ability to ensure

the success of projects.




61

d. Communication: It is the personal relations and communications and its relevance to the

entire project?

e. Ethics: They are the determinants that put by the organization on its decisions so that these

determinants are ethical determinants.

Based on professional experience of researcher in the construction sector has been selected these

five criteria for being most impact in the construction sector.

8. Sample and Collecting Data

This study was conducted by a methodology which is based on questionnaire. This study covers

three managers who have served in different departments in Housing Directorate (planning, design

and execution) to evaluate their performance. Data were collected through an evaluation workshop

in two stages by researcher, the first stage (Individuals) includes a head of Housing Directorate,

department engineer., site engineer., planning engineer., design engineer, and senior manager in

department to evaluate the performance of managers who were selected in the study, the second

stage (Self) includes only managers who were selected to conduct self-evaluation for them. Table

(1) shows the qualification of research sample.

Table 1: Qualification of Research Sample

9. Evaluate Scale

Questionnaire that was prepared for collecting data includes a set of five questions for each

criterion to give a description of the behaviors and capacities required to work (as shows in

appendix A), where used the Likert scale (five scale) for each question in criterion.

a. Unsatisfactory (poor)

b. Marginal (mediam)

c. Meets Requirements (good)

d. Exceeds Requirements (very good)

e. Outstanding (excellent)

10. Data Analysis

After collecting the responses, the process of analysis and evaluation data are beginning and can

No. Functional grade Function position Type of evaluation Experience years

1 Expert Company manager Supervisor 35

2 Chief Eng. Senior manager Peer 30

3 Engineer Site Eng. Subordinates 5

4 Engineer Planning Eng. Subordinates 8

5 Engineer Design Eng. Subordinates 7

6 Engineer Quality Eng. Customer 14

7 Senior Eng. Planning manager Self 25

8 Chief Eng. Design manager Self 32

9 Senior chief Eng. Execution manager Self 22




62

follow the traditional methods in the analysis process, particularly use the process of calculating the

arithmetic average of the self-evaluation and individual's evaluation in preparation to see how

much the gap by subtracting the average of the self-evaluation than the average of individual's

evaluation to know the evaluation degree of individuals to assess the self-evaluation response (7).

Moreover, the researcher used the radar figure in analysis to shows how much the gap at each

criteria. Table (2) shows summary of the final degree of individual evaluation in this study.

Table 2: Evaluation Degree

11. Research Result

The results of models were divided into three parts:

11.1 Planning Manager

Table (3) shows the result of evaluation performance model of planning manager that it gets by

researcher from evaluation workshop that was included in the first stage planning manager (self-

evaluation) and in the second stage a head of Directorate, senior manager, department Eng. and

planning Eng. (individual's evaluation). Where the final degree of evaluation individual average for

assess self-evaluation was very good (4.28), this refers to the agreement of evaluation workshop on

the absence of the weaknesses in any of the evaluation criteria in performance of planning manager

because exceeding half the rang of the study scale at the level of single criteria or average.

Table 3: Result of Performance Evaluation of Planning Manager

Figure (3) shows the radar shape to see how much the gap in each criteria between self-evaluation

and individual evaluation, where notes that all the differences in the evaluation criteria were

negative, this meaning that the planning manager gave himself an evaluation in the view of the

scale 1 2 3 4 5

Average interval 0.5 - 1.5 1.5 - 2.5 2.5 - 3.5 3.5 - 4.5 4.5 - 5

Evaluation degree poor mediam good Very good excellent

(A) (B) (C)Average

interval

Evaluation

different5-ǀCǀ

B-A

Intelligence 4.4 3.2 -1.2 3.8 V. good

Leadership 5 4.2 -0.8 4.2 V. good

Productivity 5 4.6 -0.4 4.6 Excellent

Communication 4.6 4.2 -0.4 4.6 Excellent

Ethics 4.6 3.8 -0.8 4.2 V. good

Average 4.72 4 -0.72 4.28 V. good

CriteriaEvaluation

degreeSelf-

evaluation

Individual's

evaluation




63

individuals higher than it is in fact in the field from their perspective.

