experimental studies of a thermoelectric generator for an ice

International Journal of Applied Engineering Research ISSN 0973-4562 Volume 11, Number 18 (2016) pp. 9797-9506

© Research India Publications. http://www.ripublication.com

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Experimental Studies of a Thermoelectric Generator for an ICE Exhaust

System

Nikolay Anatolyevich Khripach, Boris Arkadyevich Papkin and Viktor Sergeevich Korotkov

Moscow State University of Mechanical Engineering, Bolshaya Semenovskaya str. 38, Moscow 107023, Russia.

Dmitriy Vladimirovich Zaletov

Mobil GazService Ltd, 603000, Holodny side str. 10a, Nizhny Novgorod region, Nizhny Novgorod, Russia.

Abstract

In this paper we describe a method of research testing a

thermoelectric generator for an internal combustion engine

exhaust system, set of the test equipment used and the test

bench as a whole. We present an automatic control system

for the thermoelectric generator and the test bench. The

values that characterize the basic technical parameters of the

thermoelectric generator for different operation modes,

obtained during lab tests, were compared with the

corresponding results of computational studies. The

deviation of the simulation results from the laboratory tests

did not exceed 8%. It confirms that the desired properties,

state and operational characteristics of the thermoelectric

generator can be reproduced with sufficient accuracy.

Keywords: Heat exchanger, thermoelectric generator,

recuperation of heat energy, direct conversion of heat into

electricity

INTRODUCTION

The exhaust gas of modern internal combustion engines,

which carries up to 40% of the burned fuel energy away to

the atmosphere [1] is a potential source of improvement to

the engine efficiency. Recovering thermal energy of the

exhaust gas allows reducing consumption of fossil fuels and

negative impact on the environment. Among the methods of

direct utilization of the exhaust gas heat, such as

piezoelectric, thermionic, etc. the thermoelectric method [2]

based on the Seebeck effect stands apart due to the wide

range of its application temperatures and relatively high rate

of thermal energy recovery.

Thermoelectric materials possess a specific combination of

properties, enabling them both to convert thermal energy into

electricity and use the electricity for heating or cooling.

Currently, thermoelectric modules have many applications in

the automotive industry, in particular, they are used for local

cooling or heating [3]. At the same time thermoelectric

power generation is hardly used at all.

The main disadvantages of thermoelectric elements, which

makes their use rare, are high cost and low efficiency.

However, one should consider that thermoelectric materials

are being constantly developed further with the aim to

improve their quality factor. We should also note that

thermoelectric modules have good durability due to absence

of moving parts. It warrants a significant reduction of the

cost of generated electricity after an extended period of

operation [4].

Evaluation of efficiency of a thermoelectric generator as part

of an exhaust system requires laboratory tests. Comparison

of the test results for the basic characteristics of the

thermoelectric generator obtained in a variety of operation

modes with simulation results allows evaluating the

adequacy of our mathematical models and possibility to use

them while designing similar systems.

THERMOELECTRIC GENERATOR

In first approximation, a thermoelectric generator for exhaust

gas heat recovery inside an internal combustion engine

contains three main elements. Besides the actual

thermoelectric modules, which produce electricity while a

temperature difference exists between their hot and cold

junctions, a thermoelectric generator includes two heat

exchangers that maintain the temperature difference.

The first heat exchanger is used to take the heat from the

exhaust gas and supply it to the thermoelectric modules. It

keeps the hot junctions of the modules constantly hot. In

turn, the second heat exchanger is used to remove heat from

the thermoelectric modules and dissipate it through a stream

of coolant or oncoming air.

Currently the leading manufacturers of automotive vehicles

and components have patented different variants of

thermoelectric generator design, which differ by shape and

placement of the most important components. Examples

include designs of thermoelectric generators for exhaust

systems by General Motors [5], BMW [6], Hyundai [7-8]

and Toyota [9].

