gender and economic issues 1 ortions © copyright 2012 alan s. berger and other portions ©...

ortions © Copyright 2012 Alan S. Berger and other portions © Copyright 2011 Pearson Education, inc

1

Gender and Economic Issues


2

Historical Overview

• The home as workplace– On farms men and women worked together in the

fields– Women produced cloth from raw products– Women worked in family-owned businesses– In wealthier homes, female slave labor and servants

provided domestic work• The Industrial Revolution– Women worked in textile factories – the “Lowell girls”


3

Historical Overview, cont.

• Victorian Myths– Middle-class, white women “ideal” was the

homemaker– Working class women worked in factories– Women of color had lower-skilled, more rigorous jobs

• War and Jobs– When women moved into traditionally male jobs, pay

and prestige of that occupation declined


4

Historical Perspective

• As the industrial revolution took hold– More and more women joined the work force– Production was moving from the farm to the

factory• While this effected both men and women, it

impacted poor and immigrant women especially– Because middle class women were expected to

stay home and be “a good wife”


5

Historical data

• In 1800 only about 5% of women worked outside the home

• By 1900 it was more like 30%– Mostly in large cities, New England textile mills– The garment industry

• Long days , sometimes 14-18 hours for 10-18 cents


6

Historical Perspectives


7

Historical data

• Widespread stereotypes limited women to different types of jobs than men held.– Passivity– Physical weakness– Greater tolerance of tedium– Only willing to work until married– Paid work is unladylike– No woman would have to work if men were paid

fairly


8

Historical data

• As society changed due to industrialization and urbanization– New jobs created for white middle class women– Lobbied for social reform, child labor laws, wage and

health measures.– Created “female jobs/professions”

• Nursing• Teaching• Social Work• Women’s natural dexterity led to the creation of secretarial

and office jobs


9

Labor Force participation

• From 1900 to 2001 – Men’s rate went from 53.7% to 74.1% (and the

last number is down from 87.4% in 1995)– Women’s rate went from 20.0% to 60.2% (and the

last number is down from 71.5% in 1995)• And as the participation level went up women

were accused of stealing jobs from men– Anything similar happening today?


10

Labor Force participation

• The Impact of World War II– Government tried to get women paid the same as

the men they were replacing.– Women laid off when troops returned.– Birth Rate skyrocketed

• Post WW II– Increase in divorce rates – Changes in divorce laws– Both increased the need for women to work


11

Sex Segregation on theJob

• Sociologists use the Dissimilarity/Segregation Index to measure the extent of segregation– It is basically a measure of the percentage of a

population group that would have to move to balance the distribution

– Originally developed to measure racial segregation– Much more widely used now.


12


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Problems with the index

• It’s utility depends on how broadly groups are defined.

• Example– Real Estate Brokers/Sales– Mostly women?• Women in home sales• Who sells commercial properties?

• Tokenism– Pressure to perform


15

Harassment

• Leers, whistles, comments, coercion

• Do Men and Women respond differently

• Legal definitions


16

Unequal Pay in Biblical Times• The Lord spoke to Moses and said ‘Speak to the Israelites in these words.

When a man makes a special vow to the Lord which requires your valuation of living persons, a male between twenty and fifty years old shall be valued at fifty silver shekels, that is shekels by the sacred standard. If it is a female, she shall be valued at thirty shekels.’ [Textbook]

• The Lord spoke to Moses saying: ‘Speak to the Israelite people and say to them. When a man explicitly vows to the Lord the equivalent of a human being the following scale shall apply. If it is a male from twenty to sixty years of age the equivalent is fifty shekels of silver by the sanctuary weight.; if it is a female, the equivalent is thirty shekels…’ and it continues with additional equivalences for different ages. [JPS translation Leviticus 27:1-4]


17

1963 Equal Pay Act

• Newman, David Exploring the Architecture of Everyday Life SAGE ©2010


18

The Narrowing Gap ?

• The difference in men and women’s pay still exists, and the size of the gap fluctuates

• Explanations for the narrowing:– Women’s pay improved men’s didn’t– Women’s pay stayed the same, men’s fell– An increase in the minimum wage mainly helped

women


19

Unequal Pay


20

Disparities in Pay


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The Wage Gap

• Gender gap in wages persists• Endures even when taking age, type of job,

seniority, and region into account• At all educational levels, men earn more than

women• This impacts overall life earnings and retirement

income• Currently women earn 77.5% of what men earn


24

The Gender Wage Gap, 1965-2008


25

The Gender Wage Gap, cont.

• Gender wage gap is greater for women of color

• Wage levels of minority women are lower than minority men

• Gay workers have an earnings disadvantage• Lesbian workers have an earning advantage


26

Explaining the Wage Gap

• Human Capital Model– Gender wage gap is partly due to lower personal

investment women make in their careers– Gender wage gap is partly due to oversupply of

workers for gender-typed occupations– Gender wage gap is partly due to flexibility the job

offers to workers– Consistent with Functionalism


27

Explaining the Wage Gap, cont

• Symbolic Interactionism and Conflict Theory– Power relations of men and women in the

workforce • The “good old boys” system• Necessity of mentoring

– Definitions of masculinity and femininity in the workplace• If too masculine, women won’t be accepted • If too feminine, women won’t be taken seriously


28

Factors related to the Gender based Pay Gap

• Race• Education• Children – the motherhood penalty– Women, but not men who have children are paid

less• Type of Work– Permanent full time– Permanent temporary


29

Gender and Poverty

• What is poverty?– Relative/Absolute– Other definitions– The US poverty line

• Racial differences in Poverty– White: 10.5%– Asian American : 12.5%– Black: 26.1%– Latino: 26.6%– Native American: 31.2 %


30

Gender and Poverty

• Female headed households 29.7%• Married couple households: 5.3 %• White Female headed households 24.9 %• Black Female headed households : 40.8%• Hispanic Female headed households: 43.7%– (Data published in 2000)

• A Majority of people in poverty are working !