Figure 3: Different in Evaluation of Planning Manager

11.2 Design Manager

Table (4) shows the result of evaluation performance model of design manager that it gets by the

method pervious same but the first stage in evaluation workshop included the design manager (self-

evaluation) and in the second stage included a head of Directorate, senior manager, department

Eng. and design Eng. (individual's evaluation). Where the final degree of evaluation individual

average for assess self-evaluation was excellent, as indicated in table a pact both stages of the

evaluation workshop on absence of weaknesses in the performance of design manager

Table 4: Result of Performance Evaluation of Design Manager

Figure (4) shows the radar shape for evaluation of design manager, where notes that the differences

in the evaluation criteria were three negative and two positive, this meaning that the design

manager gave himself an evaluation in the view of the individuals that it is reasonable in fact from

their perspective.

(A) (B) (C)Average

interval

Evaluation

different5-ǀCǀ

B-A

Intelligence 4 4.8 0.8 4.2 V. good

Leadership 5 4.6 -0.4 4.6 Excellent

Productivity 4.4 4.8 0.4 4.6 Excellent

Communication 4.6 4.2 -0.4 4.4 V. good

Ethics 4.6 4.4 -0.2 4.8 Excellent

Average 4.52 4.56 0.04 4.56 Excellent

CriteriaEvaluation

degreeSelf-

evaluation

Individual's

evaluation




64

Figure 4: Different in Evaluation of Design Manager

11.3 Execution Manager

Table (5) shows the result of evaluation performance model of execution manager that it gets by

the method pervious same but the first stage in evaluation workshop included the execution

manager (self-evaluation) and in the second stage included a head of Directorate, senior manager,

department Eng. and site Eng. (individual's evaluation). Where the final degree of evaluation

individual average for assess self-evaluation was very good, as indicated in table a pact both stages

of the evaluation workshop on absence of weaknesses in the performance of execution manager.

Table 5: The Result of Performance Evaluation of Execution Manager

Figure (5) shows the radar shape for evaluation of the execution manager, where notes that often

the differences in the evaluation criteria were negative, this meaning that the execution manager

(A) (B) (C)Average

interval

Evaluation

different5-ǀCǀ

B-A

Intelligence 4.6 3.4 -1.2 3.8 V. good

Leadership 4.8 3.2 -1.6 3.4 good

Productivity 4.6 3.6 -1 4 V. good

Communication 5 3.2 -1.8 3.2 good

Ethics 4.6 4.8 0.2 4.8 Excellent

Average 4.72 3.64 -1.08 3.84 V. good

CriteriaEvaluation

degreeSelf-

evaluation

Individual's

evaluation




65

gave himself an evaluation in the view of the individuals higher than it is in fact in the field from

their perspective.

Figure 5: The Different in Evaluation of Execution Manager

12. Conclusion

Results of the study proved the possibility of the use of 360° technique in evaluating the

performance of managers in the Housing Directorate, which means the possibility of circulation in

the construction sector. Moreover, the study showed in general of gaps between self-evaluation and

individual evaluation process, which indicates the need for an organizational culture that

encourages objectivity in passing judgments and accepts the views of others. The existence of

negative gaps in responses between the parties of the evaluation process appears the manager's

overstatement in the existence of the evaluation criteria in them. Therefore, the final degree of

evaluation was (4.28) v. good for planning manager, (4.56) excellent for design manager and (3.84)

v. good for execution manager

References

Basu, T. (2015). Integrating 360-degree feedback in to performance appraisal tool and development

process. IOSR Journal of Business and Management, 17(1), 50-61.

Çınar, F., & Vardarlıer, P. (2014). Establishment of individual performance evaluation system in a

health business and a pilot practice. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 150, 384-

393.

D. McCarthy, D. (2012). The Great Leadership Development and Succession Planning Kit. Cork:

1st Ed. Enabled, Book Baby, 2012.