The thermoelectric generator described in this paper contains

the following major components: a square body with

connecting flanges, thermoelectric generator modules and a

liquid cooling system. A thermoelectric generator is designed

for an exhaust system and should be installed at its linear

part, which is long enough and located close to the internal

combustion engine, where the exhaust gas is still hot.

However, the operating temperature range of the

thermoelectric generator modules is relatively narrow and

they must not overheat. Therefore, the placement of the

thermoelectric generator in a vehicle may vary and should be

chosen individually in each case, taking into account the type

and power of the internal combustion engine.

In a simplified view the developed thermoelectric generator

(TEG) consists of a four-sided heat exchanger with



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thermoelectric energy converters located on its faces. The

other side of the thermoelectric elements has an attached

radiator cooled by the cooling fluid. The internal structure of

the heat exchanger is designed in a way that should provide

the optimum temperature distribution over the length of the

TEG.

The thermoelectric modules of the TEG are connected in a

series-parallel scheme: four parallel branches, each having

24 elements connected in series. This way of placement and

distribution of elements along the faces of the heat exchanger

allows maintaining uniformity of the induced electromotive

force and also providing the required voltage to the load.

The body of the thermoelectric generator performs various

functions: positioning and attachment of all other elements,

heating the thermoelectric generating modules by supplying

part of the exhaust gas heat to the modules and letting the

exhaust gas through from the internal combustion engine to

the exhaust system. The main and the most complicated part

of the thermoelectric generator body is its heat exchange

section. It is a flat heat exchange wall with one side fitted

with fins of different size, the geometric parameters of which

are optimized to intensify the heat transfer processes.

The coolers of the thermoelectric generator are designed to

remove excess heat from the cold side of the thermoelectric

modules and maintain the predetermined temperature. They

are arranged oppositely in pairs and fastened together with

pins. In order to make the positioning more precise, they are

additionally fixed to the body with screws.

Thermoelectric generator cooling system manifolds are used

to supply the coolant to the coolers, discharge it and ensure

its uniform distribution. Uniformity of coolant distribution

among the thermoelectric generator coolers is also necessary

to keep the temperature of the cold side of the thermoelectric

generator modules steady.

The thermoelectric generator considered in this paper is

shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1. Thermoelectric generator

NUMERICAL SIMULATION RESULTS

While determining the geometric parameters of the

thermoelectric generator elements we considered different

design options for the thermoelectric generator body and

coolers. Out of all considered options we selected the ones

that were optimal from the viewpoint of ensuring efficient

operation of the thermoelectric generator. In particular, out

of 48 body finning variants we chose one providing the

highest intensity of heat supply to the thermoelectric

modules with exhaust gas pressure drop that has no

significant effect on the operation of the internal combustion

engine [10], namely, with fin thickness of 4 mm and groove

width of 3 mm.

A similar work supported by GM [11] considered four layout

options for a thermoelectric generator, different from the

solution presented in this paper. Numerical simulation

studies have shown advantages of the thermoelectric

generator layout with mutually perpendicular flows of

exhaust gas and coolant. However, no lab tests of such

design were done.

Heat exchanger unit of the thermoelectric generator body.

As shown in the study by [12], if multiple thermoelectric

modules are arranged in a line along the flow of exhaust gas,

a substantial part of the elements has to operate in less than

optimal conditions due to nonlinear reduction of the gas

temperature. This leads, in general, towards reduction of the

average power output of the elements and, consequently,

reduces the efficiency of the thermoelectric generator as a

whole.

The following solutions were proposed to solve this problem

and improve the efficiency of the developed TEG:

- Equalization of temperature fields at the hot side of the

thermoelectric modules;

Equalization of temperatures along the exhaust gas flow is

achieved by linearly increasing the fin height from zero to

the maximum within a strictly defined length. In turn, a

similar distribution effect in the plane perpendicular to the

flow of exhaust gas is due to increasing the grooves between

fins from the center to the periphery.

- Equalization of the temperature gradient between the hot

and cold sides of the thermoelectric modules.