31

Gender and Poverty

• Study found working mothers were worse off than mothers on welfare– Took in more but had more work related expenses– Working mothers did not have the health

insurance welfare provided (Medicaid)• Average welfare mother spent $300 more per

month than welfare provided


32

Gender and Poverty

• Clinton Reforms– Assumed the only way out of poverty was work– Reduced numbers of people on welfare– Reduced number in poverty– Worked when the economy was expanding– Horrific consequences in a recession/depression


33

Gender, Age, and Poverty

• Women over represented among individuals in poverty– Elderly single women

• About 58% of the population over54 is female– Females are75% of elderly poor

• 2/3 of elderly who live alone are widows• More women than men among the elderly

and they live longer.


34

Gender, Age, and Poverty

• Women’s pensions are lower– Fewer working years due to children

• Average private benefit for women is about $3900/year compared to men who are about $7500– About 1/3 of retired women on social security get

benefits based on husband’s earnings


35

Human Capital

• Theory says women invest less in preparing to work than men so they get less back– Alternative way of looking at capital- society’s

investments• Most unemployed women would prefer to

work if it was possible– Costs of working?• Child care• Transportation


36

Human Capital

• Worker decisions reflect opportunities open• Men have tried to keep women out of “male

jobs”• Sex differences in education – Men from elite law schools made $14,700 more

than men from other law schools– School did not make a difference among women


37

Human Capital

• Who decides if a job is a “skilled” job?• Men have controlled the training in crafts and

professions• Out of date stereotypes still persist– Glass ceiling– Racial stereotypes as well (see Pp 242-243)– Employers make decisions about individuals based

on their perception of groups


38

Human Capital

• Sexist workplaces– Women feel they have to men’s work styles• Men are aggressive• Women are “pushy”

• Legislation– In the 1960’s gender discrimination was legal– 1964 Civil rights act began changes• Executive Order 11246 banned advertising for sex

labeled or sex-specific jobs– stewardess became attendant


39

Balancing Multiple Work and Family Roles

• Employment and Health– Good psychological functioning emphasizes work

and relationships– Role enhancement hypothesis– Role overload hypothesis • The second shift

– Discussion: Which hypothesis is more accurate?


40

Employment and Health

• Caregiving and unpaid work– Third shift of caregiving for elderly relatives expected

of women– Sandwich generation – Caring for children and caring

for elderly parents– Managing household resources– Creating and maintaining future workforce

• Money and mental health– Financial and psychological dependencies go hand-in-

hand


41

Family and the Workplace

• Family of orientation – first socialization agent• Family of procreation – continuing socialization• Employed mothers organize child-care

arrangements, after-school activities, and accommodate work schedules for their children

• Child-care issues have a spill-over effect on the careers of women


42

Family and the Workplace, cont.

• Career orientation includes a high degree of:– Commitment – Personal sacrifice – Planned career path

• Women with careers are likely to have smaller families and fewer children under age 6


43

Family and the Workplace, cont.

• Married women have higher rates of interrupted job mobility

• Married women are more likely to move for their husband’s career

• Employers view employees who are mothers and fathers differently


44

The Legal System

• Family and Medical Leave Act, 1993– More women take leave and take longer leaves than

men– U.S. and Australia are the only developed nations

without paid leave• Equal Pay Act, 1963• Title VII of Civil Rights Act, 1964• Affirmative Action• Comparable worth


45

Women in the Labor Force

• Half of the labor force is female• Men’s unemployment has increased faster

than women’s during the current recession• Occupational segregation bolsters gender-

typing• Glass escalator effect – Men in female-typed

occupations are on a fast-track for promotion


46

Women and Men in Selected Occupational Categories


47

Women in the Labor Force, cont.

• White-collar women– Higher percentage of women in management and

professions than there are men– Benefit as companies promote from within

• Blue-collar women– Underrepresented– Ranked in lower-paying jobs along with minority

men, although minority men are paid more


48

Ten Leading Occupations of Employed Women


49

Corporate Women

• Few women in upper-management or boards of directors in corporations

• Glass ceiling – barriers to upward mobility– Role conflict, gender stereotypes, lack of mentors,

isolation, sexual harassment– Employers hire and promote those that resemble

themselves• Family friendly policies benefit both men and

women


50

Women Business Owners

• Form their own business as an alternative to management positions in a large organization

• Women-owned business are 1/3 of all business in the U.S.

• Develop businesses around traditional female work– Tend to be in competition with other women

• Start companies that compete with their former employer


51

Gendered Management Styles: The Partnership Alternative

• Socialization patterns of females emphasize cooperation, mentoring, encouragement

• Japanese Style Management– Flattened organizational structure– Interested in employees outside of workplace

• Critique– Works best in small organizations– Re-enforces stereotypes


52

Global Focus: Microenterprise and Women

• Microenterprise – businesses located in or around the home

• Microcredit – groups of 4-5 receiving small loans to start or advance a microenterprise

• Begun by Professor Muhammad Yunus in the 1970s

• Focused on female-owned businesses, who reinvest in their families or business


53

Global Focus: Microenterprise and Women, cont.

• Critique– Men may gain control of funds– Challenges cultural and religious norms which

could result in increased domestic violence• Professor Muhammad Yunus earned the

Noble Peace Price for beginning microcredit

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