66

Espinilla, M., de Andrés, R., Martínez, F. J., & Martínez, L. (2013). A 360-degree performance

appraisal model dealing with heterogeneous information and dependent criteria.

Information Sciences, 222, 459-471.

Kaur, S. (2013). 360 Degrees performance appraisal-benefits and shortcoming. International

Journal of Emerging Research in Management and Technology, 2(6), 83-88.

Performance Management, “The 360 Degree Feedback. Advantages, Disadvantages & Design”,

Human Resource in a Nutshell, 26th October 2011.

Rani L., Kumar N., & Sushil K. (2014). Performance appraisals research: A study of performance

appraisals practices in private banks. Journal of Research in Commerce & Management,

3(1), 108-113.

Rasheed S., Dahsh E., & Radhi J. (2011). Evaluating the performance of heads of scientific

departments using the entrance feeding reverse 360 degrees. Periodical of Management

and Economics - University of Qadisiya, 10-21.

Tarus B. (2014). Effectiveness of the 360-degrees appraisal tool in human resource practice in

Kenya. Journal of Marketing and Business Management, 3(1) 10-21.

Appendix –A- (Questionnaire of 360-Degree Performance Evaluation)

1 = Unsatisfying, 2= Marginal, 3 = Meets Requirements, 4 = Exceeds Requirements, 5=

Outstanding

Intelligence 1 2 3 4 5

Ability to anticipate project performance within the near future

Distinguished by his ability to make fast and accurate decisions

to facilitate works flow and project closure

Learns from former mistakes and never repeats them

Ability to put acquired knowledge into application

Has the ability for creativity and innovation in a way that

achieves the maximum use of resources

Leadership 1 2 3 4 5

Never affected by side talks and rumors

Has a unique ability to find solutions for day to day work

problems

Delegates authorities to colleagues

Has and effective extrovert personality that leaves a positive

impact on the rest of the team

Shows a strong commitment to the company

Productive efficiency 1 2 3 4 5

Distributes tasks to individuals according to their qualifications




67

Carefully manages financial resources

Has the ability to train a team in terms of projects management

Follows up the training skills the his team have received

Makes sure to keep an eye even on the smallest details in the

project

Connectivity and communication 1 2 3 4 5

Ability to communicate with team members

Ability to encourage and motivate his co-workers

Good listener to his co-workers

Shares work related information with colleagues by himself

without the need to tell him to do so, and feels ok with that

attitude

Characterized by tact and smooth behavior within his work

environment

Work ethics 1 2 3 4 5

Characterized by professional work ethics and ability to

preserve work sensitive details

Makes sure to ask for manpower dues and rights

Treats the staff with equality and equity without any biased

behavior

Commitment to dates and deadlines

Does not abuse taking advantage of his powers and authorities




68

Raising Environmental Awareness among Young Generation Using Social

Media: A Case “Green It at Ishik University”

Mehmet Ozdemir

1 & Rasha Alkabbanie

2

1 Ishik University, Faculty of education, Biology Department, Erbil, Iraq

2 Ishik University, Faculty of Engineering, Erbil, Iraq

Correspondence: Mehmet Ozdemir, Ishik University, Erbil, Iraq.




Abstract: The paper examines the role of social media in creating environmental awareness,

responsibilities or issues of among young generation (especially Higher education students). The

authors attempted to determine whether there are present and how can be developed environmental

awareness or issues behavior on social networking sites like Facebook. The campaign was designed

based on a practical model and implemented in a case study of 3rd

grade of computer engineering

department in Ishik University. The Social media platform (Facebook) formed the technological

foundation of the campaign. Throughout the campaign prepared information about environmental

awareness or responsibilities documentation was distributed by means of these Facebook to selected

students in the case study. Issues related to environmental management as well as suggested strategies

to deal with them was also communicated to the target students. In order to determine the growth of

awareness related to environmental issues and to get feedback on the campaign benefits and problems,

two surveys were applied before and after implementation process. Massages (campaign prepared

information) were posted at regular periods (one mouth) throughout the Facebook. The findings

revealed that Social Media was found to be ineffective method of raising the environmental awareness

among the higher education students in Kurdistan.

