BY: JEANNE FLORES-PURPURA

Exploring the Factor Structure of Cognitive

Language Learning Strategies

The past twenty years have witnessed a large body of second language research targeting language learning strategies (e.g. Anderson 2003; Chamot et al. 1999; Cohen 1998, 2002; Ehrman et al. 2003; Grenfell and Harris 1999;Lan and Oxford 2003; Macaro 2001; MacIntyre 1994; McDonough 1995, 1999; Nunan 1997; O’Malley et al. 1985; O’Malley and Chamot 1990; Oxford 1990, 1996; Purdie and Oliver 1999; Purpura 1999; Wenden 1991;Wenden and Rubin 1987; Yamamori et al. 2003).

The majority of the work in the learning strategy literature had more practical goals, namely to explore ways of empowering language learners to become more self-directed and effective in their learning.

Strategy specialists believe that learners with strategic knowledge of language learning, compared with those without, become more efficient, resourceful, and flexible, thus acquiring a language more easily.

If learners can develop, personalize, and use a repertoire of learning strategies, they will be able to achieve language proficiency in a much facilitated manner

Macaro’s (2001) said that ‘One thing seems to be increasingly clear and that is that, across learning contexts, those learners who are pro-active in their pursuit of language learning appear to learn best.’

Weinstein and Mayer (1986) define strategies as ‘the behaviours and thoughts that a learner engages in during learning that are intended to influence the learner’s encoding process’.

Weinstein et al. (2000) have redefined learning strategies as ‘any thoughts, behaviours, beliefs, or emotions that facilitate the acquisition understanding, or later transfer of new knowledge and skills’.

Language learning strategies are actions taken by second and foreign language learners to control and improve their own learning. They are keys to greater autonomy and more meaningful learning (Oxford, 1990).

These are conscious steps taken by students to enhance their own learning, more particularly, specific actions taken by the learner to make learning easier, faster, more enjoyable, more self directed, more effective , and more transferable to new situations.

* Language learning strategies is defined as the instruments of tactics that students employ in performing the learning duties based on such language skills as speaking, writing, listening and writing.

Learning Strategies

Direct Strategies1.Memory2.Cognitive3.CompensationIndirect Strategies1.Metacognitive2.Affective3.Social

Oxford’s (1990) Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (SILL).

This measures how often students report using certain learning strategies in general L2 learning situations. Results are helpful for understanding the general or typical frequency of strategy use by an individual.

A number of SILL studies have shown that L2 strategy use is associated with proficiency (Bedell & Oxford, 1996; Dreyer & Oxford, 1996; Green & Oxford, 2003; ku, 1995; Mullins, 1992), learning style (Ehrman & Oxford, 1990; Oxford & Cohen, 2004; Rossi-Le, 1995), gender (Ehrman & Oxford, 1989; Green & Oxford, 1995; Gu, 2002; Oxford and Nyikos, 1989), motivation (Oxford & Nyikos, 1989)

Cognitive strategies involve identifying, retaining, storing and retrieving words, phrases and other elements of the second language.

Theoretical Framework:

Oxford’s (1990) Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (SILL) version 7.0

• Researcher modified SILL• 80 item cognitive language learning

strategies• Four factors: practicing; receiving and

sending messages; analyzing and reasoning; creating structure for input and output

Cognitive Language Strategies

A. Practicing1. repeating2. formally practicing with sounds and writing systems3.recognizing and using formulas and patterns4. recombining5. practicing naturally

B. Receiving and Sending Messages1. getting the idea quickly2. using resources for receiving and sending messages

C. Analyzing and Reasoning1. reasoning deductively2. analyzing expressions3. analyzing contrastively (across languages)4. translating5. transferring

D. Creating Structure for Input and Output1. taking notes2. summarizing3. highlighting

Methodology

• 80 item test• questionnaire was evaluated by an expert• Researcher administered the test• Likert- scale• Items were randomly arranged• (see questionnaire)

Principal Component Analysis

The PCA procedure extracted 20 factors with eigenvalues greater than 1. But using scree test to assess the number of acceptable factors, only four factors were analyzed. There were no items with high factor loadings starting at the 15th to the 20th factor

Plot of Eigenvalues

P lo t o f E i g e n va lu e s

Nu m b e r o f E ig e n va lu e s0

2

4

6

8

1 0

1 2

1 4

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Va

lue

The factor loadings were rotated using the varimax and items with loadings of .40 and above were included in the final form of the test.

Reliability results

Number of items in scale: 80Number of items with zero variance: 0Number of valid cases: 100Number of cases with missing data: 0Missing data were deleted: casewise

SUMMARY STATISTICS FOR SCALEMean: 258.28000000 Sum: 25828.000000Standard Deviation: 38.814003513 Variance: 1506.5268687 Skewness: -.109279615 Kurtosis: .456083612 Minimum: 142.00000000 Maximum: 372.00000000 Cronbach's alpha: .945660555

These new four factors were categorized as taking note of language structure to practice skills, summarizing skills and applying it to situations, and using references to improve proficiency.

A. Taking note of language structure to practice skills

I record and listen to my own voice as I speak in English.

I recognize and practice English expressions (such as greetings, idiomatic expressions).

I consult the English dictionary if I meet unfamiliar words in English.

I consult the thesaurus, or reference materials if I meet unfamiliar words in English.

I develop my own understanding of how the English language works, even if sometimes I have to revise my understanding based on new information.

B. summarizing skills and applying it to situations

20. I make summaries in English.22. I use the English language when talking with my friends,

peers, acquaintances and family members.24. I write in English all the time.32. I translate words in English to my own language to

understand it better.33. In understanding some difficult English words, I try to

find their similarity to my own language.36. I break down difficult phrases into its component parts to

help me understand unfamiliar phrases in the English language.

49. If I am not familiar with the word I am about to use in my sentence, I use the dictionary to be certain that I am using it correctly.

50. To limit redundancy in the use of words in my paragraph, I use the thesaurus.

C. Using references to improve proficiency

I look for similarities between the English language and my own.

I look for contrasts between the English language and my own.

When I hear an unfamiliar word in a movie, I check the dictionary to get its meaning.