Extension demonstration farmsas a teaching method in the Sudan

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Authors Maatoug, Mirghani Abd Alla

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EXTENSION DEMONSTRATION FARMS AS

A TEACHING METHOD IN THE SUDAN

byMirghani Abd Alla Maatoug

A Thesis Submitted to the Faculty of the

DEPARTMENT OF- AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION

In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements ;For the Degree of

MASTER OF SCIENCE

In the Graduate College

THE UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA

1 9 8 1

STATEMENT BY AUTHOR

This thesis has been submitted in partial fulfillment of re­quirements for an advanced degree at The University of Arizona and is deposited in the University Library to be made available to borrowers under rules of the Library.

Brief quotations from this thesis are allowable without special permission, provided that accurate acknowledgment of source is made. Requests for permission for extended quotation from or reproduction of this manuscript in whole or in part may be granted by the head of the major department or the Dean of the Graduate College when in his judg­ment the proposed use of the material is in the interests of scholar­ship. In all other instances, however, permission must be obtained from the author.

APPROVAL BY THESIS DIRECTOR

This thesis has been approved on the date shown below:

✓FLOYD G. MCCORMICK DateProfessor of Agricultural Education

DEDICATION

To My Father Abdalla M. Maatoug

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The author owes an. immeasurable debt of gratitude to Dr<> Floyd

Go McCormick whose knowledge., advice9. and guidance were a treasure*

The author is very grateful to his tact for he always managed to make

him feel welcomed* An immense debt goes to Dr* Phillip P* Zurbrick

and all the Agricultural Education Department staff for their assis­

tance and encouragement So Dr* P. E* Briggs of the Plant Sciences

Department and Mr* James Williams of the Extension Department deserve

a special thank you for their time and assistance*

An especial debt of gratitude is owed to.the AID Program of

the USDA,s the International Institute of Education and the University

of Arizona who financially supported the authorv s B.Sc* studies which

qualified him to an advanced degree*

As for the Extension Directorate (Sudan) which nominated the

author for an advanced degree and the Sudan Government which supported

the program financially,the author hopes to be able to translate his

deep gratitude into dedicated and useful services to the Sudan, to its

people, and to Extension0

Mr* El Mahi Tawfig El Mahi. of the Extension Directorate (Sudan)

deserves a special gratitude for his assistance*

Finally the Sudanese Extension Agents who responded to the

questionnaire of this study, deserve a special thank you for their

response and for their personal letters they attached to it to encour­

age the author and wish him success0

iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

LIST OF TABLES - o .......... . . . . . . . vii

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS , . . . . . . .x

ABSTRACT .......... . ............. .. . . . . . . xi

lo INTRODUCTION . ................. 1 .

Statement of the Problem . „ . .......... . » e o , o « 3Specific Objectives „ . . „ ...................... „ . 4Assumptions o’. • 4Delimitations o. . * * . . * . . ........... 5Limitations .......... . . » o 5Need for the Study .......... « o 6Definition of Terms » « « » ...................... • » 10

II. REVIEW OF LITERATURE . . . . . . . . . . 12

Communication Process . . . . • « • 12The Communicator ( S e n d e r ) ............... . « . . 0 . 17The Message . . . . 17Methods (Channels) 17Receiver « 0 . « . » « « « « » « , . . '.......... . 21

The Diffusion and the Adoption Processes 21Rate of Adoption . . . .-. o ... .. o. . . . . . . . . 25Sources of Information . . . ' . . . ........... .. . 27Adoption . Categories. . . . . . . . . . . 29Characteristics of Adoption Categories . » « • » . » 32

Extension Contacts . . , . . , . ................. .. • 36The Role of Result Demonstrations in the Diffusion and

the Adoption Processes » « . . . ............... .. , 37Summary . . . . . . . . . . . ........ .. • . . « « . • 38

III. PROCEDURE . . o o o . o o o o o o o o o o 39

Study Population . . .• .. . • . . " . ■ 3 9Collection of:Data and Instrumentation 6 • » . * • * . 39Analysis of Data v .................. .. • 0 . 42

IVo PRESENTATION AND INTERPRETATION OF D A T A .................... 43

v

viTABLE OF CONTENTS— Continued

Page

Perception, of Sudanese Extension Agents Concerning the Purposes Presently Served by the Extension Demonstration Farms • - • • • • • • • • • • • • • • ’•• 43

The Adoption Categories to be Reached Through the Useof the Extension Demonstration Farms e... • 44

The Effectiveness of the Extension Demonstration Farms in Achieving the Different Stages of the AdoptionProcess ............ . . . „ . 61

. Extension Teaching Methods that Can be Used as Follow-.Up to Increase Effectiveness of Demonstration Farmsto Achieve the Various Stages of the AdoptionProcess » 6 • » « « « » o .. . « , » e „ « « • . 73

V« SUMMARY s CONCLUSIONS. AND RECOMMENDATIONS . . . ........ 75

Purpose and Objectives « » ........... 75Summary of Findings . • • • . • • • • • • • • • • • • • 76

The Purposes Presently Served by the ExtensionDemonstration Farms « « ............ 76

The.Adoption Categories to be Reached Through theUse of the Extension Demonstration Farms . • » e • 76

The Effectiveness of the Extension Demonstration Farms in Achieving the Different Stages of theAdoption Process . „ . ............ 77

Extension Teaching Methods that Can be Used as Follow-up to Increase Effectiveness of the Ex­tension Demonstration Farms to Achieve the Various Stages of the Adoption Process «. , . • ». 78

Conclusions » 0 • : • • • • • • • / • • • «o • 78Recommendations • 0 . • ' • ............... 79

APPENDIX A:. ASSESSMENT OF THE EXTENSION DEMONSTRATIONFARMS. AS AN EXTENSION TEACHING M E T H O D ........ 82

LIST OF TABLES

Table Page

lo Rank order: of information sources- by • stage in the adoptionprocess . «, , 28

2 e Summary of characteristics and communication behavior ofadopter c a t e g o r i e s ..........................................1 33

3o Frequency and percentage response of Sudanese extension agents? perception of the main purposes of demonstration farms « .. . . . . . . . . . . 43

4 0 Frequency and percentage of responses of Sudanese exten­sion agents’ perception of the adoption categories which can be reached easily by using the demonstration farms . . 44

5e Frequency and percentage of response for the adoptioncategories taken by the extension agents in the Sudan to visit the demonstration farms .. o. . . . . . . . . . . . 45

6 o Frequency and percentage of responses of Sudanese exten­sion agents’ perception of.teaching methods considered to be most effective to use with or within the demonstration farms .................................. 47

7. Frequency and percentage of response of extension agents’ perception of the most effective methods for use with the innovators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

8. Frequency and percentage of responses of extension agents’ perception of > the most effective methods for use with the community adoption leaders . . . ........... . . . . . * . 48

9. Frequency and percentage of responses of extension agents’perception of the most effective methods for use with thelocal adoption leaders . . . . . . . ............... 49

10. Frequency and percentage of responses of extension agents’perception of the most effective methods for use with themajority . . . . . . . . . . . . ....................... . 49

11. Frequency.and percentage of responses of extension agents’perception of the most effective methods for use with thelaggards ............ . 50

vii

viii

LIST OF TABLES.— Continued i

Table Page

12• Frequency and percentage of responses for the two mosteffective methods as perceived by the extension agents for use with innovators o . . , . * . * ................. 54

13. The frequency and percentage of responses for the two most effective methods as perceived by the extensionagents for use with community adoption leaders . . . .' • 55

14. The frequency and percentage of responses for the two most effective methods perceived by the extension agentsfor use with local adoption leaders . . . . . . . . . . . 56

15. The frequency and percentage of the responses for the two most effective methods perceived by the extension agentsfor use with the majority .......... 57

16. Frequency and percentage of responses: for the two most effective methods perceived by the extension agents foruse with the laggards ............ 58

17 b The frequency and the percentages of responses of theextension agents' perception of the demonstration farmsas an effective teaching method . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

18 o Frequency and percentage of responses of the extensionagents' perception for the stages at which the demon-

, stration farms -were most effective . . . . . . . . . . . 62

19. Frequency and percentage of responses of the extension. agents' perception of the two most effective methods for the awareness stage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64

20. Frequency and percentage of responses of the extension agents' perception of the two most effective methodsfor the interest stage . . . . . . . . a . . . . . . . . 65

21. Frequency and percentage of responses of the extension agents' perception for the two most effective methodsfor the evaluation stage ................. 66

22» Frequency and percentage of responses of the extensionagents' perception of the two most effective methods for the trial stage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............. 67

• ix

LIST OF TABLES— Continued

Table „ Page

23o Frequency and percentage of responses of the extensionagents’ perception of the two most effective methods for the adoption s t a g e .............. ............. .. 68

24, Frequency and percentage of responses, of the extensionagents’ perception of their effective utilization of the demonstration farms , , , , , , . , , . , , , , , , « , , 72

25, Frequency and percentage of responses of extensionagents’ perception of. the two most effective methods tobe used as a follow-up , 73

X

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

Figure Page

lo The learning-teaching process . ............... „ . . . 15

2» Coiranunications process • o-.-. o.* ■ 16

3 o Methods classified according to use . . * „ . . „ . . . . 20

4» Methods classified according to form . . . . . . . . . . 20

5 o How fourteen Midwest farmers obtained information on a newfarm practice . . * ............... . * . . . „ . . . . . 30

x

ABSTRACT

The purpose of this study was to determine how Extension

Agents> in the Sudan9 utilized extension demonstration farms as an

extension teaching method designed to encourage farmers to adopt new

ideas and practices.

Data collected and analysed were obtained by use of mailed

questionnaire sent to all 135 Extension Agents who have education level

above Senior High. School and who work in the Northern part of the Sudan

Ninety returned questionnaires, representing 66.7 percent of the ex­

pected number. -

Major, findings include: (1) The farms are used as model farms

and not as demonstration farms, (2). The Extension Agents use these

farms to reach the community and the local adoption leaders, (3) Method

demonstrations, result demonstrations, and tours are teaching methods

used within the farms, (4) The demonstration farms were viewed by the

Extension Agents in Sudan as most effective in the evaluation stage,

(5) Method and result demonstrations were viewed by Sudanese Extension

Agents as the two most effective methods to use as follow-up methods,

and, (6) The demonstration farms are viewed by the Sudanese Extension

Agents as a very effective teaching method.

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

Sudan is a developing country and as is the case for most de­

veloping countries depends on agriculture for its development. Educ­

ation, research and extension in agriculture are expected to gear and

accelerate efficiency in agricultural production for the well-being

of the population* Agriculture is expected to provide subsistence for

the population plus a surplus for export.to draw revenue needed for

further development.

The demand for agricultural products to feed an increasingly

growing world population is great. Poleman (1975, p. 510) mentioned

that:

Mai thus,. in the first of six editions of his essay on the prin­ciple of population, published in 1798, wrote, "I think I may fairly make two postulate: First, that food is necessary forthe existence of man* Second, that the passion between the sexes is necessary, and will remain.nearly in its present state . * . Assuming then my postulate as granted, I say, that the power of population is indefinitely greater than the powerin the earth to produce subsistence for man.

"Population, when unchecked increases in a geometrical ratio. Subsistence increases only in an arithmetical ratio. A slight acquaintance with numbers will show the immensity of the first power as compared with the second0 n

Since the time Malthus wrote his ideas about food and popula­

tion, the world has been haunted with the expected shortage in food

supply for an increasing population. Although the 19th century

1

2

witnessed great agricultural changes; vast new acreages were brought

under the plow all over the worldo Immediately after this period of

expansion, in the geographical sense, came a series of technological

- breakthroughs, the precursors of today? s green revolution.

Brown (1975.9 p 0 1053) said:

As recently as early 1972, it seemed likely that surplus stocks and cropland idled under farm programs would be part of the landscape for the foreseeable future. Then, suddenly, the global demand for food, fueled by the relentless growth of population and by rising affluence, began to outstrip the productive capacity of the world’s farmers and.fishermen.