Keywords: Social Media, Facebook, Awareness, Campaign, Green ICT, Young Generation, And

Students

1. Introduction

The continues increasing ratio of population and the rapid developments in industry have bad

effects on the environment and lead to remarkable climate changes (Bostrom et al., 1994).

Therefore, the need of increasing the environmental awareness has risen especially among the

young generations (Kaplan & Liu, 2004). This awareness can be improved through many ways and

methods. Social Media is being used for raising the awareness and knowledge of several issues and

cases. The aim of this paper is to examine the role of social media in creating environmental

awareness -especially Facebook- among Ishik University students.

2. Literature Review

2.1 Global Community and Globalization

Day by day the global challenges are increasing, the most common challenges are: climate change,





69

extreme poverty and inequality, financial and economic crisis, food crisis, water scarcity, energy

security, migration, population growth and demographic shift, urbanization and health pandemics

and infectious diseases (Gelsdorf, 2010).

Globalization facilitates the spread of existing technologies and the emergence of new

technologies, often replacing existing technologies with more extractive alternatives; greener

technologies may also be spurred (Najam & Runnalls, 2007). Although that technology extracts

more from nature and uses the natural resources in a considerable amount but can also become

cleaner and helps to preserve the resources and raise the environmental awareness. As students

learn about social sciences, they become more aware of their part in global communities, thus their

conceptual understandings develop (Smith, 2009).

2.2 Environmental Responsibility

Environmental responsibility has been considered to be “in the public interest” and external to

private life (Mazurkiewicz, 2010). Governments have a recognizable role in assuring

environmental management and preserving a safe environment. Also, they have directed the private

sector to adopt environmentally sound behavior through regulations, sanctions and occasionally,

incentives (Mazurkiewicz, 2010). At its simplest, the definition of sustainability involves (i) the

needs of present generations and the needs of future generations and (ii) environmental and social

justice (Gray, 2005).

Regarding the educational institutions, the students need to be environmentally responsible

citizens. The education system shall provide opportunities within the classroom and the community

for students to engage in actions that deepen this understanding (Canadian Ministry of Education,

2009). So, the students shall be aware of the environmental aspects especially the Environmental

Sustainability which is meeting the resource and services needs of current and future generations

(Morelli, 2011). So all the members of the society are responsible about preserving and saving the

environment and being unaware of the environmental obligations does not relieve anybody of his

or her liability.

2.3 Raising Environmental Awareness

There are a lot of methods used nowadays to raise the environmental awareness. Some researchers

see that this awareness involves translating the technical language of a natural science or related

field into terms and ideas that a non-scientist can readily understand (Minkova, 2000). Other

researchers concluded that raising the awareness shall be through Educational events, Campaigns,

establishing goals and Selecting information (Minkova, 2000). The pedagogical strategy helps to

keep the natural environment into focus and in the foreground of the teaching-learning process (

Hadzigeorgiou & Skoumios, 2013). Other studies claim that environmental education is crucial

and an irreplaceable element which should be developed. Even if it cannot change the world

immediately, it has an important role to play (Cerovsky, 2013).

2.4 Role of Social Media in Raising Environmental Awareness

Social networks can provide different kinds and levels of information that are important to us

(Krätzig & Warren-Kretzschmar, 2014). Some researchers found that social media provides

enormous opportunities to encourage environmental activism (Arbatani & Labafi, 2016). The

study” (Mooney & Winstanley, 2013) found that harnessing the pro-social aspects of Twitter could




70

prove a useful tool in informing the public better about environmental problems.