The flows of the exhaust gas in the thermoelectric generator

body and coolant in the coolers have different directions. The

exhaust gas is cooled as it passes through the TEG and the

coolant is heated. Thus, the temperature gradient between the

hot and cold junctions of some thermoelectric elements is

created by hot exhaust gas and heated coolant while the

gradient at other modules is created by cooled exhaust gas

and cold coolant, respectively.

Calculation of a thermoelectric generator with a modified

design of the fins showed significant equalization of

temperature fields, while maintaining the same efficiency

level of the TEG as a whole. The comparison of the

temperature distributions over the hot side surface of the

thermoelectric generator modules with the original and

modified TEG body finning is shown in Figure 2.



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Figure 2. Temperature distribution over the hot side of thermoelectric generator modules with original and modified TEG body

finning designs

Cooler for the thermoelectric generator modules.

The thermoelectric generator modules are cooled by four heat exchangers, made of aluminum alloy, containing circulating

coolant, which comes from the internal combustion engine's cooling system. The whole internal volume of the cooler is divided

by transverse baffle-walls. They significantly increase the total heat transfer because of longer coolant passage time. As shown

in [13], such walls maximize the heat transfer coefficient in comparison with other designs.

Efficient and intensive cooling of the thermoelectric modules is just as important as suppling heat from the exhaust gas and

strategies of increasing the power of thermoelectric power generator. According to manufacturers of thermoelectric elements,

theoretical and experimental research [14], efficient cooling can improve the performance of a thermoelectric generator in two

ways. If the temperature of the hot side stays constant, intensification of heat removal from the modules raises the temperature

difference between the hot and cold junctions, which increases the electric power output while maintaining efficiency of

conversion. If the heat flow stays constant, taking away more heat reduces the temperature of both cold and hot sides of the

thermoelectric modules. This increases the efficiency of conversion of thermal energy into electricity and improves the power

output while the temperature gradient remains practically unchanged.

Figure 3 shows the temperature distribution at the lower plane of the cooler, obtained during calculation of heat exchange with

the final version of the TEG body heat exchanger design in the maximum power mode.

Figure 3. The temperature at the bottom face of the coolant in the maximum power mode

The final results of computational studies of the

thermoelectric generator, as well as comparison of fin design

options are shown in Table 1.



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Table 1. Calculated values of the main thermoelectric

generator parameters with the original and modified versions

of the TEG body finning

Parameter name and

measurement unit

Variant a/b =

4/3

Modified

design

Heat flow through the

thermoelectric

generator modules [W]

19,422 19,064

Exhaust gas pressure

drop [Pa] 3,061 2,364

Maximum temperature

at the hot side of the

thermoelectric

generator modules [°C]

421 317

Maximum temperature

at the cold side of the

thermoelectric

generator modules [°C]

148 136

As can be seen from the calculation results above,

modifications of the thermoelectric generator body finning

allowed not only lowering the maximum temperature at the

hot side of the modules to acceptable values, but also

considerably reducing the exhaust gas pressure drop, while

keeping the heat flow through the modules and, therefore, the

generator's electric power output remained practically

unchanged. It is evident that reduction of the exhaust gas

pressure drop by more than 22% is due to the change of the

flow passage shape from a sharp bottleneck type to a smooth

tapering type.

We determined the effective power for the final version of

the thermoelectric generator design at different temperatures

and flow rates of the exhaust gas coolant. This allowed us to

estimate the potential improvement of fuel consumption,

associated with introduction of a thermoelectric generator

[15], in the light of actual road tests. The results showed a

2.77% - 3.25% less fuel consumption, which is significantly

different from results of similar studies that followed

conventional driving cycles [16].

Equipment

The test bench for testing the thermoelectric generator for an

internal combustion engine exhaust system used in this study

was designed and manufactured with consideration for the

expected characteristics of the test object. However, the test

bench design is generic and it can be used to prepare and

conduct research tests of exhaust gas heat recovering

thermoelectric generators of various designs and sizes. It is

possible due to broad measurement ranges of the test

instruments and capability to replace the mounting brackets,

which hold the test object.

