farmakokinetik b1

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THIAMINE ADMINISTRATION IN ALCOHOL-DEPENDENT PATIENTS Thiamine (vitamin B1) is a water-soluble vitamin that is involved in the metabolism of glucose and lipids as well as in the production of glucose-derived neurotransmitters (see Cook et al ., 1998). Its deficiency leads to a variety of neurological and cardiovascular symptoms and signs. Early symptoms may include fatigue, weakness and emotional disturbance, whereas prolonged gradual deficiency may lead to a form of polyneuritis (known as dry beriberi), cardiac failure or peripheral oedema (wet beriberi) (Thomson, 2000). Severe thiamine deficiency (TD) may result in the development of Wernicke's encephalopathy (WE). The classical signs of WE are ocular motility disorders (nystagmus, ophthalmoplegia), ataxia and mental changes (confusion, drowsiness, obtundation, clouding of consciousness, pre-coma and coma), although minor episodes of 'subclinical' encephalopathies are frequent (Reuler et al ., 1985). An appropriate treatment may correct most of these abnormalities; in contrast, the lack of a diagnosis of WE may result in serious consequences (Reuler et al ., 1985). When patients with WE were inappropriately treated with low doses of thiamine, mortality rates averaged ∼20% and Korsakoff's psychosis (KP) developed in ∼85% of survivors (Thomson et al ., 2002). KP is characterized by anterograde and retrograde amnesia, disorientation, poor recall and impairment of recent memory coupled with confabulation: approximately 25% of patients who are affected by KP require long-term institutionalization (Reuler et al ., 1985). Because of the close relationship between WE and KP, these two disorders are usually termed as the Wernicke–Korsakoff syndrome (WKS) and considered as a single disease (Thomson, 2000). Alcoholism is the most frequent cause of TD in Western countries and the prevalence of WKS is 8–10 times higher in alcoholics than in the general population (12.5 and 0.8%, respectively) (Reuler et al ., 1985). WKS is a clinical emergency that requires the rapid administration of high doses of thiamine; however, clear guidelines have not been provided in terms of the required dosage and the duration of treatment in alcoholic patients (Day et al ., 2004). The present letter is intended to provide some element of discussion on thiamine dosage, route of administration and duration of treatment in alcoholics. The daily requirement of thiamine is ∼1.5 mg; on deprivation, TD occurs within 2–3 weeks (Thomson, 2000). In normal subjects, the absorption of thiamine does not exceed 4.5 mg even when large doses of thiamine are administered orally (Thomson, 2000). In alcoholics, the oral absorption of thiamine is extremely variable, with some patients showing little or

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Page 1: Farmakokinetik B1

THIAMINE ADMINISTRATION IN ALCOHOL-DEPENDENT PATIENTS

Thiamine (vitamin B1) is a water-soluble vitamin that is involved in the metabolism of glucose

and lipids as well as in the production of glucose-derived neurotransmitters (see Cook  et al .,

1998). Its deficiency leads to a variety of neurological and cardiovascular symptoms and signs.

Early symptoms may include fatigue, weakness and emotional disturbance, whereas prolonged

gradual deficiency may lead to a form of polyneuritis (known as dry beriberi), cardiac failure or

peripheral oedema (wet beriberi) (Thomson, 2000).

Severe thiamine deficiency (TD) may result in the development of Wernicke's encephalopathy

(WE). The classical signs of WE are ocular motility disorders (nystagmus, ophthalmoplegia),

ataxia and mental changes (confusion, drowsiness, obtundation, clouding of consciousness, pre-

coma and coma), although minor episodes of 'subclinical' encephalopathies are frequent

(Reuler  et al ., 1985). An appropriate treatment may correct most of these abnormalities; in

contrast, the lack of a diagnosis of WE may result in serious consequences (Reuler  et al .,

1985). When patients with WE were inappropriately treated with low doses of thiamine, mortality

rates averaged ∼20% and Korsakoff's psychosis (KP) developed in ∼85% of survivors

(Thomson  et al ., 2002).

KP is characterized by anterograde and retrograde amnesia, disorientation, poor recall and

impairment of recent memory coupled with confabulation: approximately 25% of patients who are

affected by KP require long-term institutionalization (Reuler  et al ., 1985). Because of the

close relationship between WE and KP, these two disorders are usually termed as the Wernicke–

Korsakoff syndrome (WKS) and considered as a single disease (Thomson, 2000).

Alcoholism is the most frequent cause of TD in Western countries and the prevalence of WKS is

8–10 times higher in alcoholics than in the general population (12.5 and 0.8%, respectively)

(Reuler  et al ., 1985). WKS is a clinical emergency that requires the rapid administration of

high doses of thiamine; however, clear guidelines have not been provided in terms of the

required dosage and the duration of treatment in alcoholic patients (Day  et al ., 2004). The

present letter is intended to provide some element of discussion on thiamine dosage, route of

administration and duration of treatment in alcoholics.

The daily requirement of thiamine is ∼1.5 mg; on deprivation, TD occurs within 2–3 weeks

(Thomson, 2000). In normal subjects, the absorption of thiamine does not exceed 4.5 mg

even when large doses of thiamine are administered orally (Thomson, 2000). In alcoholics,

the oral absorption of thiamine is extremely variable, with some patients showing little or even no

absorption (Thomson, 2000). About 80% of alcoholics develop TD as the likely consequence

of inadequate nutritional intake, reduced absorption and impaired utilization of thiamine

(Singleton and Martin, 2001). In malnourished alcoholics, maximal absorption of thiamine

after a single oral dose is only 0.8 mg or less when alcohol has been consumed shortly

beforehand (Cook  et al ., 1998).

Parenteral administration of thiamine is unanimously considered the route of choice to replenish

thiamine stores as rapidly as possible (Reuler  et al ., 1985). However, physicians apparently

seldom prescribe parenteral administration of thiamine. As an example, a recent retrospective

study found that only one-fifth of patients, who were hospitalized for head injury and at risk for

TD, received thiamine (Ferguson  et al ., 2000). Among the latter, 75% were given thiamine

Page 2: Farmakokinetik B1

orally for a short period and at low doses. Physicians tend to be concerned about possible

adverse reactions such as anaphylaxis, dyspnoea/bronchospasm and rash/flushing (Cook  et

al., 1998) following parenteral administration. Nevertheless, it should be noted that these

reactions have been found to be 10–100 times less frequent than those secondary to penicillin

administration (Cook  et al ., 1998). Moreover, a slow infusion of thiamine (i.e. over a 30-min

period) appears to reduce the possible occurrence of adverse reactions (Thomson  et al .,

2002).

Some recent papers by Cook, Thomson and colleagues (Cook and Thomson,

1997, Thomson and Cook, 1997, Cook  et al ., 1998, Hope  et al ., 1999, Cook,

2000, Thomson, 2000, Thomson  et al ., 2002) describe in detail both the prophylaxis

and the treatment regimen of WKS in terms of thiamine dosage and duration of treatment.

Specifically, the prophylactic treatment for at-risk patients consists of an intramuscular

administration of 250 mg thiamine (plus other B vitamins and ascorbic acid), once daily for 3–5

consecutive days. Cases of established WE should be treated empirically with a minimum of 500

mg thiamine (plus other B vitamins and ascorbic acid), i.v. or i.m., three times daily, for at least 2

days. In patients with ataxia, polyneuritis, confusion or memory disturbance, the treatment should

be continued until clinical improvement is registered.

Adherence to the above suggestions requires appropriate pharmaceutical preparations. In Italy,

thiamine content in parenteral preparations that are available presently varies from 2 to 100 mg

per ampoule. According to the above-mentioned indications for WKS treatment, an Italian patient

should receive, as a minimum, the improbable number of 15 ampoules per day.

It is highly predictable that the lack of an adequate preparation, along with the lack of clear

guidelines on dosage and duration of treatment, will continue to result in the prescription of a

quantity of thiamine that does not concur with those deemed to be effective

Alcohol & Alcoholism Vol. 40, No. 2 © Medical Council on Alcohol 2005; all rights

reserved

Tiamin ADMINISTRASI PASIEN ALKOHOL - TERGANTUNG

Tiamin ( vitamin B1 ) merupakan vitamin yang larut dalam air yang terlibat dalam metabolisme glukosa dan lipid serta dalam produksi neurotransmitter yang diturunkan glukosa (lihat Masak et al . , 1998) . Defisiensi yang menyebabkan berbagai gejala neurologis dan kardiovaskular dan tanda-tanda . Gejala awal mungkin termasuk kelelahan , kelemahan dan gangguan emosional , sedangkan kekurangan bertahap berkepanjangan dapat menyebabkan bentuk polyneuritis ( beri-beri kering dikenal sebagai ) , gagal jantung atau edema perifer ( beri-beri basah ) ( Thomson , 2000) .

Kekurangan tiamin parah ( TD ) dapat mengakibatkan pengembangan ensefalopati Wernicke ( WE ) . Tanda-tanda klasik dari KAMI adalah gangguan motilitas okular ( nystagmus , oftalmoplegia ) , ataksia dan perubahan mental ( kebingungan ,

Page 3: Farmakokinetik B1

mengantuk , obtundation , mengaburkan kesadaran , pra - koma dan koma ) , meskipun episode kecil ' subklinis ' ensefalopati sering ( Reuler et al . , 1985) . Sebuah pengobatan yang tepat dapat memperbaiki sebagian besar kelainan ini ; Sebaliknya , kurangnya diagnosis KAMI dapat menyebabkan konsekuensi serius ( Reuler et al . , 1985) . Ketika pasien dengan KITA yang tidak tepat diobati dengan dosis rendah tiamin , tingkat kematian rata-rata ~ 20 % dan psikosis Korsakoff ( KP ) yang dikembangkan di ~85 % dari korban ( Thomson et al . , 2002) .