In addition to increasing environmental awareness, social media can also be employed to serve

environmental communication. A great many international NGOs or organizations have already

stressed the importance of these new media for awareness-raising campaigns. For instance, the

European Commission’s successful 2010 campaign on biodiversity had a strong social media

component (BIO Intelligence Service for EECN, 2011). Furthermore, Greenpeace is one of the

environmental projects has been using social media actively to advertise its campaigns.

Also, the phenomenal success of the Earth Hour in 2010, which became the largest social

movement in history (WWF, 2010), with over a billion people from over 128 different countries

turning off their lights for an hour, could partly be attributed to the extensive social media used

(Lokhandwala & Koshy, 2010).

On the other hand, some researchers found that social media does not seem to be a replacement for

other traditional interventions, such as holding frequent face-to-face meetings. At best, social

media may be considered as a supplement to a more intensive social-based intervention (Vigrass,

2015). Additionally, some studies state that there are serious threats for individuals and society in

using social media platforms and thus a need for a sensible social media interaction (Zeitel-Bank &

Tat, 2014).

So, future research is also needed to examine the success of social media based communication in

eliciting behavior change and the overall effectiveness of various social media applications within

the environmental fields (Hempel, 2014).

2.5 Green ICT

Recently, ICT has been widely favored for environment protection. Green ICT can be defined as

the study and practice of designing, manufacturing, using and disposing of computers, servers and

associated subsystems-such as monitors, printers, storage devices and networking and

communications systems efficiently and effectively, with minimal or no impact on the environment

(Ozturk et al., 2011).

Green IT is a broad concept involves pollution prevention at the beginning and end of a product’s

life-cycle, product stewardship to minimize the environmental footprint during use, adoption of

clean technologies to reduce pollution, and development of environmentally friendly competencies

(Ansari et al., 2010).

Various statistics have been produced indicating that the Carbon Footprint from data centers is

equal to or higher than that from the aircraft industry (reckoned by many to be around 2% of global

emissions) (Crooks et al., 2009). In the wake of global warming and concerns over its impact due

to environmental degradation, there is an urgent need for the IT industries/practitioners to come

forward and integrate a green agenda into their industrial/manufacturing and business models

(Agrawal & Agarwal, 2012).

Some researches insist on improving the idea that (ICT) industry needs to further improve its

environmental performance, and its applications have very large potential to enhance performance

across the economy and society (Reimsbach-Kounatze, 2009).




71

2.6 Social Media in Iraq and Kurdistan

The global trends of the intensive using of the social media are mirrored in Iraq, where, despite low

Internet penetration,39 there are over 2.3 million Facebook users. This represents nearly 8% of the

population. Facebook’s growth curve in Iraq is particularly steep, with more than 700,000 users

joining the site in 2012. Over 40% of Iraq’s Facebook users are between 18 and 24 years old. Iraqis

between the ages of 25 and 34 are the second-largest age group to access the social networking site,

and nearly three quarters of all Iraqi users are men (Internews Europe, 2012).

Internet services have managed to reform the relation between Kurds in the diaspora and social

connections in many ways. It has helped the Kurdish community in diaspora to reconnect with their

fellow Kurds both in the diaspora and in their homeland, which used to be very difficult before the

development of communication technology.

Through Facebook, Kurds could build their own groups and participate in various groups to gather

academic knowledge and to be socially active. This also leads to a strong association and

fellowship between the Kurds (Jacob, 2013).

The study by (Gallup, 2014) states that Kurdish Iraqis are particularly likely to use social networks

weekly or more. Facebook is by far the most popular social networking site in Iraq, with almost all

one-week social media users (94.3%) having accessed it within seven days. The next most popular

are Google+ at 41.8% and Twitter at 25.8%.

3- The Research Methodology

First, a campaign was initiated at the computer engineering department at Ishik University to cover

a sample of students. The campaign started with presenting some facts and information related to

“Green Computing and IT” through a seminar presented by an expert in Computer Engineering.

After the seminar, a Pre-Study Questionnaire was implemented in a case study of 3rd grade

students (35 students), then the survey was analyzed and the initial awareness level of Green IT

was concluded.