The Sudan Is one of the very few countries which is expected

to help in the world’s food shortage* At the sixth special session

of the United Nations General Assembly held in April, 1974, specific­

ally to discuss raw materials in the world. Dro Mansur Khalid, Min­

ister of Foreign Affairs of the Sudan, said, "Last September, I said

here that the food problem was an artificial one, and suggested what

my country can modestly contribute towards combating this menace, , ,”

In the United Nations World Food Conference on "The World

Food Problem", held, in Rome from the 5th to the 16th November 1974, the

Sudan delegation to that conference (1974, p » 9) stated:

The world’s population is increasing, and this growing popula­tion must be fed. The Sudan like all other developing countries, . has a high rate of population growth. Unlike most of them, however, over-population is not a problem. The Sudan has what many countries don’t have, LAND* Two-thirds of the land of the Sudan is desert, semi-desert, or swamps. Nevertheless, there are vast areas not yet intensively utilized which are capable of considerable future development* Of the approximately. 200 million acres of arable land, only some 17 millions are at present under cultivation* Of these, some 13 millions are. supporting rain-fed agriculture and only 4 millions are irrigated from the immense potentials of the waters of The Nile and its tributaries.

3

On this land the largest in Africa 9 . there lives an estimated population of.a mere 17 million people* Of this small popula­tion; some 80% are dependent on agriculture either farming or animal husbandry<> It is not surprising that agriculture accounts for 98% of the SudanY s hard currency earnings and provides the raw materials for 90% of the local industry.

Such is the situation of the Sudan* Extension is one of the

agencies called upon by both the government and the people to promote

production of food, cash crops and to help in improving the standard

of living of the rural people. This is exemplified by a statement

made by the Director of the Ministry of Agriculture, Sudan (1964, p,

13), when a national extension seminar was held in 1964:

In all the regions of the country, problems of. lack of know­how, of pests and diseases, of poor seed, of non-use of fertilizers, exhaustion of soil fertility and of poor qual­ity of livestock are commono Limited as the findings of our research stations are, sufficient knowledge in all the fields of crop and livestock production is available however at hand, and much of it, properly applied, will go a long way to bridge the gap between improved techniques and what is being followed in the way of primitive and wrong practices* The need for Extension, therefore, is pressing.

Extension then is needed to bridge the gap between, the trad­

itional and.primitive methods of the farmer and those improved tech­

niques developed by the research people* In other words, Extension is

expected to develop ways and techniques to convince the farmer to give

up his traditional methods and adopt new practices and ideas.

Statement of the Problem

The purpose of this study was to determine how extension agents,

in the Sudan, perceive and utilize the extension demonstration farm as

an extension teaching method designed to encourage farmers to adopt new

ideas and practices0

Specific Obj ectives

In order to achieve the foregoing problems the following ques­

tions were identified to provide direction®

v l o What purposes are served presently by the extension demonstration

farms?

2. What categories of adoption are the extension demonstration farms

attempting to reach?

3o How effective are the extension demonstration farms in achieving

the various stages in the adoption process as perceived by the

extension agents?

4 * What extension teaching methods that can be used as follow-up to

increase effectiveness of demonstration farms to achieve the various

stages of the adoption process?

Assumptions

The following assumptions are made in reference to this study:

lo The extension, agents9 in Sudan9. who participated in this study had

at least received an education above the senior high school level

in which extension training was part of the syllabus»

2 e The participants know the communication process9 the adoption proc­

ess and the adoption categorieso

3<> The participants answered the questionnaire in reference to the ex-

tension methods used under the existing situation of the Sudan,

4* The participants reacted to the questions honestly, thereby afford­

ing an unbiased reflection of their attitudes and knowledge,

Delimitations

This study makes no attempt to be inclusive. The results ob­

tained are therefore delimited to the following:

l.o. Extension agents participating in this study were limited to those

extension workers working or who had worked with the rural people in

the Sudan in 1981,

2o The extension agents working in the Southern Region of the Sudan

were not included in this study, because they are not using demon­

stration farms,

3, Due to the time limitation, this study does not measure the farmersf

reaction to the effectiveness of the demonstration farms as a

teaching method,

4, The participants may be. pleased by having been selected to partici­

pate in the study, may react more to their pleasure , , , thus

creating a Hawthorne effect0

Limitat ions

While this study is essentially a descriptive survey study, the

following threats to the internal validity of the study are listed:

1, A questionnaire was used to collect data for the study and as such

is subject to weaknesses inherent in this method of data collec­

tion 0

20 The number of years the demonstration farm has been, in operation

may influence the response of the participants in the area0

3o Type of extension training received by the participants may have

an influence on the way they react to the questionnaire.

Need for the Study

The achievements of The Cooperative Extension Service in the

United States encouraged people from developing or even developed

countries, to establish Extension Services or Agricultural Advisory

Services to achieve similar success. The United States through the

AID programs had initiated Agricultural Extension Services in many de­

veloping countries* The Sudan is one of those countries in which the

AID programs helped to initiate an Extension Service. Many of the

present extension workers in the countries which received the American

AID had the chance through programs to come to the United. States for

training in extension. The author is one of a very few who came from

the Sudan for training on Extension work.

Vine and Anderson (1976, p. 1) said that:

Each year, representatives from many countries visited the United States to study the Cooperative Extension Service and its relationship to the Land-grant system and the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA). The system, in­cluding teaching, research and extension education, has made a major contribution to the well-being of the people of the United States.

The people who have come and will be coming in the future are

mostly from developing countries. When they come, they observe a

highly developed system of agricultural extension and an educated and

advanced farmero The extension system is using advanced techniques to

diffuse information9. e<,go 9 movies9. telephones, news articles, televi­

sion, answering sets, etc* The farmer is using the latest equipment,

procedures and techniques; e^go, hybrid seeds, fertilizers, herbi­

cides, tractors, harvesters§ etc*

The Extension Services in the developing countries are rela­

tively new and staffed with untrained or inexperienced personnel»

The farmers are illiterate and are using traditional tools, methods

and materials» The Extension Services in developing countries suffer

organizational problemso

Thus the problem for extension workers studying in the United

States is one of attempting to determine those techniques and proce­

dures that can be applied in their countries» This is a fundamental

problem and a crucial issue facing extension workers in developing

countriese . This issue was raised as a question by the Director of the

Ministry of Agriculture of the Sudan, in the National Extension Seminar

held in the Sudan between April 25th and May 1st, 1964 (1964, p, 13),

when he asked: » , but what extension techniques should we adopt?

By the very nature of our problems and circumstances we have to ask

whether extension techniques as applied to the most developed parts of

the world will automatically apply under our conditions*"

In developing, countries, extension workers have to be content

with the selection of a few teaching methods which are suitable and

adaptable to their local situationse For example, in the Sudan 98% of

the farmers do not have telephones and until recently television was a

city media* A high rate of illiteracy limits the use of newspapers.

pamphlets9 circular letters9. etc* Even result demonstrations^ a tech­

nique highly advocated for use in developing countries9 have to be

adapted to fit the local conditions in the Sudan,

Sanders (1966s p ti 19)9 while discussing farm demonstration

work history, mentioned that, at Terrell, Texas, Knapp proposed that a

farmer conduct a demonstration on his own farm at his own expense for

his and his neighbors* information* But he suggested that the business

and professional people of Terrell raise an indemnity fund of $1,000

to protect the farmer should the demonstration fail.

It is recognized that the Terrell demonstration was an effec­

tive method to influence farmers to adopt new practices and ideas.

But, in countries like the Sudan, the problem is identifying farmers

who will try a new practice without a guarantee against failure. If

guarantees are needed,, the problem is determining who will provide

such guarantees.

The author was the first to suggest the use of what is now

known in the Sudan as extension demonstration farms, which is an adap­

tation of the well-known result demonstration initiated by Seaman Knapp,

The main difference between the two is that, in Knappvs method, the

farmer himself tries the new practice on his farm for his and his neigh­

bors' information. Practices to be followed by the demonstrator will be

given and supervised by the extension agents« In the adapted method

in Sudan, the Extension Office has its own farm, which consists of about

10 acres of government land, on which result demonstrations are con­

ducted by the extension staff * s labor*. ...Money. and supervision are

provided by the extension service so as to provide information to the

farmers in the community» Through this method it is hoped that the

innovators and the adoption leaders in the community could be convinced

to try the new ideas after they are proven to be successful. If the

leaders are convinced to try thems this will encourage other people in

the community to adopt similar practices.

Extension workers in the Sudan, however, are not utilizing

these extension demonstration farms effectively. This might be due to

lack of knowledge or understanding of the adoption process or a lack

of understanding of the reasons behind using such methods. Currently,

these farms are used as model farms, pilot farms or trial plots but

not as demonstration farms; yet they still keep the name.

Although, it is known that it took the farmers in Iowa about

seven years to. adopt the new hybrid corn seed, it took them far less

than that to adopt new practices after their first successful experi­

ence with hybrid corn* Extension workers in the Sudan are frustrated

by the slow or lack of reaction of farmers toward adopting new ideas

and practices used in the extension demonstration farms. Good percep­

tion. of the communications process and its interrelationship with the

adoption process, will, help in choosing.and developing effective teach­

ing techniques which; should quicken the process of adoption.

For all these reasons this study was an endeavor to determine

how extension workers in the Sudan perceive the extension demonstra­

tion farms as a teaching technique, and to recommend methods for

utilizing them more effectively in the struggle to convince farmers to

adopt new practices and ideas0

10

Definition of Terms

In order to provide greater clarity for the reading of this

study, the following.terms were defined %

- 1 Adoption categories: A classification scheme for describ­

ing people* s behavior or propensity for adopting new ideas and prac­

tices o

2-0 Adoption process:. The mental process through which an

individual passes from first hearing about an innovation, idea or

practice to final adopt ion <,

3 o Communication process: Reduced to its simplest form, com­

munication is a three step process for the dynamic transfer of infor­

mation from one person to another,

4. Diffusion process: The spreading of a new idea from its

source of invention or creation to its ultimate users or adopters.

5 o Extension demonstration farm: Usually less than a 10

acre farm of government land, established, financed, operated and

supervised by extension personnel. Designed especially to demonstrate

to farmers the value and the benefits of a new idea or practice

compared with an old traditional one.

6 Extension teaching methods: Ways, techniques or channels

used by extension agents to disseminate information or messages to

the farmers.

7o Farm visits: Refers to a visit made by an extension

worker to a farmer on his farm where informal face-to-face conversa­

tion is involved and where information exchanged and discussed..

118* Group teaching methodsg Methods designed to teach several

or many people*

9* Individual teaching methods: Teaching methods designed to

teach one persono

10* Mass media: Teaching methods designed to teach an infin­

ite number of people*

11* Method demonstration: A teaching method which involves

showing and telling simultaneously— verbal and visual explanation of a

process, fact or idea * The demonstration shows how things are done*

12* Model farm: A farm in which only ideal recommended prac­

tices are followed without any comparison with traditional ones*

13* New ideas and practices: Ideas and practices approved

and recommended by a recognized research an/or authorities in the

field*

14. Pilot farm: The first farm to be in an area or region for

trying new ideas or practices under the local conditions *

15* Result demonstration: A demonstration designed to prove

the advantages of a recommended practice or a combination or practices*

It involves careful planning, a substantial period of time, adequate

records and comparison of. results*

16* Tour: A teaching method by which a group of people move

to another area for the purpose of observing an improved practice or

results of improved practices in an actual situation*

CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

To determine the role of demonstration farms as a teaching

method* it is deemed necessary to review the related literature In the

frame-work of the communication process which includes teaching meth­

ods* Full understanding of the adoption process is a prerequisite for

accurate selection of teaching methods«

The above understanding necessitates reviewing the literature

under the following topics: (1) the communication process, which in­

cludes; (a) sender* (b) message* (c) channels* i»e* * methods* and

(d) receiver; (2) the diffusion and the adoption processes which in­

clude; (a) rate of adoption* (b). sources of information to farmers *

(c) adoption categories *.and (d) characteristics of the adoption cate­

gories; (3) extension contacts; and (4) the role of result demonstra­

tions in the diffusion and the adoption process«

Communication Process

Every Extension Agent should be able to communicate efficiently

and effectively to enable his audience to react and act in the desired

direction*

Singh and Sahay (1972* p* 40) in describing communication be­

havior stress that: - '

12

Communication is a process by which messages are transferred from a source to one or more receivers (Rogers with Svenning, 1969)o Simon (1957) pointed out that action of an individual was a function of his exposure to the sources of information*He further defined exposure as the willingness of a farmer to react with a particular information media* Thus communication sources are important stimuli to the individuals in the adop­tion processb It provides a link between the diffusion of an innovation and its final adoption* This is supported by a .number of research studies (Beal9 1958; Copp, 1958; Lionberger9 1956; Rao and Moulik, 1966;. Singh and Jha, 1964; and Sinha and Parasad* 1966)* Singh (1970) in his paper on "Studies in Agricultural Communication in India” has also mentioned that greater the number of information sought9 the greater the ad­option; and higher the contact of a farmer with communication sources greater is his adoption* Reddy (1962) reported that adoption of agricultural improved practices is the function of sources of information and socio-economic condition of the receiver*

In a study on the "Influence of Source Credibility of Com­

munication Effectiveness"9 Hoviand and Weis, (1967) found the effec­

tiveness of communication as a function of attitude of the audience

toward the communicator0

Christopherson (1962, p* 276) provided four questions which

suggest that the problem of communication is the crux of the matter

in the transfer of technology:

(1) How does one ensure that results of research, the general

advance of science, is in fact fully exploited?