KP ditandai dengan anterograde amnesia retrograde dan , disorientasi , mengingat miskin dan gangguan memori baru ditambah dengan omongan : sekitar 25 % dari pasien yang terkena KP membutuhkan pelembagaan jangka panjang ( Reuler et al , 1985 . ) . Karena hubungan erat antara WE dan KP , kedua gangguan ini biasanya disebut sebagai sindrom Wernicke - Korsakoff ( WKS ) dan dianggap sebagai penyakit tunggal ( Thomson , 2000) .Alkoholisme merupakan penyebab paling sering dari TD di negara-negara Barat dan prevalensi WKS adalah 8-10 kali lebih tinggi pada pecandu alkohol daripada populasi umum ( 12,5 dan 0,8 % , masing-masing) ( Reuler et al . , 1985) . WKS adalah keadaan darurat klinis yang memerlukan administrasi yang cepat dari dosis tinggi tiamin ; Namun , panduan yang jelas belum diberikan dalam hal dosis yang diperlukan dan durasi pengobatan pada pasien alkoholik ( Day et al . , 2004) . Surat ini dimaksudkan untuk memberikan beberapa unsur diskusi tentang dosis tiamin , rute pemberian dan durasi pengobatan pada pecandu alkohol .

Kebutuhan harian tiamin adalah ~1.5 mg ; pada kekurangan , TD terjadi dalam waktu 2-3 minggu ( Thomson , 2000) . Pada subjek normal , penyerapan tiamin tidak melebihi 4,5 mg bahkan ketika dosis besar tiamin diberikan secara oral ( Thomson , 2000 ) . Pada pecandu alkohol , penyerapan oral tiamin sangat bervariasi , dengan beberapa pasien yang menunjukkan sedikit atau bahkan tidak ada penyerapan ( Thomson , 2000) . Sekitar 80 % pecandu alkohol mengembangkan TD sebagai konsekuensi kemungkinan asupan gizi yang tidak memadai , mengurangi penyerapan dan gangguan pemanfaatan tiamin ( Singleton dan Martin , 2001) . Pada pecandu alkohol kurang gizi , penyerapan maksimal tiamin setelah dosis oral tunggal hanya 0,8 mg atau kurang ketika alkohol telah dikonsumsi sesaat sebelumnya ( Masak et al . , 1998) .

Pemberian parenteral dari tiamin adalah suara bulat dianggap sebagai rute pilihan untuk mengisi toko tiamin secepat mungkin ( Reuler et al . , 1985) . Namun, dokter ternyata meresepkan jarang pemberian parenteral tiamin . Sebagai contoh , sebuah penelitian retrospektif baru-baru ini menemukan bahwa hanya seperlima dari pasien , yang dirawat di rumah sakit untuk cedera kepala dan beresiko untuk TD , menerima tiamin ( Ferguson et al . , 2000 ) . Di antara yang terakhir , 75 % diberi tiamin oral untuk waktu yang singkat dan pada dosis rendah . Dokter cenderung khawatir tentang efek samping yang mungkin seperti anafilaksis , dyspnoea / bronkospasme dan ruam / pembilasan ( Masak et al . , 1998) setelah pemberian parenteral . Namun demikian , perlu dicatat bahwa reaksi ini telah ditemukan untuk menjadi 10-100 kali lebih sering daripada yang sekunder untuk administrasi penisilin ( Masak et al . , 1998) . Selain itu , infus lambat tiamin ( yaitu selama periode 30 - menit ) tampaknya mengurangi kemungkinan terjadinya efek samping ( Thomson et al . , 2002)Beberapa makalah terbaru oleh Cook, Thomson dan rekan ( Cook and Thomson , 1997 , Thomson dan Cook, 1997 , Masak et al . , 1998 , Harapan et al . , 1999 , Cook, 2000 , Thomson , 2000 , Thomson et al . , 2002 ) menjelaskan secara rinci baik profilaksis dan rejimen pengobatan WKS dalam hal dosis tiamin dan durasi pengobatan . Secara khusus , pengobatan profilaksis untuk pasien yang berisiko terdiri dari administrasi intramuskular 250 mg tiamin ( ditambah vitamin B lainnya dan asam askorbat ) , sekali sehari selama 3-5 hari berturut-turut . Kasus didirikan KAMI harus diperlakukan secara empiris dengan minimal 500 mg tiamin ( ditambah vitamin B lainnya dan asam askorbat ) , iv atau i.m. , tiga kali sehari , setidaknya 2 hari . Pada pasien dengan ataksia , polyneuritis , kebingungan atau gangguan memori , pengobatan harus dilanjutkan sampai perbaikan klinis terdaftar .

Page 4: Farmakokinetik B1

Kepatuhan terhadap saran di atas membutuhkan sediaan farmasi yang sesuai . Di Italia , konten tiamin dalam persiapan parenteral yang tersedia saat ini bervariasi 2-100 mg per ampul . Menurut indikasi yang disebutkan di atas untuk pengobatan WKS , pasien Italia harus menerima , sebagai minimum , jumlah mustahil dari 15 ampul per hari .

Hal ini sangat diprediksi bahwa kurangnya persiapan yang memadai , bersama dengan kurangnya panduan yang jelas tentang dosis dan durasi pengobatan , akan terus menghasilkan resep dari jumlah tiamin yang tidak setuju dengan orang-orang yang dianggap efektif .

http://alcalc.oxfordjournals.org/content/40/2/155