Meanwhile, a Facebook Page was created to be the Social Media approach in this experience. The

page was named “Green ICT at Ishik University” (the profile photo is shown in Fig. 1). The sample

students were informed about this page and were asked to “LIKE” the page. Weekly-based posts

were posted through this page.

Figure 1: The official profile photo of the Facebook page of “Green ICT at Ishik University”

Some posts were in plain text while others were informative images and videos. Through the posts,




72

some information related to the causes and effects of ICT related pollution and some recent facts

and numbers regarding green ICT were presented to the sample students. This process was

continuing for about one month. Some samples of these posts are shown in Fig. 2.

Figure 2: Samples of the Posts posted in the Facebook Page

When the month was over, a Post-Study Questionnaire was implemented on the same students and

the Post-campaign awareness level was observed. The awareness levels (Initial and the Post-

Campaign) ware compared to each other and some conclusions were reached. Fig. 3 illustrates the

steps followed in the study.

Figure 3: Study Chart

4- Results and Discussions

4.1 Participant Profile

The sample was drawn from the higher education students. The sample was (35) students of 3rd

Starting the Campaign

Holding a Seminar about Green ICT

Applying Pre-Study Survey

Analysing the Pre-Study Survey

Creating the Facebook Page

Posting on Weekly Base

Asking the Students to LIKE the page

Applying the Post-Study Survey

Analysing the Post-Study Survey

Comparing the Awarness Levels

and reaching conclusions




73

grade of computer engineering department in Ishik University. Their age ranged between 20-23

years old. The gender distribution is : 40% Females and 60%Males as shown in Fig. 4.

Figure 4: The gender distribution of the participants

4.2 Most Preferred Social Media Platform

It was observed – and as it is shown in Fig. 5- that Facebook is the predominant social media

platform it was the most preferred platform for about 38% of the participants, followed by

YouTube with 26% and Instagram with17%. For the rest of participants, the most preferred social

media platform was either Snapchat or Twitter. However, LinkedIn platform was not chosen by

any of the participants.

Figure 5: Shows the distribution of the most preferred social media platform for the participants

4.3 General Average of Awareness about Green ICT

By analyzing both the Pre-Study Survey and the Post-Study Survey, it was shown that the average

awareness level about the green ICT that the participant had got before the campaign was 19%.

After applying the case using the Facebook Page, the awareness level was increased by only 1% to

60%

40% Males

Females

6%

38%

26%

0%

17%

13% Twitter

Facebook

YouTube

LinkedIn

Instagram

Snapchat




74

become 20%. These averages indicate clearly that using social media in raising the awareness

regarding the environmental issues was not useful at all.

Fig. 6 shows the awareness level before and after conducting the study.

Figure 6: The awareness level (%) about green ICT before and after the study

4.4 Social media to be used in improving the environmental awareness

As it is illustrated in Fig. 7, the survey analyzing shows that only 7% of the participants prefer the

social media to be used in raising the awareness regarding the environmental issues versus 93%

think that social media is not an effective tool in spreading the knowledge about the environment

and its related cases and facts.

Figure 7: Average of students who prefer/don’t prefer Social Media to be used in improving the

Environmental Awareness

19 20

BEFORE AFTER

7%

93%

Prefer

Don't Prefer




75

5. Conclusions

1. Social Media was found to be ineffective method for raising the environmental

awareness among the higher education students in Kurdistan

2. Higher education students in Kurdistan prefers the educational methods over the

social media for being informed about the environmental issues

3. The Level of Awareness and knowledge about Green ICT is very low among the

higher education students in Kurdistan.

References

Canadian Ministry of Education. (2009). Acting Today Shaping Tomorrow, pp. 01–30.

Agrawal, N., & Agarwal, K.N. (2012). Current trends in green ict. JOAAG, 7(1), 71-85.

Andreopoulou, Z. (2012). Green Informatics: ICT for green and Sustainability.

Agrárinformatika/Journal of Agricultural Informatics, 3(2),1-8.