(2) Whose responsibility is it to consider what practical ap­

plication a particular addition to knowledge may possibly

have?■/

(3) What sort of network of communication can ensure that the

new information does, in fact, reach the people who will

14

make the most use of it, without at the same time over­

whelming them with a host of irrelevances?.

(4) How much of our.total scientific and technological re­

sources ought to be devoted to the task, not of advan­

cing science, but of disseminating it, of. spreading

knowledge and understanding of significant research in

the quarters, where they are most needed?

In Maunder*s Agricultural Extension (1972, p. 105) Neordhoff

discussed effective communication in extension and said that:

Extension education is essentially a process of communication- communication of ideas and skills between and among the people. It includes the transfer of technical information from its source to the farmer or villager, but; it is more than that. Technical knowledge is of no use unless it is accepted as authentic, is adapted to the needs of the villager and is put into use. „ „. * . oThe ability to.communicate determines to a very large degree the success or failure of an extension worker. He has information from research and other sources. It is his respon­sibility to establish effective communication with the people he serves so they use this information to continually improve their agriculture and rural life.

Based upon these studies and some others, it can be deduced

that the degree of effectiveness of communication will affect the

degree of adoption of innovations and modern technologies.

Sanders (1966, p.» 53) presented an expressive chart for the

process of communication-.(Figure 1).

CHART 1

THE LEARNING-TEACHING PROCESS

Reception Sensations 5 Senses

Decision

MESSAGE Greaterunder­standing

PurposeContentTreatment

CHANNELS PERCEPTION ACTIONCOMMUNICATOR Methods

Awareness TrialInterest AdoptionEvaluation

The Communication Process

16

Noordhoff* in Maunder1s Agricultural Extension (1972, p e 106)

presented a more or less similar chart ..(Figure 2).

Sender <

PurposeContent

Treatment

Channels

- Methods- Visual- Spoken "Noise"- Written- Combination

(Also 5 senses: sight, sound, smell, touch, taste)

— ^Receiver

(AwarePerception

(interested.GreaterUnder stand ing (Eval­uated)

Decision(Tries out

Action (Adopts

When Receiver Responds to Message.

"Noise" This is Feedback

Receiver(formersender)

Channels Message Sender(formerreceiver)

Figure. 2.0 Communications process»

17

There are four main ingredients for the communication recipe >

which are: sender, message, channel, and receiver« Often abbreviated

as 5 S—M—C—Re

The Communicator (Sender)

The communicator may be a teacher, author, speaker, or demon­

strator o The extension people must take the initiative to establish

communication with rural people and keep it functioningo- Noordhoff

said that the communicator requires credibility» He needs to be be­

lieved and have the confidence of his audience* An extension worker

can improve his credibility by learning to communicate effectively*

The Message

The message is divided into three parts: purpose, content,

and treatment*

Sanders states the purpose is the objective, the change in be­

havior the message is intended to bring about» These changes may be •

new knowledge, change in attitudes, change in skills, change in think­

ing, or change in practiceso ! The content is the subject matter with

which the message is concernedo The treatment makes the soil favorable

.for acceptance and growth of the message0 Both Sanders and Noordhoff

stressed that it should be logically organized and understandable to

the receiver and conform to the accepted social standards*

Methods (Channels)

Sanders (1966) points out that extension teaching methods are

means for providing learning experiences * Objectives are guides to the

18

;choice of methods* They provide the target.. The learning experiences

are designed to hit the target and to reach the objectives. He also

states that to know when, where, and how to provide each learning ex­

perience to the best advantage is the mark of a professional extension

worker.

Noordhoff contends extension, teaching methods are channels of

communication with the people serve. He classified.them into visuals,

spoken, and written. (Some are combined methods, e.g., movies.) Each

has its advantages and disadvantages. He continued to state that vis­

ual and oral methods are about the only methods for extension workers

to serve illiterate people . * . He added that inspite of its problems,

spoken communication when supplimented with visual aids is a basic

method of extension work with illiterate societies. .

Sanders divided the methods into: (1) Individual contact meth­

ods which include visits, office calls, telephone calls, mail requests,

and answering sets: (2) group contacts methods which include result

and method demonstrations, general meetings, tours, field days, achieve­

ment days, contests, and camps; and (3) mass media contact methods and

they include news items, columns, pages, feature stories, direct mail,

exhibits,, fairs, festivals, bulletins, radio, and television. Learning

experiences may be provided through aids to extension education which

include visual and auditory aids.

Wilson, and Gallup (1955, p <,. 3) state thatmethods are divided

according to "use" or "form". In reference to use, these are individual

contact methods and group contact methods and both of them involving

19

‘face-to-fact contactso Mass contact methods are designed to influence 1

large numbers of people0

According to form are the written9 spokenand visuals. The

written include such methods as leaflets and bulletins; the spoken in­

clude meetings and visits; and the visuals include result demonstra­

tion, and exhibits* They are presented in the following two charts to

visualize these divisions^ (Figures 3 and 4).

In discussing the effectiveness of the methods, Wilson and

Gallup (1955) mentioned two factors to be considered in evaluating

their effectiveness: 7

(1) The success of the method in influencing people to make the

desired changes„

(2) The amount of teaching effort expended on it.

In determining the influence and cost used, Wilson and Gallup

declared it is difficult to achieve with a satisfactory degree of ac­

curacy , this is because; (1) the total influence of a particular means

of teaching may be large because of the emphasis placed upon it in the

extension teaching plan of work and conversely, the total influence of

a method may be relatively small owing to the little use made of it in

extension teaching, and (2) farmers sometimes cannot remember the

source which influenced them to change a practice»

In general, mass media.methods are the cheapest to use, followed

by the group methods. Individual methods, are highest in cost.

20

Chart 3

Methods classified according to USE = =-■ - ■■ ■ - Indirect influence

IN D IV ID U A L C O N T A C T S

Farm and home visits.

O ffice calls.

Telephone calls.

Personal letters.

Result demonstrations.

W R IT T E N

Bulletins.

Leaflets.

News articles.

Personal letters.

Circular letters.

G R O U P C O N T A C T S MASS C O N T A C T S

Method dem onstration meetings. Bulletins.

Leader training meetings.

Lecture meetings.

Conferences and discussion meetings. Circular letters.

Meetings at result demonstrations. Radio.

Tours.

Schools.

Miscellaneous meetings.

Leaflets.

News stories.

Television.

Exhibits.

Posters.

Methods classified according to FO R M : i Chart 4 ;

f

SPO KEN

General and special meetings of all kinds.

Farm and home visits.

O ffice calls.

Telephone calls.

Radio.

Indirect influence

O B JE C T IV E or V IS U A L

Result demonstrations.

Exhibits.

Posters.

M otion pictures, charts, slides, and

other visual aids.

Method dem onstration meetings. Meetings at result demonstrations.

Meetings involving m otion pictures, charts, and other visual aids.

Television.

21

.Receiver

According to Sanders (1966, p. 53):

There are five ways to get into a human mind — through the senses of sight9 hearing, taste, smell, and touche These are the five receptors of stimuli through which a person makes observations about the world outside* As stimuli are received, sensations are produced and interpreted.

The brain is active and "grasps” at sensations and tries to give them meaning. Perception begins and is conditioned by one*s background of experience. As one receives further sensations, perception increases and greater understanding resultso If action is called for, a decision is made and the resulting action is takeno

These facts are depicted by Sanders in Figure 1. The chart

also portrays the five stages of the diffusion process. Of which the

first three stages, i»e., awareness, interest, and evaluation occur as

perception begins. As perception enlarges, greater understanding occurs

and may result in trial and adoption. These are the last two stages

of the diffusion and adoption processese

* . The Diffusion and the Adoption Processes

Rogers (1963, p. 17) states, "since its inception, the main

purpose of the Cooperative Extension Service has been to change human

behavior by teaching people how to apply the results of scientific

research . Q .” He also said, "all extension workers are change agents.

Professional persons who attempt to.influence adoption decisions in a

direction they feel is desirable."

The purpose of the Cooperative Extension Service, as stated in

the Smith-Lever Act, makes it plain, that extension workers are change

agents and that diffusion of new ideas is a central concern. The

22

original Act states ",»„in order to aid in diffusing among people of

the United States useful and practical information on subjects related

to agriculture and home economics, and to encourage the application of

the same<>oo!! This Act did not call for spreading and diffusing prac­

tical information only, but to encourage its application also; that is

to assure it is actually adoptedo

Bohlen et alo (1969) pointed out that two interrelated proc­

esses help bring new ideas from their source of initial development to

acceptance by farmers0 These processes are called diffusion and adop-

tione

The diffusion process refers to the spread of new ideas from

originating, source to ultimate userso In case of agriculture, it is

the process by which new farm practices or ideas are communicated from

sources of. origin., usually scientists, to farmers*

The adoption process is a mental process through which an indi­

vidual passes from first hearing about a new idea to its final adoption*

Rogers (1963) mentioned the same differences between the two

processes; however, he points out that diffusion occurs among persons

while adoption is an individual matter*

In. reviewing the background of the diffusion process Rogers

(1963, p* 17) statess

The background on the diffusion of innovations dates from 1920*s* At that time the Federal Extension Service instigated evaluations of the effectiveness of extension programs* As a handy measure of the effectiveness of various extension methods, Mo Co Wilson and his colleagues utilize the adoption of farm and home-making practices* Wilson's research methods have had considerable influence on later studies*

23

' One of the first major studies by a rural sociologist was an

investigation of the rejection of new disease-control sprays by Dutch

celery growers in Michigatw The research was sponsored by the Agri­

cultural Experiment Station with the view toward improving the effec­

tiveness of the Michigan Extension Service*

Rogers (1966, p* 79) in reviewing the development of the con­

cept of the adoption process mention:

Rayan and Gross (1943) were probably the first to recognize that the adoption of a new idea consisted of stages«, They distinguished between "awareness" of hybrid seed corn, "con­viction" of its usefulness, trial "acceptance", and "complete adoption" of the innovationo

Pederson (1951) also suggested that a sequence of events leads

to adoption* However, it was Wilkining (1952) who first pointed out

that an individual’s decision to adopt an innovation was a process com­

posed of stages or steps* Wilkining (1953, p 0 9) described the adop­

tion of innovation as "„ * * a process composed of learning, deciding,

and acting over a period of time* The adoption, of a specific practice

is not the result of a single decision to act but a series of actions

and thought decisions*" He listed four adoption stages: awareness,

obtaining information, conviction and trial, and adoption.

These stages, with slightly different terminology, were largely

publicized by a committee on rural sociology in their widely distri­

buted bulletin, "How Farm People Accept New Ideas" (NCRS Sub-committee,

1962, p* 3). Their five-stage adoption process is basically the same,

even if not in exact terminology, as will be described later.

24

' Two research studies had been designed primarily to see if the

concept of a five-stage adoption process was empirically valid. Both

Beal et al, (1951) and Copp et al« (1958) concluded that the concept

of stages was valid.

Host? if not all, of the literature on the adoption process

mentioned the five stages: NCRS Subcommittee (1962), Rogers (1966,

Anderson et "al, (1957), Bohlen. (1969) , Kelsey and Hearne (1963),

Sanders (1966), and.others. The five stages are: (1) Awareness,

(2) Interest,.(3) Evaluation, (4) Trial, and (5) Adoption,

NCRS Subcommittee (1962, p 3), in discussing the stages and

describing the people7s reaction to them point out:

The acceptance of a new idea is a complex process involving a sequence of thoughts and actions. Usually decision are made after multiple contacts with various communication channels.These contacts are made over a period of time. For instance, the average time span from awareness to adoption of hybrid seed corn in Iowa was 7 years* Adoption of most other hybrid seeds has come more rapidly. Changes which involve new skills or techniques usually require longer periods of time; however once an idea has been introduced and the process initiated in any given community, some people can be found at all stages in the process of acceptance.

As previously mentioned, the five stages of the adoption process

are:

Awareness: At this stage the individual learns of the existence of the

idea or the practice but has little knowledge about it.