The test bench has a frame design. It has measurement

instruments and a closed type liquid cooling system installed

on the frame. A pump and radiator equipped with a forced

cooling fan included into the cooling system enable to adjust

and maintain a set flow rate and coolant temperature. This

makes it possible not only to check the operation of a

thermoelectric generator at different temperature gradients,

but also achieves a high degree of repeatability. The scheme

of the test bench for the thermoelectric generator testing is

shown in Figure 4.

Figure 4. Scheme of the thermoelectric generator test bench



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The exhaust gas is fed to the TEG input and can follow two

paths: through the TEG body heat exchanger or bypassing it.

The flow is controlled by electrically actuated valves. Letting

the exhaust gas to bypass the thermoelectric generator

partially or completely is necessary in order to be able to

limit the temperature of the hot side of the thermoelectric

modules. Exceeding the critical values of the hot side

temperature can cause irreversible changes in the modules,

including complete loss of functionality. The time and

opening of the valves are controlled automatically according

to preset algorithms based on the data obtained from sensors

of the exhaust gas and thermoelectric modules temperature.

The pressure and temperature of the exhaust gas are

controlled both at the inlet and outlet of the TEG. Coolant is

supplied to the coolers by a coolant pump. The coolant

temperature is controlled at the inlet and outlet of the TEG,

too. Thermoelectric elements linked in series-parallel way

are connected to a controlled resistive load via the control

unit. Electrical currents and the total output voltage are

controlled in each of the four parallel branches of the

electrical part of the TEG.

In addition to the elements shown in Figure 4, the test

equipment included:

- an internal combustion engine as a source of exhaust gas;

- a braking device to set the desired engine speed;

- air flow and fuel consumption meters for the internal

combustion engine;

- a personal computer with software developed to conduct

the test.

Table 2 lists the parameters measured during the research

tests, as well as their ranges and measurement accuracy. The

measured values enable us not only to determine the

technical characteristics of the thermoelectric generator and

compare them with the simulation results, but also to assess

the overall efficiency of exhaust gas heat recovery. Later it

will allow predicting the potential reduction of fuel

consumption for a vehicle after adding of the thermoelectric

generator to the exhaust system structure.

Table 2. List of measured parameters

Designation of the measured parameter

and units

Measuring

range

Exhaust gas temperature [°C] 0-1,100

Air flow rate [kg/h] 0-1,200

Fuel consumption [kg/h] 0-120

Exhaust gas pressure [kPa] 0-400

Coolant temperature [°C] 0-110

Coolant flow rate [kg/h] 0-1,000

Crankshaft rotation speed [min-1] 0-6,000

Torque at the engine crankshaft [N*m] 0-400

Voltage [V] 0-200

Current [A] 0-50

The test bench with the thermoelectric generator installed is

shown in Figure 5.

Figure 5. TEG test bench

METHOD

Tests of thermoelectric modules, both individual and as parts

of an assembly of several modules, without reference to the

planned operating conditions are wide spread. Such tests are

carried out both by research institutions for the purpose of

determining the characteristics of modules made of advanced

high-performance materials [17] and manufacturers of

thermoelectric modules to confirm and correct the declared

specifications [18]. There are also some projects to optimize

approaches towards designing individual components of

thermoelectric generators, e.g. coolers [19].

Tests of thermoelectric generators for internal combustion

engines as a whole are less frequent. Such tests use either an

internal combustion engine with a braking device [20] or a

vehicle fitted with a thermoelectric generator in the exhaust

system [21].

The instrumentation and actuators, which are parts of the

thermoelectric generator test bench, enable us to control and,

more importantly, to adjust the parameters of the hot and

cold heat transfer media. This makes it possible to simulate

different operating modes of the test object in order to find

its technical characteristics and operation quirks.

The control system supports connection of sensors and

actuators to the microprocessor information processing

system. The microprocessor system used is a National

Instruments CompactRIO unit. It is a reconfigurable

embedded control, data acquisition and processing system.