Ansari, N.L., Ashraf, M.M., Malik, B.T., & Grunfeld, H. (2010). Green IT awareness and

practices: Results from a field study on mobile phone related e-waste in Bangladesh. In

Technology and Society (ISTAS), 2010 IEEE International Symposium on (pp. 375-383).

Arbatani, R., & Labafi, S., (2016). Effects of Social Media on the Environmental Protection

Behaviour of the Public. Int. J. Environ. Res, 10, 237-244.

BIO Intelligence Service for EECN. (2011). DG Environment’s support structure for European

networks working in the field of environmental public information, pp. 1-2.

Bostrom, A., Morgan, M.G., Fischhoff, B., & Read, D. (1994). What do people know about global

climate change? 1. Mental models. Risk Analysis, 14(6), 959-970.

Cerovsky, J. (2013). Raising environmental awareness through education. Dorothy Publication, 5,

405-426.

Crooks, B., Harvey, B., Limbuwala, Z., Newcombe, L., Ross, M., Staples, G., & Bayley, P. (2009).

Raising awareness of green IT-The BCS way. British Computer Society (BCS). The

Chartered Institute for IT.

Gelsdorf, A. (2010). Global challenges and their impact on international humanitarian action.

OCHA.

Gray, R. (2005). Social and Environmental Responsibility, Sustainability and Accountability: Can

the Corporate Sector Deliver? (CSEAR, Scotland). pp.1-5.

Hadzigeorgiou, Y., & Skoumios, M. (2013). The development of environmental awareness through

school science: Problems and possibilities. International Society of Educational

Research, 1, 405-426.

Hempel, M. (2014). The Use of Social Media In Environmental Health Research And

Communication: An Evidence Review. Vancouver: Environmental Public Health.

Internews Europe (2012). Report Issued by the UNESCO titled “The Internet and Freedom of

Expression in Iraq”.

Jacob, K. (2013). Facebook is my second home. The Kurdish Diaspora’s Use of Facebook in

Shaping a Nation (Master's thesis, The University of Bergen).

Kaplan, M., & Liu, S.T. (2004). Generations united for environmental awareness and action.

Generations United.

Krätzig, S., & Warren-Kretzschmar, B. (2014). Using Interactive Web Tools in Environmental

Planning to Improve Communication about Sustainable Development. Sustainability. 6,

236-250.

Lokhandwala., & S. Koshy, S. (2010). The environmental role of media can play in the Gulf.

Academy of International Business Middle East and North Africa, 1, 45-60.

Mazurkiewicz, P. (2010). Corporate Environmental Responsibility (World Bank, DevComm).

Minkova, Y. (2000). Public Education to Raise Environmental Awareness (The Regional

Environmental Center, Szentendre) pp.1-61.




76

Mooney, P., & Winstanley, A. (2013). Evaluating Twitter for Use in Environmental Awareness

Campaigns. Geotechnology Research Group, 1, 1-4.

Morelli, J. (2011). Environmental Sustainability: A Definition for Environmental Professionals.

Journal of Environmental Sustainability, 1, 1-10.

Najam & Runnalls, D. (2007). Environment and Globalization Five Propositions. IISD, product of

the Environment and Governance Project.

Ozturk, A., Umit, K., Medeni, I.T., Ucuncu, B., Caylan, M., Akba, F., & Medeni, T.D. (2011).

Green ICT (Information and Communication Technologies): A review of academic and

practitioner perspectives. International Journal of eBusiness and eGovernment Studies,

3(1), 1-16.

Reimsbach-Kounatze, C. (2009). Towards Green ICT Strategies.

Smith, C. (2009). Being a Part of Global Community (Learning Media Limited, Wellington).

Vigrass, J. (2015). Can Social Media Encourage Environmentally Responsible Behavior? Using

Facebook to Encourage Waste Reduction on Campus. Ph.D. thesis, University of

Michigan, 2015.