Interest: At this stage the individual develops interest in the idea,

He seeks more information about it and considers its general merits.

Evaluation: At this stage the individual makes mental application of

the idea and weighs its. merits for his own situation. He obtains more

25information about the idea and decides whether or not to try it.

Trial: At this stage the individual actually applies the idea or

practice; usually on a small scale. He is interested in how to apply

the practice; in amountss time, and conditions for application.

Adoption: This is the stage of acceptance.leading to continued use.

Rate of Adoption

Some innovations diffuse from their first introduction to wide

spread use in a few years» Others require 50 years. What are the

characteristics of innovations that affect the rate at which they dif­

fuse and adopted?

Bohlen (1969, p 0 4) listed five factors which affect the speed

with which a new idea is adopted:

(1) Cost and economic return: New practices that are high in cost,

generally, tend to be adopted more slowly than do the less

costly ones. However, practices which produce high returns per

dollar invested or those which bring quick returns are rapidly

adoptedo

(2) Complexity: New ideas which are relatively simple to understand

and use will generally be accepted more quickly than more complex

ones.

(3) Visibility: The more visible the practice and its results, the

more rapid its adoption is.

(4) Divisibility: A practice that can be tried in a limited basis

will generally be adopted more rapidly than one that cannot.

26

- (5) Comp at ibility: A new idea or practice which is consistent with

existing ideas and beliefs will be accepted more rapidly than

one that is note

Rogers (1963) mentioned similar factors but he used the term

"relative advantage" instead of "cost and economic advantage" to re­

fer to the degree to which an innovation is superior to ideas it

supersedes* Re also used "communicatability" in place of "visibility"

as it refers to the degree to which the results of an innovation may

be diffused to otherso

Anderson (1957) divided "complexity" to four divisions from

the simplest to the more complexr change in material and equipment,

an improved practice5 innovation, and a change in enterprise. He

pointed out the more simpler the practice is, the quicker it is ad­

opted.

There are variations in the adoption process, not all people

will be in the same stage at the same time0 Some may be in the aware­

ness stage while others are scattered in the other stages. The com­

municator has to know the stage where the people he is communicating

to are and then select the suitable channels for conveying the message.

Communication of information is an integral part of the adop­

tion process. Studies show that people rely on different sources of

information while they are in the different stages of the adoption

processo

. 27

Sources of Information

Singh and Sahay (1972, p e 44) used the three classifications of

Wilkining (1962) as sources of information, to farmers which are:

(1) Personal Localiteg Communication with friends, relatives,

neighbors, village leaders, etc,

(2) Personal Cosmopolite:. Communication with Extension Agents, farm

supply-store personnel, farmers from other neighborhood, etc.

(3) Mass Media: Communication through newspapers, printed material,

radio9 exhibition, television, etCo

A common classification for sources of information is the one

used by Bohlen (1969),, this is: Mass Media, Friends and neighbors,

Agricultural Agencies,, (including Extension Service) ,. Dealers and

Salesmen 0

How farm people utilize these sources at the different stages

of the adoption process is summarized by Bohlen in Table 1.

It is obvious that mass media plays an important role at the

awareness and interest stages while friends and neighbors play a

major role in the evaluation, trial, and adoption stages» Lawson and

Dail (1966) reported the results of several studies in which dealers

and salesmen and mass media are most important in diffusing informa-

tion<> In these studies when farmers were asked about the most relia­

ble source of information, Extension Agents headed the list.

While mass media and dealers and salesmen are major sources

of information in developed countries. The case might be different

in developing countries, where the major sources of information are

Table !• Rank order of information sources by stage in the adoption process.

Awareness Interest Evaluation Trial Adoption

Learns about a new idea or prac- t ice

gets more in^ formation about it

tries it out mentally

uses or tries . a little

accepts it for full-scale and continued use

1. Mass media - ratio, T.Vo, newspapers, magazines

lo Mass media 1. Friends and neighbors

1. Friends and neighbors

lo Friends and neighbors

2» Friends and neighbors - mostly other farmers

2. Friends and neighbors

2 * Agricultural agencies

2o Agricultural agencies

2* Agricultural agencies

3. Agricultural agencies, Extension, Vo-Ag, etc o

3 o Agricultural agencies

30 Dealers andsalesmen

3. Dealers and salesmen

3. Dealers and salesmen

4,q Dealers and salesmen

40 Dealers and salesmen

4. Mass media 4.b Mass media 4. Dealers, and salesmen

Personal experience is the most important factor in continued use of an idea.

N>.00

29

the Extension Agents and neighbors and friends at the village levele

This might be attributed to two factors; (1) salesmen and dealers are

found in cities and big towns, and (2) the prevailance of illiteracy

in rural areas* Extension Agents and neighbors and friends are not

only the primary sources of information but also the most credible ones

to farmers.• These two facts are supported by a study made by Singh and

Sahay (1972)*

Adoption Categories

There is always a time lag between the origin of a new idea and

its complete adoption. A major concern of rural sociological research

has been to reduce the time lag between scientific discovery and actual

use of new developments in farming. One body of facts growing out of

these studies indicates that farmers who adopt practices at various

points in time have distinctive characteristics* Educational programs

for change agents which are developed with an understanding of these

characteristics are more likely to be effective. This suggests that

change agents design educational programs which meets the needs and

communication skills.of the various farm audiences whom they serve.

Bohlen et al. (1969) further stressed that farmers adopt prac­

tices at different times. Research indicates that the diffusion of a

new practice usually requires several years. In the first year, a few

farmers adopt it; then in.a short span of time, a large number tries

it, and finally the remainder accepts it. To prove this notion Bohlen

presented a diagram (Figure 5) in which an innovator secured his infor­

mation about a new practice from an agricultural scientist. Against

30

Js_~ ' l s lNo. 14

No. 13

1952 ♦ I No. 5 Q'V - • • • * * *

1955

No. 12 No. 1

1954

No.11

D IR E C T TO

A G R IC U L T U R A L .

S C IE N T IS T

No. 10

No. 4

No. 8

1953

N o.9

How fourteen Midwest farmers obtained in form ation on a new farm practice. Farm locations are

shown against a m ile grid.

31

a background of a mile grid for 14 farmers in the Midwest he showed

that a second farmer9 (an early adopter) obtained his information about

the new practice from.the innovators Then eight farmers secured their

information about the practice from this early adopter. It took eight

years in: order to adopt the new practice by the 14 farmers.

Farmers can be divided into different categories according to

their adoption behavior, Anderson (1957), Rogers (1963), and Bohlen

(1969) divided them into: innovators, early adopters, early majority,

late majority, and laggards. While others divided them into: innova­

tors, community adoption leaders, local adoption leaders, the majority,

and laggards o

Rogers (1963) mentioned it is obvious to any acute observer of

any social system that not all of its members adopt new ideas at the

same time<, A general finding of past investigations, is that adopters

distributions follow a bell-shaped curve over time and approach normal­

ity,

Bohlen (1969, p, 4) presented a normal distribution curve to

show farmers adoption of a new practice (Figure 6),

He further stated the first to adopt a new practice are the

innovators-o Research in the Midwest indicated that these farmers have

personal and social characteristics which are significantly different

from those adopting later* This category includes about one farmer in

Those in the second category of farmers to adopt a practice are

the early adopters*. They too have distinctive characteristics. About

one in eight farmers fall in this category.

32

'S4-1cu0

n00

1

guu(UPL,

Early LateMajority ^ Majority

Early J

AdoptersLateAdopters

Innovators

— — 13.5% 34% 34% 16%Time of Adoption

Figure 6. Distribution of farmers among the five categories according to time of adoption.

The majority of adopters - about seven in ten farmers - fall

in the next category. For some purposes, this category may be divided

into the early and late majority.

The last farmers to try new practices may be referred to as

late adopters or laggards. They compromise possibly one out of six

farmers in the Midwest. They possess personal characteristics different

from those who adopted earlier.

< Characteristics of Adoption Categories

Various studies have described and discussed the characteris­

tics of the different categories of adoption. These descriptions and

discussions in the different studies can best be summarized and repre­

sented by Table 2 given by Bohlen (1969, p. 9).

The NCRS Subcommittee (1962, p. 9) in describing the different

adoption categories mention, "the innovators are known as ’experimenters’

Table 2. Summary of characteristics and communication behavior of adopter categories.

Characteristic Early Majority Laggards oror Behavior Innovators Adopters Early Late Late Adopters

lo Time of adoption

First 205 per cent to adopt new ideas

Next 13o5 per cent to adopt

Next 34 per cent to adopt

N&xt 34 per cent to adopt

Last 16 per cent to adopt

2o Attitudes and values

Scientific and venturesome

Progressive More conserva­tive and tra­ditional

Skeptical of new ideas

Agricultural magic and folk beliefs; fear of debt

3. Abilities

4. Group mem­bership

High level of education; ability to deal with abstrac­tion

Leader in county wide or state organizations; travel widely

Above aver­age education

Leaders in organizations within the community

Slightly above average educ­ation

Many inf or t- mal contacts within com­munity

Slightly below aver­age educa­tion

Little travel out of com­munity; little activity in formal organ­izations

Low level of education; have diffic­ulty with abstractions and relation­ships

Few member­ship in form­al organiza­tions other than church; semi-isolates

Table 2, Continuedo

Char act er is tic or Behavior Innovators

EarlyAdopters

Majority Early Late

Laggards or Late Adopters

5e Social Highest High social About About Lowest socialStatus social status. status; looked average average status

but their farming prac­tices may not be accepted

to by neighbors as "good farmer"

socialstatus

socialstatus

60 Farm Largest, Large, farms. Slightly Slightly Small farms;business most spec­ slightly less larger smaller low incomes;

ialized, and specialized than than seldom farmmost effic­ient

and efficient averagesizedfarms

averagesizedfarms

owners

7„ Sources of Scientists; Highest con­ Farm maga­ Friends Mainly friendsinformation other inno­ tact with zines; friends and and neighbors;

vators; re­ local change and neigh­ neighbors radio farmsearchbulletins

agents; farm magazines; Extension bulletins

bors shows

w

35

and ?people who are always trying out new thingsfo They are seldom 1

named as persons to go to for advice on farming."

The community adoption leaders are not the very first to try

new ideas, but are among the first to use approved practices in their

community areas* They are not the persons who test untried ideas but

they are quickest to use tried ideas in their own situation.

The local adoption leaders are people to whom the majority look

for information and ideas in their farming operations * They adopt

ideas sooner than the majority0 These local adoption leaders or in­

formal leaders are an important link in the chain of communication.

Studies showed that these informal.:- leaders are identified by the

majority of farm.people as neighbors and friends rather than leaders.

Their leadership was established by actions which have won the respect

of their associates.. They are not necessarily the open seekers of

offices in formal organizations. They are not necessarily the volun­

teer leaders who recommend themselves to the county agent or vocational

agricultural teacher»

The later adopters are the majority .of the people in the com­

munity who. adopt new ideas. They depend primarily on the local adop­

tion leaders for information and ideas, although some of .-them may have

contacts with.agricultural agencies.

There are some to whom the practice might apply who never adopt

it; these are the non adopters.

36

Extension Contacts

Studies indicated that extension agents make most of their com­

municative contacts with innovators and early adopters because they are

easier to communicate with and convince to try and adopt new ideas and

practiceso Research indicates that early adopters have more contacts

with county extension agents? vocational agriculture teachers, and other

agricultural agencies workers than do farmers in other adopters cate­

gories including the innovators (Bohlen, 1969)« One reason why this is

true seems to be that the innovator often learns about new practices

before the local change agent* The innovator travels widely, visit with

other innovators, and agricultural scientists. Research findings of

farmers contacts with vocational agriculture teachers show that early

adopters are reached most frequently, followed by innovators, early

majority, late majority, and laggards.

Alleyne and Verner (1971) in their studies about personal con­

tacts and the adoption of innovations with strawberry growers in the

Fraser Valley,.state thats (1) Personal contacts were far more effec­

tive than impersonal sources of information in effecting adoption of

innovations; (2) Extension Agents tends to concentrate on personal

contacts with a few farmers and use impersonal contacts for the major­

ity; and (3) Extensions use of group instruction and local opinion

leaders can extend the range of personal contacts and thus more effec­

tively encourage innovation,

Paul (1970) reported a study in one Canadian province which

showed that 80% or more, of the present extension involvement was with

30% of. the farmers who produced 70% or more of the agricultural

37

production* He further pointed out that this is justified bya "this

group represents the innovators and we learn a great deal from them".