Its stable and reliable hardware architecture includes I/O

modules, reconfigurable field-programmable gate array

(FPGA) and a built-in real-time (RT) controller. The

interaction scheme of individual software modules is shown

in Figure 6. The programming language for these data

systems is a graphic language Labview/G and the software

development environment is NILabview.



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Figure 6. The scheme of interaction between the software modules

The GUI of the developed software, shown in Figure 7, was used to visualize operating parameters of the system as a whole and

to record information about ongoing research.

Figure 7. Graphical user interface



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The screen is a functional diagram of the test bench with the

thermoelectric generator installed while the research is going

on. The sensor values displays are arranged in accordance

with the spatial arrangement of the sensors. The GUI screen

is divided into several parts. The left part contains elements

that control the whole system. The indicators in the middle

part of the window show the values supplied by the test

object system sensors. The bottom of the window is used to

display additional measured values, such as current, voltage

and electric power in the load, air and fuel consumption by

the internal combustion engine and aerodynamic resistance

of the TEG.

Our software fully implements the TEG test bench control

algorithm and provides the means for comfortable

conducting of research of the thermoelectric generator,

involving simulation of various modes of operation.

The operating modes of the thermoelectric generator are

mainly defined by the temperatures and mass flow rates of

the hot and cold heat transfer media. The temperature and

flow rate of the cooling medium inside a closed loop cooling

system is regulated by the pump and cooling fan. In turn, the

temperature and flow rate of the exhaust gas, i.e. the heating

medium, can only be controlled via the measuring

equipment, which is part of the test bench. Indirect

adjustment of these parameters is possible by changing the

operating mode of the internal combustion engine. However,

lack of linear dependencies of the temperature and exhaust

gas flow rate on the engine speed and torque can hamper

processing of results and their comparison with the results of

mathematical modeling.

In order to process the results of experimental studies of the

thermoelectric generator one needs to discover dependencies

of the main technical characteristics of the TEG, such as its

electric power output and exhaust gas pressure drop, from

the temperature and flow rate of the exhaust gas. Such

dependencies can be obtained at different values of

temperature and coolant flow rate, which might introduce

additional error. An adequate analysis of the test results

requires fixing the coolant temperature and flow rate of the

coolant at certain values throughout the testing process.

Stability of the values must be maintained by regulating the

coolant pump and cooling fan operation in accordance with

custom software algorithms.

The efficiency of a thermoelectric generator can be evaluated

not only by its current electric power output, but also by the

ratio of the heat used to generate electricity to the total

amount of heat dissipated by the internal combustion engine.

Basing on the list of measurable parameters, that characterize

operation modes of the internal combustion engine and

thermoelectric generator, the desired ratio can be determined

by the formula:

∆𝑄% =(�́�𝑎𝑖𝑟 + �́�𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙) × (𝑐𝑒𝑥1 − 𝑐𝑒𝑥2) × (Т𝑒𝑥1 − Т𝑒𝑥2)

𝐿𝐻𝑉 × �́�т −𝜏 × 𝑛9.55

× 100 ,

Where Т𝑒𝑥1- temperature of the exhaust gas entering the

TEG model, °C;

Т𝑒𝑥2- exhaust gas temperature at the TEG model outlet, °C;

𝑐𝑒𝑥1- specific heat of the exhaust gas temperature Т𝑒𝑥1,

J/kg*K;

𝑐𝑒𝑥2- specific heat of the exhaust gas temperature Т𝑒𝑥2,

J/kg*K;

�́�𝑎𝑖𝑟- engine's air flow rate, kg/h;

�́�𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙- engine's fuel consumption, kg/h;

𝜏- torque at the crankshaft of the internal combustion engine,

N*m;

𝑛- rotation speed of the crankshaft, min-1;

𝐿𝐻𝑉- lower heating value of fuel, MJ/kg.

RESULTS

The research tests of the thermoelectric generator for an

automotive internal combustion engine were done at the

University of mechanical engineering in accordance with the

requirements of the test plan and methods. The

thermodynamic parameters of the cold medium remained

constant and controlled by our software throughout the tests.

The tests were conducted in different operation modes of the

internal combustion engine, which was used as a source of

the hot heat transfer medium. The test bench with installed

thermoelectric generator during the test procedure is shown

in Figure 8.

Figure 8. Test bench with installed thermoelectric generator

during the research testing

The values of parameters obtained during the research test,

which describe the main technical characteristics of the

thermoelectric generator, are presented in Table 3.

Table 3. Test Results

Parameter name and

measurement unit

Measurement

units

Measured

value

Maximum electric power

output

W 1,079.8

Maximum exhaust gas

pressure drop

Pa 3,200

Proportion of thermal energy

converted into electricity by

the TEG to the total amount

of heat dissipated by the

internal combustion engine.

% up to 21.5



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During the tests we monitored the thermal state of the

thermoelectric generator and its components with a thermal

imager. The images we obtained are shown in Figure 9.

a) ICE exhaust manifold; b) TEG inlet; c) middle part of the TEG; d) TEG outlet.

Figure 9. Infrared thermal images of the testing process

The most informative and useful way of presenting data for

analysis of a thermoelectric generator operation is displaying

the test results as graphs that depict changes of the TEG's

electric power output and exhaust pressure drop dependence

on the

temperature and the exhaust gas flow. In particular, Figure

10 shows the dependency of the thermoelectric generator's

electric power output on the exhaust gas temperature.

Figure 10. The dependence of the TEG's electric power output on exhaust temperature



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Graph of the dependency between changes of the exhaust gas pressure drop in the thermoelectric generator and the gas flow rate

is shown in Figure 11.

Figure 11. Dependence of the exhaust gas pressure drop in a thermoelectric generator on the exhaust gas flow rate

Figures 10 and 11 present not only the values obtained

during the tests, but also the values calculated using the

mathematical TEG model. Registered values of temperature,

pressure and mass flow rate of the hot and cold heat transfer

media were used as initial conditions in the mathematical

model of the thermoelectric generator for calculating

theoretical values of power and aerodynamic drag.

The deviation of the simulation results from the laboratory

tests did not exceed 8%. It confirms that the desired

properties, state and operational characteristics of the

thermoelectric generator can be reproduced with sufficient

accuracy.

The best described examples of prototype thermoelectric

generators for exhaust systems of internal combustion

engines, from the point of view of the actual test parameters

are prototypes by GM [22], BMW (in cooperation with

BSST) and Volkswagen [23]. Table 4 gives a visual

comparison of the developed thermoelectric generators with

modern scientific and technical level.

Table 4. Comparison of thermoelectric generators

TEG designation Maximum

electric power

[W]

Reduction of fuel

consumption by

internal

combustion

engine [%]

Our TEG 1,079.8 3.25 (road test

results)

7% (NEDC)

General Motors

prototype

600 5

BMW prototype 608 5

Volkswagen

prototype

600 ND

CONCLUSION

The thermoelectric generator developed by us was tested in

different operation modes of the internal combustion engine,

which was used as a source for the hot heat transfer medium

for the TEG. We were able to achieve the maximum electric

power output of more than 1kW at maximum exhaust gas

pressure drop of 3200kPa during experimental research of

peculiar features of the TEG operation. The proportion of the

heat energy converted to electricity by the TEG to the total

amount of heat dissipated by the internal combustion engine

reached about 20% for certain operation modes.

Comparison of the measured characteristics with the

simulation results showed that the developed mathematical

model ensures adequate simulation, which allows

reproducing the desired properties, state and operational

characteristics of the thermoelectric generator model with

sufficient precision and in a sufficiently wide range of input

parameters.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This paper was prepared within the Agreement No.

14.577.21.0078 dated June 5, 2014 for a subvention funded

by the Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian

Federation. Unique identifier for Applied Scientific Research

RFMEFI57714X0078.

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