Zeitel-Bank, N., & Tat, U. (2014). Social Media and Its Effects on Individuals And Social Systems.

International conference 2014 in management knowledge and learning /Slovenia, 1,

1183-1190.

Appendixes

Appendix “A”: Pre-Study Questionnaire

General Information :

You are : ⃝ Male . ⃝ Female .

The Most Social Media Platform you use: ⃝ Twitter ⃝ Facebook ⃝ YouTube ⃝ LinkedIn ⃝ Instagram ⃝ Snapchat

1-the data centers produce ……. of the world’s CO2 emissions.

⃝ 0.1%

⃝ 0.3%

⃝ 0.5%

⃝ 1%

2-for 10 minutes video viewing on YouTube, …….. of CO2 is produces

⃝ 0.4 g

⃝ 0. 3 g

⃝ 1 g

⃝ 2 g

3-Among the followings, which operating system is the most green?

⃝ Windows Vista

⃝ Windows XP

⃝ Linux

⃝ Apple's OS X

4-Do you know how to change your printer settings to use less papers, if yes, then how?

⃝ Yes

⃝ No

How ?




77

5-which option is more environmental to deal with your old computer

⃝ Keep using the computer as long as possible, to avoid it from becoming e-waste.

⃝ Replacing with more modern computer

⃝ No difference, the most important is to use the power-save mood

⃝ None of the above

6-the Laptop uses ……….. as much energy as a desktop

⃝ 20%

⃝ 50%

⃝ 10%

⃝ 70%

7-Dose the “Screen Saver Mode” save energy, and why?

⃝ Yes

⃝ No

The Reason :

8-Intel’s Core 2 Duo desktop processor is ……….. more energy efficient than its single-core predecessor

⃝ 20%

⃝ 40%

⃝ 70%

9- Constantly shutting down and restarting your computer during the day would consume more energy than just leaving it running.

⃝ True

⃝ False

10-how much percent (%) is the CO2 emissions by ICT industry of the global average ?

It is ………. %

11-Do you know what Kyoto Protocol is ?

⃝ Yes

⃝ No

12-Do you know what is Cradle to Cradle® concept?

⃝ Yes

⃝ No

13- What does this logo mean when it is on a device ?

It means that ………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

14-do you know what is EPEAT ?




78

⃝ Yes

⃝ No

It is : …………………………………………………………………….

15-what does this logo refers to ?

It refers to ……………………………………………………………………………………………..

Appendix “B”: Post-Study Questionnaire

1-the data center with 1000 servers will use enough electricity in a single month to power

⃝ About 1500 home for a year




2-the average employee wastes about ………… worth of printer paper an ink each year through unnecessary printing.

⃝ 10$

⃝ 85$

⃝ 35&

⃝ 150$

3-if all commuters work from home one day a week ……………. Billion fewer gallons of oil would be used each year.

⃝ 4.3

⃝ 2.4

⃝ 10.7

⃝ 5.8

4-a computer with only screen saver uses more power than a computer uses only sleep mode

⃝ True

⃝ False

⃝ The same

⃝ No comparing

5-the data centers produce ……. of the world’s CO2 emissions.

⃝ 0.1%

⃝ 0.3%

⃝ 0.5%

⃝ 1%

6-how much percent (%) is the CO2 emissions by ICT industry of the global average ?

It is ………. %

7-to make one desktop computer, it takes over ………….. kilogram of water




79

…………….

8-less than 500,000 tons of electronic equipment becomes disposed each year

⃝ True

⃝ False

9- did you LIKE the page on Facebook named “Green ICT at Ishik University” ?

⃝ Yes

⃝ No

10- how many posts did you SHARE form the Facebook page “Green ICT at Ishik University”?

⃝ 0

⃝ 2

⃝ More than 4

11- do you prefer Social Media to be used in improving the Environmental Awareness

⃝ Yes

⃝ No

eurasian journal eajseof science & engineering issn 2414 ...€¦ · prof. dr. nabil a. fakhre,...

Documents