He also mentioned that his observations would indicate that the ex­

tension approach in England and Wales is similar*

The Role of Result Demonstrations in the Diffusion and the Adoption Processes

The use of result demonstrations as a teaching method to con­

vince farmers to adopt new improved practices and ideas dates back to

1903 when Seaman Knapp conducted his famous boll weevil demonstrations

near Terrell9 Texas./Bailey (1964) declared that the basic idea behind the use of

demonstrations to be very similar to Gabriel de TradeTs theory of in­

stinct; and imitations a which says that all new cultural traits orig­

inate from one creative individual and are imitated by the crowd. It

is simply the personal influence of one human being upon another.

Apparentlya neighbors and friends are more important during

the evaluation and trial stages than an initial source of information.

Further,,low income farmers and slow adopters often use other farmers

as the first source of knowledge.

Bailey also mentioned that a nation-wide survey of farmer

attitudes towards the use of fertilizers found that most farmers

thought that the demonstrations were effective in either making others

think about fertilizers or in causing them to use it; that is, to

evaluate, try, or adopt0

Sanders, (1966, p* 128) stated that:

38

Evidence shows that result demonstrations were vital in establishing confidence of farmers and home-makers in the practices suggested by the early workers* Successful ex­periences with result demonstrations also increased the ability of and the confidence in personnel, thus making them more effective teachers, and they were readily accepted by both rural and urban people as reliable sources of infor­mation .for better agricultural and home-making practices *It also helped to build prestige for the extension serviceas an educational agency,

Result demonstrations do not carry out research* They show

to what extent the research findings apply to local conditions*

Summary

In reviewing the literature9 the communication process was

found to be important in determining the objective, selecting the mes­

sage, and deciding which audiences to be reached*

The categories of the audience and their stage in the adoption

process were found to be an important basis for selecting, the teaching

method or a combination of teaching methods*

It was found that few people or categories of people rely on

agencies like the extension service for new information. The majority

rely on their leaders (neighbors and friends) as a source of informa­

tion as well as guides to try to adopt new practices*

It was found that understanding the different categories of

people and their characteristics are important in directing the message

for better chance of acceptance*

Demonstrations could be directed to those who rely on extension

as a source of information because the others depend on these people as

their source of. information.

CHAPTER III

PROCEDURE

The procedures followed to accomplish, the objectives of this

study are described as follows: (a) study population; (b) collection

of data and instrumentation; (c) data analysis.

Study Population

The target population in this study included all extension

agents in the Sudan* The sample population included those extension

agents who had education above senior high school; who were/are working

with the rural people, and who were/are using demonstration farms in

the northern part of the Sudan*

The first step involved in determining the size of the sample

population was to secure a list of all extension agents in the Sudan*

The names and addresses of the extension agents participating in this

study were obtained from the Directorate of Extension-Sudan* From this

list all the agents (except those working in the production center)

were selected to serve as the study sample* Individual agents served

as the. sampling units *

Collection of Data and Instrumentation

The initial step involved in the collection, of data was the

formulation of a questionnaire* The author.reviewed all questionnaires

- 39

40

ifor similar studies to glean ideas on format and the types of questions

to ask for this type of study.

The preliminary draft of the quesionnaire was given to three

agricultural education and extension teachers for critique of content

and completeness. After considering their suggestions and comments, a

second draft was prepared and translated to the Arabic language to

avoid misinterpretation. This was given to three Sudanese students

studying, at the University of Arizona for critique for clarity and read­

ability, After considering all suggestions, a third draft was prepared

and given to the director of this study for further comments and

approval (Appendix A).

The final questionnaire (Appendix B) was printed and 139 copies

with a covering letter and a self-addressed return envelope were mailed

to each participant. However,. when the cost of sending the package to

each participant in the Sudan was calculated and the cost of a follow-up

letter for non-respondants,. it was found that the cost would exceed

$300. When the Cultural Counselor to the Embassy.of the Sudan in

Washington was contacted to finance the mailing cost, it was learned

that this would require an approval from Sudan which may take months

to arrive if approved. For this reason it was decided to send all the

questionnaire packages (ready to mail as they were) in one package to

the Director, Directorate;of Extension in the Sudan. A letter explain­

ing the situation and requesting him to take the necessary action for

mailing the individual packages to the participants, was.sent to the

Director with the package, on January 12, 1981.

41

When no response was received from the participant9 a telegram,

was sent on February 99 1981 to be advised about the fate of the ques­

tionnaire. A reply arrived on March 159 1981 from the Director in­

forming the author that the package had not arrived but necessary

action will be taken as soon as it arrived.

. Another package similar to the first one was sent on April 20,

1981 with one of the University of. Arizona Sudanese students to give it

by hand to the Director.

Responses started to arrive early in May 1981. At the begin­

ning of June, it was decided to send a follow-up letter to non-

respondants to step up their response. Due to the cost factor a

letter was sent to each group of Extension Agents working in the same

office.

From the personal letters sent by some respondents to the

author, it was discovered that the low and slow response was due to

the fact that most of the participants thought it was too late to

respond since the covering, letter attached to the questionnaire was

dated January 12, 1981. Another factor was that there was a railways

strike which extended for several days in May.

By August 15, 1981, 90 responses were received. . This consti­

tuted about 66.7% of the 135 questionnaires originally sent to the

participants. In conference with the researcher's advisor, it was

felt a 66.7% response was sufficient to analyze data.

42

Analysis of Data

The data collected for this study from the questionnaire were

hand tabulated« These data were then reported in terms of frequencies

and percentages in rank ordere

CHAPTER IV

PRESENTATION AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA.

The data presented and analyzed in this chapter follows the ob­

jectives identified in Chapter: 1 of this studye The data were obtained

through a questionnaire, mailed to 135 extension agents in the Sudan«

Of the 135 potential respondents, 90 extension agents returned completed

questionnaires. This represents a 66.7% returned responses.

Perception of Sudanese Extension Agents Concerning the Purposes Presently Served

by the Extension Demonstration Farms

Objective 1 of this study was to determine the purposes served

presently by the extension demonstration farms. Table 3 shows the fre­

quency and percentage response of Sudanese Extension Agents’ perception

of the main purposes served by. the extension demonstration farms.

Table 3. Frequency and percentage response of Sudanese extension agents’ perception of the main purposes of demonstration farms.

Purpose of Farm Frequency Percentage

Model.Farm 56 62.2

Demonstration Farm 32 35.6

Multi-purpose 2 2.2

Total 90 100.0

43

44

Fiftyr-six or 62*2% of the respondents perceived the extension ■,

demonstration farms as model farms; while 32 or 35.6% perceived them

as demonstration farms• Only two or 2.2% of the respondents perceived

them as farms which can serve more than one purpose9 i.e., demonstra­

tion, model, experimental, and pilot farms.

The Adoption Categories to be Reached Through the Use of the Extension Demonstration Farms

Objective 2 was to determine which categories of adoption, ex­

tension demonstration farms were attempting to reach as perceived by

Sudanese Extension Agents. Data presented in Tables 4 through 11 deal

with this objective.

Data presented in Table 4 reveal the frequency and percentage

of responses relative to the adoption categories which can be reached

easily by using the demonstration farms. There were 215 responses

supplied by the 90 extension agents. It should be noted respondents

were asked to supply more than one check to many questions on the

questionnaire.. In calculating percentages the frequency was divided by

the total, number of responses.

Table 4. Frequency and percentage of responses of Sudanese extension agentsv perception of the adoption categories which can be reached easily by using the demonstration farms. N = 90.

Category Frequency Percentage

Local Adoption Leaders 74 34.4Community Adoption Leaders 50 23.3The Majority 39 18.1Laggards 28 13.0Innovators 24 11.2Total 215 100.0

45

It is evident from this table that 74 or 34 „x4% of the respon­

dents identified the local adoption leaders to be reached easily with

the demonstration farms« The second most frequently identified cate­

gory to be reached easily was the community adoption leaders who re­

ceived 50 or 23 o 3% of the responses«, The innovators received only 24

or lie2% of the responsesj and thus placed them at the bottom.

In an attempt to further identify the effectiveness of demon­

stration farms in achieving the various stages of the adoption process9

the Sudanese extension agents were asked to indicate which group of in­

dividuals classified by category of adoption they took to visit the

demonstration farm,. Table 5 shows the frequency and the percentage

of responses to this question.

Table 5, Frequency and percentage of response for the adoption cate­gories taken by the extension agents in the Sudan to visit the demonstration farms, N = 90,

Category Frequency Percentage

Local Adoption Leaders 70 32.7

Community Adoption Leaders 50 23.4

The Majority 40 18.7

Laggards 34 15.9

Innovators 20 9.3

Total 214 100.0

46

The total number of responses were 214; of which the local ad­

option leaders received 70 or 32.7%. The community adoption leaders

were second by receiving 50 or 23.4% of the responses* The innovators

were again at the bottom since they received only 20 or 9.3% of the

responses.

It is interesting to note that the same rank order for the

categoriess i*e., local adoption leaders9 community adoption leaders«,

the majority9. the laggards9 and the innovators, are shown in both

Tables 4 and 5.

It should be noted the majority and the laggards received

34.6% of the responses* As previously mentioned the individuals in

these two categories are not easily convinced because they only try to

adopt new ideas after the community and local adoption leaders adopt

them first. It is these two categories that the majority and the

laggards go for advice and information.

Effectiveness of the demonstration farms in the Sudan can be

measured, in part, by the teaching methods employed. Data presented

in Table 6 indicate how extension agents in the Sudan perceive the

most effective use of demonstration farms.

Result demonstration received 80 of the 262 total responses or

30.5%. This method was followed by method demonstration with 74 res­

ponses or 28.2%; tours, 58 (22.1%); exhibits, 24 (9.2%) ; meetings, 18

(6.9%) and other methods eight (3.1%).

In an attempt to further assess the effectiveness of demonstra­

tion farms, the respondents were asked to select the most appropriate

47

Table 6e Frequency and percentage of responses of Sudanese extension agents? perception of teaching methods considered to be most effective to use with or within the demonstration farmse N “ 90.

Method Frequency Percentage

Result Demonstration 80 30.5

Method Demonstration 74 28.2

Tours 58 22.1

Exhibits 24 9.2

Meetings 18 6.9

Others 8 3.1

Total 262 100.0

methods to be used with each of the adoption categories« The responses

are shown in the following tables, Tables 7 through 11,

Table 7 shows which teaching method extension agents in the

Sudan perceived as most, effective to use with innovators•

A total of 80 responses were reviewed on the questionnaire*

Method demonstration received 30 or 36*6% of the total responses*

Result demonstration followed second with 22 or 26*8%, while tours re­

ceived 10 or 12*2%* As has been mentioned earlier in Chapter II,

innovators need only to be made aware of a new idea or practice, then

they will try.it even if it is not yet proven successful* In working

with innovators, mass media is the most appropriate* Another effective

method may be tours to demonstration and experimental farms* It is

48

Table 7. Frequency and percentage of response of extension agentsf perception of the most effective methods for use with the innovatorso N = 90e

Method Frequency Percentage

Method Demonstration 30 36.6

Result Demonstration 22 26.8

Tours 10 12.2

Meetings 8 9.8

Exhibits 6 7.3

Others 6 7.3

Total 82 100.0

Table 8. Frequency and percentage of responses of extension agents* perception of the most effective methods for use with the community adoption leaders» N - 90*

Method Frequency Percentage

Result Demonstration. 46 28.1Method Demonstration 42 25.6Tours 24 14.6Meetings 24 . 14.6Exhibits 20 12.2Others 8 4.9Total 164 100.0

49

Table 9« Frequency and percentage of responses of extension agentsv . perception of the most effective methods for use with the local adoption leaders* N - 90*

Method Frequency Percentage

Method Demonstration 60 28.8Result Demonstration 56 26.9Fours 32 15.4Meetings 30 14.4Exhibits 22 10.6Others 8 3.9Total 208 100.0

Table 10. Frequency and perception of majority. N =

percentage of responses of the most effective methods 90.

extension agents' for use with the

Method Frequency Percentage

Result. Demonstration 40 25.3Tours 38 24.0Method Demonstration 32 20.3Exhibits 26 16.5Meetings 12 • 7.6Others 10 6.3Total 158 100.0

50

Table 11, Frequeney and percentage of responses of perception of the most effective methods laggards, N - 90.

extension agents’ for use with the

Method Frequency Percentage

Result Demonstration 32 25.4

Tours 28 22.2

Exhibits 26 20.6

Method Demonstration 18 14.3

Others 12 9.6

Meetings 10 7.9

Total 126 100.0

apparent mass media and method demonstrations are effective to teach

innovators new skills and.techniques required to succeed with the new

idea*

The methods considered most effective for use with the community

adoption leaders., as perceived by the Sudanese extension agents, are de­

picted in Table 8.

For use with the community adoption leaders, 46 or 28,1% of 164

total responses received untreated the result demonstration, as the

most effective method* This method was followed by method demonstra­

tion with. 42 (25,6%); and tours and meetings receiving 24 or (14,6%)

each.

51

As stated earlier in Chapter II, the community adoption leaders'

are not the persons who try untried ideas, however they are quickest to

use tried ideas in their own situation. For this category of people, a

tour to the demonstration farm or innovatorsT farms where new ideas are

demonstrated or tried with success would be useful <, Method demonstra­

tions to teach them the techniques of applying the new idea are approp­

riate.

The methods perceived by Sudanese Extension Agents as most ef­

fective to use for the local adoption leaders are shown in Table 9.

Of the 208 total responses received, 60 or 28.8% of the respon­

ses show that the extension agents perceived the method demonstration

as the most, effective one to use with local adoption leaders. The re­

sult demonstration was the next most effective. This method received

56 or 26.9% of the responses; and tours, third was 32 or 15.4% of the

responseso

The reaction of.the individuals in this category for adopting new

•ideas and practices is the same as for individuals in the community adop­

tion leaders category. As stated earlier in Chapter II, this group of

people are the people to whom the majority look for information.

Conducting a tour to the demonstration farm, or to innovatorsf

or the community adoption leaders farms where the new practice is demon­

strated or tried successfully would, be an effective teaching method.

Method demonstration for such groups would also be an effective part of

the teaching process.

Methods perceived by the Extension Agents in the Sudan as most

effective to be used for the majority are revealed in Table 10.

' 52

Responses show that"40 or 25.3% of the total responses (158) ,

consider result demonstration was the most effective teaching method

for use with the majority. Tours were second, receiving 38 or 24.1%

of the responses. Method demonstration, third with 32 or 20.3% of the

responses.

It is interesting, to note that people in the majority category

depend primarily on the community and local adoption leaders for in­

formation or advice. In the Sudan, people live in villages; they get

together frequently during the evenings where they discuss the day's

activities. Considering this social habit, the Sudanese extension

agents could.utilize this time to work with innovators, community and

local adoption leaders to convince them to try new ideas and practices9

thus assisting the majority who tend to follow the practices of these

people especially if they are successful.

Sudanese extension agents' perception of which method will be

most effective with the laggards is shown in Table 11.

Responses show that result demonstrations are the most effec­

tive method -for. use with laggards as evident by 32 or 25.4% of the 126

total responses. Result demonstration was followed by tours which re­

ceived 28 or 22^2% of: the responses. Exhibits received 26 or 20.6% of

the responses.

As previously mentioned, the behavior of the majority

group also applies to this category. If laggards adopt a new prac­

tice or idea, they do so only after the idea was first being adopted by

the community and the local adoption leaders as well as the majority.

53

Laggards, adopt after the new idea or practice has become a common prac-r

tice for almost all the people»

. Based, upon data presented in Tables 7 through 11 * result

demonstrations, method demonstrations, and tours are the three methods

considered to be most effective for almost all the categories* The

exception being for the laggards where exhibits are perceived as more

effective than, method demonstrations *

As has been mentioned earlier, in Chapter IT, not all people

depend upon extension agents as a source of information or advice *

Innovators, community adoption leaders, and local adoption leaders

are easy to work with and convince the majority and the laggards rely

on their neighbors and friends (the community and the local adoption

leaders) for information and guidance* It would be better for the.

extension agents in the Sudan to try not to reach all people* Instead

they should concentrate their effort, time, and facilities to encourage

the innovators, the community and the local adoption leaders to try the

new ideas and practices* Extension agents should help those who do try

to succeed in: their trials and thus set the example for the others who

. rely on them: for information and guidance*

In summary the extension agents were asked to identify the

teaching methods they perceive as most effective to use with or within

the demonstration farms* In addition, they were asked to identify the

methods they perceive as most effective for use with each category of

the adoption process* The responses are shown in Tables 7 through 11*

The Extension Agents were asked to next consider the extension

teaching, methods in general (irrespective of the demonstration farms)

54

1 and tO; identify the two most effective methods to be used with each of

the adoption categories« Their responses to this question are shown in

Tables 12 through 16,

Table 12 indicates the two methods perceived by extension agents

in the Sudan as most effective for use with innovatorso

Table 12. Frequency and. percentage of responses for the two most ef­fective methods as perceived by the extension agents for use with innovators. N - 90.

Method Frequency Percentage

Result Demonstration 28 20.7

Meetings 28 20.7

Visits 18 13.3

Circular Letters 16 11.9

Method Demonstration 12 8.9

Discussions 10 7.4

Tours 6 ' 4.4

Exhibits 6 4.4

Movies 4 3.0

Lectures 2 1.5.

Office Calls 2 1.5

Training 2 1.5

Mass Media 1 0.8

Total 135 100.0

55

Table 130 The frequency and percentage of responses for the two mosteffective methods as perceived by the extension agents foruse with community adoption leaders6 . N = 90 6

Method Frequency Percentage

Meetings . 4 0 27.4

Result Demonstration 28 19.2

Visits 26 17.8

Method Demonstration 14 9.6

Discussions 10 6.8

Tours 6 4.1

Lectures 6 4.1

Exhibits 4 CM

Circular Letters 4 2.7

Radio 2 1.4

T. Vo 2 1.4

Movies 2 1.4

Audio-Visuals 2 1.4

Total 146 100.0

56

Table 14„ The frequency and percentage of responses for the two mosteffective methods perceived by the extension agents, for usewith local adoption leaders. N - 90o

Method Frequency Percentage

Result Demonstration 40 26.0

Visits 26 16.9

Meetings 24 15.6

Method Demonstration 21 13.6

Training 10 6.5

Discussions 9 5.8

Tours 8 5.2

Circular Letters 4 2.6

Movies 4 2.6

Audio-Visuals 4 2.6

Radio 2 1.3

Lectures 2 1.3

Total 154 100.0

57

'Table 15. The frequency and percentage of the responses for the twomost effective methods perceived by the.extension agents foruse with the majority. N =? 90.

Method Frequency Percentage

Result Demonstration 30 19.2

Meetings 20 .12.8

Discussions 20 12.8

Exhibits 18 11.4

Method Demonstration 14 9.0

Tours 14 9.0

Visits 12 7.7

Movies 12 7.7

Radio 4 2.6

Circular Letters 4 2.6

Audio-Visuals 4 2.6

T.V. 2 1.3

Training 2 1.3

Total 156 100.0

58

1 Table 16. Frequency and percentage of responses for the two most ef­fective methods perceived by the extension agents for usewith the laggards. N - 90.

Method Frequency Percentage

Result. Demonstration 46 29.9

Method Demonstration 34 22.1

Visits 20 13.0

Tours 18 11.7

Exhibits 14 9.0

Meetings 10 6.5

Radio 2 1.3

Posters 2 1.3

T.V. 2 1.3

Movies' 2 1.3

Audio-Visuals 2 1.3

Training 2 1.3

Total 154 100.0

59

Result demonstration and meetings were perceived by the exten- ,

sion agents as the two most effective methods to be used for the in­

novators <> These methods both received 28 or 20.7% responses.

The two most effective methods perceived by the respondents for

use with the community adoption leaders are revealed in Table 13.

Meetings and result demonstrations were the two most effective

methods as perceived by the extension agents for use with the commun­

ity adoption leaders. They received 40 or 27.4% and 28 or 19.2% respon­

ses, respectively.

Table 14 shows the two most effective methods for the local

adoption leaders as perceived by the respondents.

Of the 154 total responses "/ received, result demonstrations and

visits ranked first and second received 40 or 26.0% and 26 or 16.9% of

the responses, respectively.

The Extension Agents in Sudan were asked to identify the two

most effective methods to be used with the majority. Table 15 reveals

their responses.

The extension agents perceived result demonstration and meetings

as the two most effective methods for use with the majority. These two

methods received 30 or 19.2% and 20 or 12.8% of the responses, respec­

tively.

The last category to,be considered by the Sudanese extension

agents for the selection of the two most effective methods was the

laggards. Table 16 shows their responses.

Result demonstrations and method demonstrations were the two

most effective methods for use with the laggards as perceived by the

60

-extension a g e n t s T h e s e methods received 46 or 29.9% and 34 or 22.1%

of the responses9 respectively.

Based upon the evidence presented in Tables 12 through 169

result demonstrations were the number one choice for the innovators9

the local adoption leaders, the majority, and the laggards. For the

community adoption leaders, meetings, were the number one choice. It

is interesting to note, however,, that the result demonstration was the

second choice.for use with community adoption leaders.

Meetings, being selected as number one choice for the community

adoption leaders, were also.selected as the second most effective

methods for the innovators, and the majority. The second most effec­

tive method selected for the local adoption leaders and the laggards

were visits and. method demonstration, respectively.

It is evident that result demonstrations are a very important

teaching method especially in a developing country like the Sudan where

the extension service is comparatively recent, and where both the ex­

tension service and the extension agents need to gain the confidence of

the people they are serving.

In the rural areas of the Sudan.where illiteracy prevails, trad­

itional farming methods are practiced, and the.innovator is considered

as a rare commodity, it is difficult to find a farmer who will cooperate

to try a new idea or practice before it has been proven first. For

these reasons, demonstration farms where the success of new ideas and

practices can:be demonstrated are highly recommended.

The Effectiveness of the Extension Demon­stration Farms in Achieving the Different

Stages of the Adoption Process

Objective 3 of this study was to determine how effective demon­

stration farms in. the Sudan were in achieving the various stages in the

adoption process as perceived by.the Sudanese Extension Agents«

This objective is interrelated with objective 2® It had been

shown earlier in. Chapter II and in the discussion of the findings for

objective 2 that not all people could be reached through using the ex­

tension demonstration farms® However, it is important to direct the

activities of these farms toward the people who may and can benefit

from them® It is equally important, that these farms should be directed

toward reaching, the people at a specific stage of the diffusion process®

Not all the people will be found in the same stage at the same time.

For this reason certain teaching methods are most effective in a spec­

ific stage than in the others.

The extension agents were asked first if they perceive these

extension demonstration farms are effective teaching methods, Table

17 shows the responses of the extension agents in this regard.

Table 17. . The frequency and the percentages of responses of the ex­tension- agents * perception of the demonstration farms as an effective.teaching method.

Effective Frequency Percentage

Yes 80 88.9No 10 11.1Total 90 100.0

Of the 90 respondents9 80 or 88.9% perceived, the extension dem­

onstration farms, as an effective teaching method. Ten or 11.1% per­

ceived them as not effective.

Once the.agent’s perception of whether demonstrations found

were effective or not 9 was determined, the Sudanese extension agents

were asked to indicate the stage or the stages of the adoption process

where they might be most effective. Data in Table 18 were used to

determine the stages at which the demonstration farms were most effec­

tive as perceived by the Sudanese Extension Agents.

Table 18. Frequency, and percentage of responses of the extension agents' perception for the stages at which the demonstration farms were most effective. N = 90.

Stage Frequency Percentage

Evaluation 48 25.0

Trial 46 24.0

Interest 44 22.9

Awareness 36 18.7

Adoption 18 9.4

Total 192 100.0

As perceived by the Sudanese Extension Agents the evaluation

stage received the highest number of responses as evidenced by 48

responses or 25.0%.; followed by the trial stage, 46 responses or 24.0%.

63

The interest stage received 44.or 22„9%; the awareness stage 36 or

18e8%; and the adoption stage9 18 or 9.4%.

The evaluation stage is the, stage at which the demonstration

farms play.the most important role in convincing people to try the new

idea or practice. In Chapter IX, it was mentioned that at this stage

the individuals make mental application of the idea and weigh its

merits for their own situation. They obtain more information about the

idea and decide whether or.not to try it.

The extension agents were asked to select two methods they

perceive as most effective for each stage of the adoption process.

Some mentioned more.than two and some less. Tables 19 through 23 deal

with the perception of the Extension Agents in the Sudan relative to

the two most effective methods to achieve each of the different stages

of the adoption process. Table 19 shows the respondent perception of

those methods effective for the awareness stage.

The two most effective methods for the awareness stage as

perceived by the extension agents were meetings and method demonstrai-

tions. These methods, received 44 or 28.6% and 16 or 10.4% of the totalX

responses9. respectively.

For the awareness stage as mentioned in Chapter II,.mass media

is more effective and less expensive to use. Visual aids such as

posters and exhibits are also effective.

The second stage of the adoption process is the interest stage.

Table 20 presents data which reveals the two most effective methods as

perceived by the extension agents for this stage.

64

Table 19« Frequency and percentage of responses of the extensionagents1 perception of the two most effective methods for the awareness stage« N = 90.

Method Frequency Percentage

Meetings 44 28.6

Method Demonstration 16 10.4

Tours 14 9.1

Visits 14 9.1

Circular Letters 10 6.5

Radio and T.V. 10 6.5

Discussions 10 6.5

Result Demonstration 8 5.2

Movies 6 , 3.9

Audio-Visuals 6 3.9

Posters 6 3.9

Exhibits 4 2.6

Lectures 2 1.3

Training 2 1.3

Campaigns 2 1.3

Total 154 100.0

65

rTable 20 e Frequency and percentage of responses of the extensionagentsT perception of the two most effective methods for the interest stage, N = 90,

Method Frequency Percentage

Result Demonstration 34 22.5

Method Demonstration 32 21.2

Visits 16 10.6

Tours 14 9.3

Meet ings 14 9.3

Exhibits 13 8.6

Movies 10 6.6

Discussions 10 6.6

Circular Letters . 4 2.7

Radio and T.V. 2 1.3

Lectures 2 1.3

Total 151 100.0

66

Table 21o Frequency and percentage of. responses of the extensionagents’ perception for the two most effective methods for the evaluation stagee N - 90e

Method Frequency Percentage

Method Demonstration 46 29.1

Result Demonstration 40 25.3

Exhibits 22 13.9

Meetings 16 10.1

Tours 12 7.6

Discussions 8 5.1

Visits 6 3.8

Circular Letters 2 1.3

Radio and T.V* - " Y ' : 1.3

Movies 2 1.3

Lectures 2 1.3 .

Total 158 100.0

67

.Table 22. Frequency and percentage of responses of the extensionagents? perception of the two most effective methods for the trial stage. N = 90.

Method Frequency Percentage

Method Demonstration . 46 31.5

Result Demonstration 40 27.3

Visits . 2 2 15.1

Tours 8 5.5

Meetings 8 5.5

Exhibits 8 5.4

Movies 8 5.5

Discussions 2 1.4

Audio-Visuals 2 - 1.4

Training 2 1.4

Total 146 100.0

\

68

Table 23. Frequency and percentage of responses of. the extensionagentsT perception of the two most effective methods for

. the adoption stage* N 5=3 90*

Method Frequency Percentage .

Method Demonstration 34 27.6

Result Demonstration 22 17. 9

Meetings 13 10.6

Visits 12 . 9.7

Exhibits 10 8.1

Tours 8 6.5

Movies 6 4.9

Circular Letters 4 3.3

Discussions 4 3.3

Lectures 4 3.3

Office Calls 2 1.6

Audio-Visuals 2 1.6

Campaigns . 2 1.6

Total 123 100.0

69

Result demonstration received 34 or 22,5% of the total res- «

ponses method demonstration was second with 32 or 2102%9 thus they

were perceived as. the two most effective methods for the interest stage

of the adoption process.

The third stage of the adoption process is the evaluation stage.

Table 21 reveals the two most effective methods as perceived by the

Sudanese extension agents for. this stage.

Method and result demonstrations were perceived by the extension

agents as the two most effective methods for the evaluation stage.

They received 46 or 21.1% and 40 or 25.3% of the total responses,

respectively.

The fourth stage of the adoption process is the trial stage.

The perception of the extension agents relative to the two most effec­

tive methods, for this stage is shown in Table 22.

The extension agents perceived method and result demonstrations

as the two most effective methods to use for the trial stage. They

received 46 or 31.5% and 40 or 27.4%, respectively of the total res­

ponses.

The final stage of the adoption process is the adoption stage.

The perception of the extension agents for the two most effective

methods for this.stage is shown .in Table 23.

The extension agents’ perception of the two most effective

methods: for the adoption stage was method and result demonstrations

which received 34 or 27.6% and 22 or 17.9% responses, respectively.

The data presented in Tables 19 through 23, reflect that method

demonstrations were perceived by the extension agents as one of the two

70most effective methods for all the stages of the adoption process® Re­

sult demonstrations were also considered by the Extension Agents as one

of the most effective methods for all stages except the awareness stage.

In Chapter II it was mentioned that at the awareness stage the

individual learns of the existence of the idea or practice but has

little knowledge, about it. It was also pointed out that at this stage

mass media are most, effective and less expensive to use. Audio-visuals

at this stage can be very helpful.

At the interest stage the individuals develop interest in the

idea. They seek, more information about the idea and consider its gen­

eral merits. At this stage mass media is also effective. Meetings9

farm visits, and audio-visual aids are also helpful methods.

At the evaluation stage, the individuals make mental application

of the idea and- weigh its merits for their own situation. They obtain

more information about the idea and decide whether to try it or not.

This is the stage where result demonstrations play an important role with

both the community and the local adoption leaders. They are not the

first to try new ideashowever they are among, the first to use approved

practices in their community areas. They are not the individuals to

test untried ideas but they.are quickest to use tried ideas in their

own situation. Tours to demonstration farms where new ideas are success­

fully demonstrated and to innovators farms where new ideas are tried are

also helpful at this stage»

The innovators, do not.need a result demonstration to try new

ideas. They only need to be aware of the new ideas they usually try

71

them without waiting to be proven successful elsewheree For this reas-1

on, they are known as "experimenters?? and "people who are always trying

out new things"• For such people circular letters, meetings, and farm

visits are effective methods.

At the trial stage individuals actually apply the idea or prac­

tice; usually on a small scale. They are interested in HOW to apply

the practice; in amounts, time, and conditions fof application.

At this stage, method demonstrations conducted on the extension

demonstration farms to teach innovators, local/adoption leaders, and

community adoption leaders the techniques and skills required for a

successful trial of the new idea or practice are important. Farm

visits are very important to those who are trying the new idea or prac­

tice; to ensure that the techniques required for a successful trial are

carried by the farmer, and also to provide individual advice whenever

deemed necessary.

The adoption stage is the stage of acceptance leading to con­

tinued use. The most important factor at this stage is a successful

trial which encourages and leads to adoption. Meetings and discussions

where those who have succeeded in trying the new idea can-talk about

their, experience with the new idea are re-enforcing stimulants for

adoption. Providing.those who tried and succeeded with.wide coverage

and publicity.through mass media is also re-enforcing.

After determining the categories the extension agents are trying

to reach and the stages of the adoption process they are trying to

achieve; the Sudanese extension agents were asked to determine, if they

72

' perceive themselves as utilizing these demonstration farms effectivelyo‘

They were asked to give reasons for their negative reply if their

perception was negative. Data in Table 24 show the perception of

the Sudanese extension agents as to the effectiveness of their utiliza­

tion of the demonstration farms.

Table 24. Frequency and percentage of responses of the extension.agentsv perception of their effective utilization of the demonstration farms. N = 90.

Effective Frequency Percentage

Yes 46 51.1

No 44 48.9

Total 90 100.0

Of the 90 respondents, 46 or 51.1% perceived themselves as

utilizing the demonstration farms effectively, while 44 or 48,9%

perceived themselves as not utilizing the demonstration farms effec­

tively.

When asked earlier if they perceived the extension demonstra­

tion farm as an effective teaching method, 88.9% of the respondents

revealed an affirmative response (Table 17). The main reasons provided

by those who gave a negative reply to their effective utilization of

these farms were:

73

1* The relationship between research people and the extension agents

is not defined and this resulted in lack of flow of technical

information between research and extension«

2» Limited financial and material resources»

Extension Teaching Methods that Can be Used asFollow-Up to Increase Effectiveness, of Demon-stration Farms to Achieve the Various Stages

of the Adoption Process

Objective 4 of. this study was to determine what follow-up

teaching methods could be used to increase the effectiveness of demon­

stration farms in the Sudan,, Data in Table 25 deal with the two most

effective methods, extension agents perceives to use as a follow-up to

. increase the effectiveness of the extension demonstration farms®

Table 25„ Frequency and percentage of responses of extension agentsT perception of the two most effective methods to be used as a follow-up o

Method Frequency Percentage

Method Demonstration 47 23.7Result Demonstration 42 21.2Tours 18 9.1Visits 18 9.1Exhibits 12 6.1Movies 12 6.1Meetings 10 5.1Radio and T.V. 10 5.1Office Calls 8 4.0Discussions 8 4.0Circular Letters 7 3.5Audio-Visuals 4 2.0Posters 2 1.0Total 198 100.0

74

The question for consideration was what methods can be effee- 1

tively used as a follow-up to encourage and convince farmers who

visited the demonstration farm to try the new ideas and practices

demonstrated in the extension demonstration farmso

Method and result demonstrations ranked at the top of the list

since they received 47 or 23.7% and 42 or 21.2%, respectively, of the

total responses„

Tours to innovators1 farms who were trying or adopting the new

ideas and practices demonstrated at the demonstration farm were also

important .as follow-up teaching- methods.

Farm visits to discuss individuals' problems regarding the

use of the new idea or practice were essential. Visits were also

necessary to ensure that the recommended techniques required for the

success of the new idea were followed.

Holding, .meetings and discussion groups where those who tried

the new ideas can talk about their experience is helpful. These

methods can encourage some farmers to try the new idea and at the

same time encourage those who tried it to adopt it. Wide publicity

through mass media and other channels for those who succeeded in trying

the new idea encourages others to adopt the new practice. Wide publi­

city will assist some people to become interested in the new idea; help

those who are in the evaluation stage have favorable attitudes toward

the new idea; and encourage other people to adopt the new idea.

CHAPTER V

SUMMARY? CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

In keeping with the. purpose of this studys this chapter deals

with the summary of findings9 conclusions and recommendations based

upon the objectives of this study*

Purpose and Objectives

The purpose of this study was to determine how Sudanese exten­

sion agents perceive and utilize extension demonstration farms as ex­

tension teaching methods designed to encourage farmers to adopt new

ideas and practices*

To achieve this purpose the following objectives were found

necessary:

(1) What purposes are served presently by the extension dem­

onstration farms?

(2) What categories of adoption are the extension demonstra­

tion farms attempting to reach?

(3) How effective are the extension demonstration farms in

achieving the various stages of the adoption process?

(4) What extension teaching methods can be used as follow-up

to increase effectiveness of extension demonstration farms to achieve

the various stages of the adoption process?

75

76

1 Summary of Findings

The summary of findings from this study are reported in terms

of. the objectives of. the study and organized under the same major

headings as in the presentation and interpretation of data0

The Purposes Presently Served by the Extension Demonstration Farms

1. Although originally designed to serve as-demonstration

farmss only 35«6% of the Sudanese extension agents indicated they are

used presently for this purpose; while 6662% of the extension agents

perceived and used them as model farms.

The Adoption; Categories to be Reached Through the Use of the Extension Demonstration Farms

1. By using these farms the majority of the extension agents

(57o7%) were trying to reach the local and.the community adoption

leaders; while 31,.2% of the extension agents were trying to reach the

majority and the laggards; and only 11.2% were trying to reach the in­

novators.

2. The local and the community adoption leaders were the two

categories which ranked first and second (receiving 32.7% and 23.4% of

the responses, respectively) of the categories to visit the extension

demonstration farms; the majority was third; the laggards ranked fourth;

and the innovators were at the bottom.

3. Result demonstrations, method demonstrations, and tours were

the three methods used, within the extension demonstration farms.

77

' 4 e Result demonstrations9 method demonstrations, and tours

were the three most effective methods for use. with innovators5 commun­

ity adoption leaders; local adoption leaders; and the majority,

5, Result demonstrations5 tours and exhibits were the most

effective to use for the laggards,

6, Result demonstrations and meetings were the two most ef­

fective methods to use with the innovators, community adoption leaders

and the majority,

7, Irrespective of using a demonstration farm, result demon­

stration and visits were identified as the two most effective methods

to use for the local adoption leaders,

8, Irrespective of using a demonstration farm, result and

method demonstrations were identified as the two most effective meth­

ods for the laggards.

The Effectiveness of the Extension Demonstration Farms in Achieving the Different Stages of the Adoption Process

1, Over 88% of the Sudanese extension agents perceive exten­

sion demonstration farms as effective,

2a The extension demonstration farms were viewed as most

effective at the evaluation stage; followed by the trial stage; the

interest stage, the awareness stage, and least effective at the

adoption stage,

3o The two most effective methods for the different stages of)

the adoption process as perceived by the respondents were meetings and

78

method demonstration for the awareness stage; and method and result

demonstrations for. the interest , evaluation, trial, and adoption stages«

4o A majority of the Sudanese extension agents (51.1%)

perceived themselves as utilizing the demonstration farms effectively.

Extension Teaching Methods that Can be Used as Follow-up to Increase Effectiveness of the Extension Demonstration Farms to Achieve the Various Stages of the Adoption Process

1. Method and result demonstrations were selected as the two

methods most useful as follow-up to increase the effectiveness of the

demonstration farms to achieve the various stages of the adoption

process.

Conclusions

Based upon the findings as presented in this chapter, the

following conclusions were drawn:

1». The Sudanese extension agents perception of the main pur­

pose of the extension demonstration farms, to be more related to model

farms than to demonstration farms.

2. The extension agents perceive the extension demonstration

farms as an effective teaching method; however almost 50% are not

utilizing these farms, effectively. This is due, in part, to financial

and material resources as well as the lack of a defined relationship

between extension and research to guarantee a flow of information be­

tween the two agencies.

3. There was no consensus as to what categories and at what

stage of the diffusion, process these extension demonstration farms are

79

‘most effective. For this reason there is no discrimination regarding

which categories of people are taken to visit the demonstration farms,

4 o Result and. method demonstrations as well as tours are ap­

propriate methods to be conducted within the demonstration farms,

,, Rec ommend at ion s

Based upon the findings5 the conclusions, and the author’s

experience and acquaintance with extension work and extension workers

in the. Sudan, the author recommends the following:

1, A seminar be conducted at the Extension Headquarters in Sudan, in­

volving key extension agents to discuss:

a. The main purpose of the extension demonstration farms,

b » The adoption categories to be reached through the use of these

extension demonstration farms,

Co The stage, or stages at which these demonstration farms will be

most effective,

d. The follow-up methods to be used to convince the target cate­

gories to.try.and adopt the new practices and ideas demonstrated

in the demonstration farms,

2, Induction training is recommended to newly appointed extension

agents to give them orientation about:

a. The strategy of extension work in the Sudan,

b. How to report activities,

c. Teaching, methods to be used, with whom,, and to achieve what,

80

3c Defining and operating a proper relationship between extension

agents, research people and specialized personnel in other depart­

ments (e.g*, Horticulture, Plant Protection, etc*)»

4c Since the resources available to extension are limited the exten­

sion agents should be directed to set realistic targets or goals

to achieveo

5o Innovators, and both community and local adoption leaders should be

identified in each community»

6, The extension demonstration farms can be very effective if used with

the limited available resources to help those people who are ready

to try a new idea or a practice and in making them successful

demonstrators for otherso

7o. Insure successful trials of. new products, practices, and ideas by

innovators and. early adopters through continuous visiting to advise

and guideo

8c Mass media, visual aids, and meetings can be utilized successfully

to make people aware of and to create interest among them for new

ideas and practices*

9c Result demonstrations should be practiced on demonstration farms

to help community and local adoption leaders at the evaluation stage*

10. Method demonstrations should be conducted in the demonstration farms

to teach innovator and community and local adoption leaders the

techniques required for the success of. the new idea or practice,

11 o. Community and the local ..adoption leaders should be taken on tours to

innovators and demonstration farms where new ideas and practices are

demonstrated or tried*

12o Farm.visits should be conducted regularly as a follow-up to indi­

vidual farmers to t

a. Encourage individuals to try new ideas and practices,

bo Understand the individualsf problems which may.hinder people

from trying the new ideas or practices and to discuss and

work out solutions for them.

G. Insure that techniques required for a successful trial are

performed and to give advice whenever needed or found

necessary.

13. Recognition.should be given to those who successfully tried the

new ideas and practices-thus acting as a reinforcer for adoption.

14. Recognitions and incentives should be available to those extension

workers who did a good job.

APPENDIX A

ASSESSMENT OF THE- EXTENSION DEMONSTRATION

FARMS AS AN EXTENSION TEACHING METHOD

Please answer the following questions by reading the question first and all the possible answers and then answer by placing a check (X) in the blank space provided in front of the answer*

I* Did you have any formal extension training? _____ yes noIF YES) did you study:

a) the communication, process? ____ yes j nob) the adoption process? yes _____ noc) the adoption categories? ____' yes _____ no

2 „ Do you or did you work in an extension office where an extension farm is used? yes no

3» Is the extension farm used primarily as a farm where..,* new methods and practices are tried? new crops are grown for the first time?

. _____ crops are grown in the ways t recommended by research workers?_____ crops are grown in both the traditional and the scientific

ways for comparison purposes?any other purpose not mentioned above? (If you checked this one please specify)

If your answer to question no * 1 was nc please do not answer ques­tions 4 to 10 and move to answer question no* 11 and the rest of the questions*

4, Do you think the extension farms are a useful tool in teachingpeople new ideas and practices? yes no _____ donftknow*

5e Which of the following categories of people could be reached most easily by using these extension farms? (you can check more than one category)

82

83_____ Innovators_____ Community adoption leaders Local adoption leaders The majority_____ Late adopters (laggards)

What category or categories do you take to visit the extension farms? Innovators

: Community adoption leaders_____ Local adoption leaders The majority_____ Late adopters_____ All the people available ~

. At which stage/stages of the adoption process do you think the ex­tension farms are most effective?_____ Awareness_____ Interest _____ Evaluation _ _ _ Trial _____ Adoption

What are the most appropriate extension teaching methods that could be used within the extension farms? (you can check more than one).

, - Result demonstration ___ _ Method demonstration Meetings

. Tours _____ Exhibits_____ Others (please specify) ____ • ______________________

What category/categories of people you think will benefit most from the method/methods you chose in question no. 8.

Innovators Commo Adoption Local Adop-Leaders tion Leaders

Result demonstration . _________________; ___________________Method demonstration ____________ , ____Meetings ' ;______ 'Tours . _ _ _ _ _ •Exhibits ' ' ' -____________Others ' - _________

The majority Late AdoptersResult demonstration - ■ 'Method demonstration , ■ .Meetings ________ ____ __ ___________Tours________________________________ ______________Others - _

84iOo What TWO extension teaching methods you think are most effective

to use as a follow-up to convince people to try the practices shown . in the demonstration farms?____________________ ____________

lie From, all the. extension methods you usually use write TWO which you think are most effective in*....a) the awareness stage

b) the interest stage

c) the evaluation stage

d) the trial stage

e) the adoption stage

12* From all the extension methods you usually use write TWO which you think are most effective to reach* *»* *a) the innovators _________________ ________ ______________________ _

b) the community adoption leaders _________________;____ ___

c) the local adoption leaders_________ ____________________________

d) the majority__________ ________________________________ _______

e) the late adopters________________________________________________

13* Do you think the extension workers are using these farms efficientlyto teach people new ideas and practices? yes no don't

know14* If no what do you suggest to improve the effectiveness of these

farms?

APPENDIX B

85

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APPENDIX G

COVER LETTER

Mr o _____

Please find attached a questionnaire to assess the role of

the Extension demonstration farms as a teaching method. This will be

the subject of my research for the degree of Master of Science (Exten­

sion) . I think you are well acquainted with the importance of such

research to our country as a whole and to the Extension Service (Sudan)

in particular.

I am sure that you will kindly give this questionnaire your

quickest response so that, it will reach me in good time to enable me

to include your contribution in my research.

Please find enclosed a self addressed envelope to return the

quesionnaire in,

and thank you

Yours sincerely,

M.. A. MAATOUG,

3401 No Columbus Apt. #14F Tucson, AZ 85712 U.S.A.Jan.12, 1981

92

APPENDIX D COVER LETTER

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93

APPENDIX E

FOLLOW-UP LETTER

To:

June I s 1981 . ^

Dear Colleagues9

Further to my letter dated Jan. 12, 1981, I have received

some responses from some of you but they were not enough to carry out

my analysiso So I will be waiting for those of you who were not able

to answer the questionnaire yet to be able to carry out my research*

More copies of the questionnaire are available at the Exten­

sion Headquarters at Khartoum North* The Director of the Extension

Directorate will send copy to you on request if you lost the former one*

Please feel free to ask for one*

I will be very grateful for your quick response of answering

the questionnaire and sending it to me at the address below,

and thanks.

Yours sincerely,

M e A* MAATOUG 3401 N* Columbus Apt* #14F Tucson, AZ 85712 U*S * A*

94

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LITERATURE CITED

Agricultural Extension Service* Division of Extension and Education* Department of Agriculture*. Khartoum* Sudan*, Seminar Proceedings of the First-National Agricultural Extension Seminar for Sudan* . April. 25-May 1* 1964»

Alleyne* E 0 P, and C* Verner, "Personal Contacts and the Adoption of Innovations*" Journal of Extension* IX No0 I (1971)* 42-43,

Anderson* M, A, The Diffusion Process. Special Report No. 18* Ames* Iowa: Iowa State College* Agricultural Extension Service* March*1957* 2-3.

Bailey* W, C* "Result Demonstrations *" Journal of Cooperative Exten- sion. II No. 1 (1964)* 14.

Beal* G, M. et al. "Validity of the Concept of Stages in the AdoptionProcess *" Rural Sociology* 22: (1951)* 166-168.

Bohlen* G. M.* C. M. Coughenour* C, Milton* H. F. Lionberger* E. 0,Moe and E. 0. Rogers. Adopters of New Farm Ideas* North CentralRegional Extension Publication No. 13* 1969* 3* 4* 7* 8* 9.

Brown* L. R. The World Food Prospect. Science* 190 (4218): 1053-1059.

Christopherson* D. G. "The Exploitation of Research*" Advancement of Science* November* 1962* 276.

Copp* J. H. et al. "The Function of Information Sources in the Farm Practice Adoption Process*" Rural Sociology* 23: 91958) 146-147.

Hovland* C. I. and W. Weiss* "The Influence of Source Credability onCommunication Effectiveness *" Published, in Experiments in• Persuasion* New York, and London* Academic Press * 1967* 9-27.

Kelsey * I. D. and C. C. Eeame... Cooperative Extension Work* Ithaca*New York* Comstock Associates* A Division of Cornell University Press * 1963.

Lawson * W. M.. and H. M. Dail* "Sources of Information for Farmers*" Journal of Cooperative Extension* IV* No. 3* 164.

Mlhistry of Agriculture* Food and Natural Resources of the Democratic Republic df^the.Sudan. =Food and the Sudan— Some Facts Prepared for the United Nations World Conference on the World Food Problem*

• Rome* November 5-16* 1974. -96

97

NCRS Subcommittee Report, How Farm People Accept New Ideas, NorthCentral Regional Publication No. I, of the Agricultural Extension Services, Special Report No. 15, (reprint), Cooperative Extension Service, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa, November, 1962.

Noordhoff, L. J. "Effective Communication in Extension," in Agricultu­ral Extension, by A. H. Maunder, Rome, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 1972.

Paul, L. C. "Is the Innovator Dead?" Journal of Extension, VIII, No.I, (1970), 9.

Pederson, H. A. "Cultural Differences in the Acceptance of Recommended Practices," Rural Sociology, 16: (1951), 37-49.

Poleman, T. T. World Food: A Perspective. Science 188(4188): 510-518.

Rogers, E. M. "The Adoption Process," (Part I) Journal of Cooperative Extension, I, No. 1 (1963), 16-17.

Rogers, E. M. Diffusion of Innovations, New York, The Free Press, 1966.

Sanders, H. C. The Cooperative Extension Service, Englewood Cliffs, N.J., Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1966.

Singh, I. B . and B . N. Sahay, Communication Behavior and Social Change, Nagar, New Delhi, -8 , Bookehive Publishers and Booksellers, 26/18, East Patel, 1972.

Vine, C. A. and M. A. Anderson, Heritage Horizons— Extension Commitment to People, Journal of Extension, 605 Extension Building, 432 N.Lake Street, Madison, Wisconsin.

Wilkening, E. A. Acceptance of Improved Farm Practices, Raleigh, North Carolina Agricultural Experiment Station Technical Bulletin, 98, (1952), 16.

Wilkening, E. A. Adoption of Improved Farm Practices as Related to Family Factors, Madison, Wisconsin Experiment Station Research Bulletin, 183, (1953), 9.

Wilson, M. C. and G. Gallup, Extension Teaching Methods, Extension Ser­vice Circular 495, August, 1955, Federal Extension Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture.