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Gondwana Research 24 (2013) 1172–1202

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Geodynamics of gold metallogeny in the Shandong Province, NE China: An integratedgeological, geophysical and geochemical perspective

Pu Guo a, M. Santosh a, Shengrong Li a,b,⁎a School of Earth Sciences and Resources, China University of Geosciences Beijing, 29 Xueyuan Road, Beijing 100083, Chinab State Key Laboratory of Geological Processes and Mineral Resources, China University of Geosciences, 29 Xueyuan Road, Beijing 100083, China

⁎ Corresponding author at: School of Earth Sciences aof Geosciences Beijing, 29 Xueyuan Road, Beijing 1001732.

E-mail address: [email protected] (S. Li).

1342-937X/$ – see front matter © 2013 International Ahttp://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gr.2013.02.004

a b s t r a c t
a r t i c l e i n f o
Article history:Received 31 December 2012Received in revised form 8 February 2013Accepted 9 February 2013Available online 26 February 2013

Handling Editor: W.J. Xiao

Keywords:Gold metallogenyGeophysical characteristicsGeochemical featuresTectonicsPacific subduction

The Shandong Province along the southeastern margin of the North China Craton is the largest gold produc-ing region in China. The nature and extent of gold metallogeny between the Western Shandong (Luxi) andEastern Shandong (Jiaodong) sectors display marked contrast. In this paper, we synthesize the informationon mineralization and magmatism, S–Pb–H–O–C–He–Ar isotopic data of the ores and Sr–Nd–Pb–Hf isotopicdata of the Mesozoic plutons from the Shandong region. Combined with the salient regional geophysical data,we discuss the geodynamic setting of the gold mineralization in Shandong. The age data converge to indicatethat the peak of gold metallogeny in this region occurred at ca. 120 ± 10 Ma. The mineralization in Luxi areashows links with sources in the Tongjing and Yinan complexes. The ore-forming materials in the Jiaodongarea were derived from multiple sources and show clear evidence for crust–mantle mixing. The Mohodepth on both sides of the Tan–Lu fault is broadly similar with only a minor variation across the Tan–Lufault. The LAB (lithosphere–asthenosphere boundary) in the Jiaodong region is shallower than that in theLuxi area. The Tan–Lu fault is identified as a major corridor for asthenosphere upwelling. Geochemical fea-tures show that the mantle beneath the Luxi area is mainly of EM1 type, whereas the mantle in the easternpart, close to the Tan–Lu fault shows mixed EM1 and EM2 features. In contrast, the mantle beneath theJiaodong area is mainly of EM2 type, suggesting the existence of more ancient lithospheric mantle beneaththe Luxi area, in comparison to the extensively modified lithospheric mantle and asthenosphere beneaththe Jiaodong area. The gold metallogeny in Shandong Province occurred in the geodynamic setting of litho-spheric thinning. The differences in the character and intensity of gold mineralization between the Westernand Eastern Shandong regions might be a reflection of the contrasting tectonic histories. The WesternShandong region preserves imprints of destruction through the Yangtze plate collision which probably marksthe prelude for goldmetallogeny in Jiaodong area. Subsequent magmatic input and cratonic destruction throughPacific plate subduction provided the settings for the later widespread mineralization in multiple phases.

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1. Introduction

The geological settings, host rocks, nature ofmineralization and geo-chemical signatures have been used as important parameters to classifygold deposits over the globe into various categories (e.g., Robert et al.,1997). Among these, the intrusion-related vein gold deposits havebeen further classified into a number of sub-types (Sillitoe andThompson, 1998). Gold deposits over the globe have also been classifiedbased on their geodynamic setting, such as the convergent marginorogenic gold deposits, continental margin to intracratonic Carlin andCarlin-like gold deposits, arc-related epithermal gold–silver deposits,oceanic arc to continental arc copper–gold porphyry deposits, anoro-genic to late orogenic iron-oxide copper–gold deposits, and gold-rich

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submarine volcanic hosted massive sulfide (VMS) to sedimentaryexhalative (SEDEX) deposits (Kerrich et al., 2000). The circum Pacificmetallogenic belt and surrounding regions to the East and West sidesof the Eurasian plate and the Variscan–Tethyan metallogenic belts areamong the major gold producers of the globe (e.g., Deng et al., 2002).Goldfarb et al. (2007) considered the Early Cretaceous “orogenic golddeposits” in eastern Asia as globally unique in that large Phanerozoiclode gold deposits occur in this region within Archean–Paleoproterozoiccratons. They correlated the gold deposits in northern Pacific region,the ca. 125 Ma orogenic gold deposits in the North China, Yangtze,and Siberian craton margins, as well as in young terranes in California,to a giant Cretaceous mantle plume in the southern Pacific basin andthe relatively rapid tectonic consequences along both continentalmargins resulting from Pacific plate reconfigurations. Chen et al.(1992) divided the gold deposits in China into several genetic typesbased on the nature of mineralization, main ore controlling factors,the composition and structure of the ores and the nature of the hostrock types. Liu et al. (2000) classified the major gold deposits of China

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1173P. Guo et al. / Gondwana Research 24 (2013) 1172–1202

into medium-deep vein type, hypabyssal vein type, porphyry type,skarn type and placer (alluvial) type. Lu (2002) further refined theclassification into magmatic–hydrothermal type, volcanic–subvolcanictype, sedimentary–metamorphic type, metamorphic–hydrothermaltype, sub-surface thermal brine leaching type, weathering crust typeand sedimentary type.

The Shandong Province along the southeastern margin of theNorth China craton is the largest gold producing region in China,yielding about 30 t bullions per year. The gold reserves occupymore than 25% of the total reserve of the country, with 90% of thegold deposits concentrated in the Jiaodong area (Zhai et al., 2001;Zhou et al., 2002; Fan et al., 2005; Li et al., 2006). The reserves identi-fied so far, the concentration of large deposits and the scales of indi-vidual deposits in the area are the largest among the various goldmetallogenic belts in China (Li et al., 2006). At present, the ShandongProvince has 159 gold mines, including 39 large and medium minesand 120 small mines. According to statistics, 13 of the 17 towns inShandong Province have gold deposits. The proved reserves are main-ly concentrated in Yantai, Weihai, and Qingdao, which account for93% of the gold reserves of Shandong. Among the various depositsin this region, the Linglong gold deposit in Zhaoyuan area and theJiaojia–Xincheng gold deposit in Laizhou area are the two superlarge gold fields in East Shandong. The second largest reserve occursin the Pingyi area in southwest Shandong (Liu, 2004).

The major metallogenic belt of Shandong Province belongs to theregion bordering the Western Pacific domain. The second belt oc-curs in the North China Platform and Taishan Dabie orogenic belt.The third set of occurrences include the East Shandong metallogenicbelt, Tan–Lu fault metallogenic belt, West Shandong metallogenicbelt, North China Basin and Jiaonan orogenic metallogenic belt(Liu and Chen, 2002; Song et al., 2007). The gold reserves in theShandong Province aremainly distributed in East Shandongmetallogeniczone, Jiaonan metallogenic zone and West Shandong (Chen et al.,1998).

The gold deposits in the Jiaodong gold belt are genetically separatedinto Zhaoyuan–Laizhou–Changyi belt, Qixia–Daotou–Pingdu belt,Muping–Rushan belt, Weihai–Wendeng belt, and Taocun–Haiyang–Laiyang belt, largely based on the gold distribution, nature of magmaticrocks, tectonic settings, geophysical and geochemical prospectinganomalies, and placer deposits (Wang et al., 2003; G.Z. Xu et al., 2004;Y.G. Xu et al., 2004a). X.P. Qiu et al. (2008) divided the Jiaodong gold re-gion into 4metallogenic belts: (1) the first gold ore belt located inwest-ern Sanshandao–Cangshang fault shear zone, including the sea domain;(2) the second gold ore belt located between Jiaojia–Huangxian arcshear zone and Zhaoping curved shear zone representing the largestgold metallogenic belt in Jiaodong as well is in China; (3) the thirdgold ore belt comprising the Muping–Rushan metallogenic belt; and(4) the fourth gold ore belt named Muping–Jimo metallogenic belt(also known as the Guocheng metallogenic belt). The Luxi area hasmuch less gold deposits as compared to those in the Jiaodong area,both in their quantity and size. Several scattered and small depositsalso occur in the region, such as those in the Pingyi and Yinan areas.Based on the spatial distribution of gold deposits, ore-controllingstructures, and metallogenic features, Song et al. (2007) dividedthe Shandong gold deposits into 7 metallogenic zones: Sanshandao–Cangshang metallogenic belt, Loukou–Laizhou metallogenic belt,Zhaoyuan–Pingdu metallogenic belt, Muping-Rushan metallogenicbelt, Qixia–Penglai–Fushan metallogenic area, the margins of JiaolaiBasin and Mesozoic complex in western Shandong.

The main structural feature of these gold belts is the strongfault-controlled nature of the mineralization, particularly the rela-tionship with the secondary fracture systems associated with themajor Tan–Lu fault (Zhao et al., 1996; Ren et al., 1997; Shen et al.,2003; Song et al., 2007). The super large and large gold deposits inJiaodong such as the Linglong, Jiaojia, Taishang, and Sansandao de-posits are distributed in Zhaoyuan–Yexian belt in northwest Jiaodong.

Except the Denggezhuang, Jinqingding, and Pengjiakuang gold de-posits, the rest are mostly in small scale. Thus, the gold mineralizationin West Jiaodong shows much higher intensity as compared with thatin East Jiaodong (Fan et al., 2005).

In this paper, we integrate the geological, geochronological, geo-chemical and geophysical information from published literature relat-ing to the gold mineralization in the Shandong Province in an attemptto evaluate the mechanism and processes of gold metallogeny withina regional tectonic perspective.

2. Geological framework

2.1. Precambrian geological and tectonic framework of theNorth China Craton

The North China Craton (NCC), composed of the Western Block,Eastern Block and Trans-North China Orogen (TNCO), is one of theworld's oldest Archean cratons with crustal remnants as old as3800 Ma (Jahn et al., 1987; Liu et al., 1992; Zhai and Santosh, 2011).The NCC was figured prominently in recent discussions on the paleo-geographic reconstructions of the Paleoproterozoic supercontinentColumbia (Kusky and Santosh, 2009; Santosh et al., 2010; Kusky,2011). The basement of the Eastern Block includes Archean tonalitic–trondhjemitic–granodioritic (TTG) gneisses, syntectonic granitoidsand minor Archean supracrustal rocks. The Western Block is an amal-gam of the Archean Yinshan Block to the north and the ProterozoicOrdos Block to the south. The TNCOwhich is considered as the collision-al suture between the Eastern andWestern Blocks exposes Neoarcheanto Paleoproterozoic TTG gneisses and granitoids (Zhao et al., 1998,1999, 2001). Zhai and Santosh (2011) evaluated the early Precambriancrustal evolution history of the NCC and identified a major continentalgrowth at ca. 2.7 Ga, and the amalgamation of micro-blocks and build-ing of the craton at ca. 2.5 Ga. This was followed by rifting–subduction–accretion–collision during Paleoproterozoic accompanied by high andultrahigh-temperature granulite facies metamorphism and granitoidmagmatism during ca. 2.0–1.82. The NCC was finally stabilized in latePaleoproterozoic at 1.85 Ga, and much of the craton remained stableup to Triassic (B. Chen et al., 2008a). During Mesozoic, extensivemagmatism destroyed a significant portion of the eastern part of thecraton and several magmatic intrusions are widely distributed in theeastern NCC and part of the TNCO (Fig. 1). The magmatism and cratondestruction coincided with the formation of gold deposits such asthose in the northern NCC gold district, the Jiapigou gold district, theLiaodong gold district, the Jiaodong gold district, the Linyi gold belt,the Xiaoqinling gold belt and the Xiong'ershan gold district. Recentstudies clearly identify the contribution of the Mesozoic magmatismto large scale gold metallogeny in this region (e.g., J.W. Li et al., 2012;S.R. Li et al., 2012a; Li et al., 2013).

2.2. Mesozoic magmatism and craton destruction

The tectonic framework and continental geodynamic milieu dur-ing Mesozoic and Cenozoic in East Asia, including the NCC lithospherewitnessed a unique transformation and destruction process. In theeastern part, the old, cold, thick and refractory cratonic lithospheremantle was replaced by young, hot, thin and relatively fresh oceaniclithosphere mantle, accompanied by extensive magmatic activity,increased surface heat flux, leading to large-scale tectonic extensionand the formation of large intracratonic basins (Chen et al., 2010;Tang et al., 2013). The timing, mechanism and geodynamic settingof the thinning of the NCC lithosphere have been topics of interestingdebate (e.g., Zhang et al., 2013, and references therein).

Various views exist regarding the timing of onset of lithosphericthinning including late Triassic (Menzies and Xu, 1998; Lu et al.,2000; Gao et al., 2002), Late Mesozoic (Deng et al., 1994; Lu et al.,2006; F.Y. Wu et al., 2008), Cenozoic (Menzies et al., 1993; Griffin et

Fig. 1. Sketch map of North China Craton, showing the distribution of late Mesozoic intrusives and the major gold deposits. The geophysical profiles discussed in this study are alsoshown, and are as follows: a–a′ and b–b′ heat flow profiles, see Fig. 3; c–c′, d–d′, e–e′me gravity profiles, see Fig. 5; f–f′ (Figs. 7, 9), g–g′ (Fig. 8), h–h′ (Fig. 10), i–i′ and j–j′ (Fig. 11),k–k′ (Fig. 14) are sesmic profiles; l–l′ and m–m′ are magnetotelluric profiles (see Figs. 12 and 13). TLF — Tan–Lu Fault.Modified after Santosh (2010), J.W. Li et al. (2012) and S.R. Li et al. (2012a).

1174 P. Guo et al. / Gondwana Research 24 (2013) 1172–1202

al., 1998a,b; Xu, 2001), and two distinct events during Mesozoic andCenozoic (Xu et al., 2000). Based on an overview of the variousmodels, Zhai (2010) concluded that the NCC witnessed a major tec-tonic transition in the Mesozoic from compression to extensionalong a tectonic zone running EW to NNE. This transition began at150–140 Ma and culminated at 110–100 Ma, with the peak at120 Ma. Lin et al. (2008) suggested that the 120–130 Ma period inearly Cretaceous marks the most intensive period of tectonic activityin eastern China for mineralization, which coincides with the peaktime of lithosphere thinning. The extent of thinning in Cenozoic is rel-atively small, as new lithospheric mantle accretion occurred leadingto thickening during the thermal cooling. D.B. Yang et al. (2012)noted that the eastern NCC lithospheric mantle experienced multipleepisodes of transformation, with the most intensive transformationbetween 131 and 164 Ma. Z. Li et al. (2007) suggested that the litho-spheric thinning in the northern margin of the eastern NCC startedat around 163 Ma, whereas this process began in the south at149 Ma. Accordingly, the basin extension and filling occurred at ca.145 Ma and 132 Ma.

Various mechanisms have been invoked to explain the process oflithospheric thinning including delamination (Wu and Sun, 1999;Gao et al., 2004, 2009; Deng et al., 2004; Xu and Zhao, 2009), andthermal and chemical erosion (Zheng et al., 1998; Xu et al., 2001;H.F. Zhang et al., 2002; Tian et al., 2009; Tian and Zhao, 2011).Zheng et al. (2006) suggested mantle extension, erosion and replace-ment as the major causes for lithosphere thinning. Lin et al. (2004)proposed that the lithosphere thinning resulted from a combinationof heat flow of mantle and extension activity. Thermal erosion

dominated in the early stage, whereas the late stage is mainly charac-terized by mechanical stretching.

Many workers attribute Pacific slab subduction from the east asthe major cause for lithospheric thinning (e.g., Sun et al., 2007; Xuet al., 2009; Tang et al., 2013). Wu and Sun (1999) correlated the lith-ospheric thinning to Pacific slab subduction beneath Eurasia includingthe subduction in Jurassic and extension in Cretaceous. During thelarge scale subduction in Jurassic, the East China region was an activecontinent margin similar to the Andes. The delamination of thickenedlithosphere was accompanied by asthenosphere upwelling leading tolithosphere destruction. Xu et al. (2001) and Xu et al. (2008) consid-ered that the Tan–Lu fault represents the corridor of mantle upwell-ing and played an important role in lithosphere thinning.

2.3. Geology of the Jiaodong and Luxi areas

The Shandong Province is located in the central part of the easternNCC and is separated by the Tan–Lu fault into two distinct domains(Fig. 2). The western part is represented by Luxi and the easternpart is called the Jiaodong Peninsula (Liu et al., 2004; G.Z. Xu et al.,2004; Y.G. Xu et al., 2004a,b; Zhang, 2012). The tectonic frameworkof the eastern part of Shandong is more complex than that of thewestern part. The former is composed of Jiaobei uplift, Jiaolai basinand Jiaonan orogenic belt.

2.3.1. StratigraphyThe Precambrian strata in the Jiaodong area include the

Mesoarchean Tangjiazhuang Group, the Neoarchean Jiaodong Group,

image of Fig.�1

Fig. 2. Sketch map of the geology and major mineral deposits of the Shandong Province.Modified after Xu et al. (2002).


the Paleoproterozoic Jingshan Group, the Fenzishan Group, the ZhifuGroup and the Neoproterozoic Penglai Group (Wan et al., 2006; Wanget al., 2009). In the southern Jiaodong region (Jiaonan orogenicbelt), the Precambrian metamorphic units are represented by thePaleoproterozoic Jiaonan group (Xu et al., 2002). The Jiaodong groupismainly composed of biotite plagioclase gneiss (tonalite/granodiorite),amphibolites, granulites andmarbles, and graphite schist which consti-tute the host rocks of the Mesozoic granitoid intrusions. Conventionalzircon U–Pb dating of the Precambrian units shows ages ranging fromca. 2.6 to 2.9 Ga (Yu, 1984; Qiu, 1989). However, more recent SHRIMPU–Pb dating of the inherited zircons captured by the Mesozoic plutonsreveal that the Jiaodong Group contains components as old as 3.0 to3.4 Ga (Wang et al., 1998). Some of the previous workers suggestedthat the Jiaodong group is one of the major sources for the Jiaodonggold deposits, although the concentration of gold in the basementrocks of the Jiaodong group is not high (e.g., Chen et al., 1989; Li et al.,1996). Lü (2001) suggested that the gold enrichment in the Jiaodonggroup occurred after the Mesozoic tectono-magmatic activities. ThePaleoproterozoic Jinshan Group consists of sillimanite–biotite schistand biotite gneiss, with some marble, amphibolites and graphite-bearing rocks. The rocks underwent upper amphibolite to granulitefacies metamorphism with local anatexis (Wan et al., 2006). The litho-logic composition of the Fenzishan Group is similar to that of theJingshan Group, but the metamorphic grade is low, ranging fromgreenschist to lower amphibolites facies (Wan et al., 2006). Isotopicdating suggested that the Jinshan and Fenzishan Groups were formedduring the same period (2.2 1.9 Ga) and underwent metamorphism atca. 1.88 Ga (Wan et al., 2006; Wang et al., 2009). The Penglai Groupconsists of limestones, dolomite, and pelite, which have experiencedlower greenschist metamorphism.

The supracrustal rocks in Luxi area are mainly composed of theMesoarchean Yishui Group, the Neoarchean Taishan Group (including

the Yanlingguan Formation and most of the lower part of the LiuhangFormation and the Mengjiatun Formation) with ages ranging from2.75 to 2.7 Ga, and the Shancaoyu Formation. The upper part andsome of the lower part of the Liuhang Formation and the JiningGroup show ages ranging from 2.55 to 2.52 Ga (Wang et al., 2009;Wan et al., 2012). The Taishan Group is dominantly composed ofamphibolite and biotite granulite with minor TTG gneisses, whichunderwent amphibolite to greenschist facies metamorphism (Xu etal., 2002; Hu et al., 2006). The gold content in the biotite plagioclasegneiss is reported as 5.9 × 10−9 (n = 45), that in felsic gneiss as7.04 × 10−9 (n = 17), and in the amphibolites as 8.2 × 10−9 (n = 5)(Yang and Yu, 2001). Hu et al. (2006) noted that the gold content ofTaishan Group is 10.7 × 10−9 (n = 139), higher than the averagecrustal abundance (4.1 × 10−9). The Neoproterozoic Tumen Group isdominantly composed of marine clastic rocks.

Paleozoic, Triassic and early–middle Jurassic strata are absent inJiaodong (Fig. 2), suggesting that the region experienced strong upliftand denudation during these times (Xu et al., 2001). However, rocksbelonging to these ages are widespread in the Luxi area. The exposedPaleozoic strata of Luxi include the Early–Middle Cambrian ChangqingGroup composed of littoral carbonate and shale, Middle Cambrian–Early Ordovician Jiulong Group consisting of littoral–neritic carbonaterocks, Ordovician Majiagou Formation represented by neritic faciescarbonate rocks, and Late Carboniferous–Early Permian YuemengouGroup composed of a sequence of continental facies clastic rocks andcoal layers intercalated with neritic facies limestone. The Mesozoic toCenozoic strata are mainly represented by volcano-sedimentary rocks(Shandong Bureau of Geology and Mineral Resources, 1991).

2.3.2. MagmatismIntrusive granitoids are widely distributed in the Jiaodong area. A

total of at least 22 granitic intrusions have been described, among

image of Fig.�2


which 7 are Neoarchean tonalites and the remaining 15 are Mesozoicgranitic plutons. The Archean–Paleoproterozoic series are representedby tonalitic, trondhjemitic and granitic gneisses, together with amphib-olites andhornblende gneisses. TheMesozoic granitoids include the lateTriassic granitoids of Xingjia, Jiazishan and Chashan batholiths consid-ered to have been derived from deep sources (Chen et al., 2003; Yanget al., 2005a; Xie et al., 2006), the late Jurassic crust remelting-type granitoids including the Linglong, Kunyushan, Duogushan,Wendeng, Queshan plutons, the early Cretaceous granitoids with proba-blemixed crust–mantle components such as the Guojialing,Weideshan,Sanfushan, Laoshan, Dadian, andQibaoshan batholiths (Zhai et al., 2004;Li et al., 2005; Zhang and Zhang, 2007). Apart from the widely distribut-ed granitoids, there are also abundant basic, and intermediate–basicdikes, including diorite, syenite porphyrite, lamprophyre, gabbro, anddolerite (Sun et al., 2000a,b; Guo et al., 2002; Li et al., 2005), in additionto volcano-sedimentary rocks.

In the Luxi area, 95% of the exposedmagmatic units are representedby early Precambrian intrusions which constitute the crystalline base-ment, together with some remnants of the Taishan and Yishui groups.The Mesozoic magmatic rocks in this region comprise granitic intru-sions, K-rich volcanic rocks and lamprophyre dikes (Lin et al., 1995).The small-scale but widespread Mesozoic intrusions can besubdivided into five series: porphyry monzodiorite monzonite–syenite; pyroxenite–monzodiorite–syenite; olivine norite gabbro–pyroxene diorite (amphibole diorite)–quartz monzonite; porphyrydiorite–quartz monzodiorite–granite and carbonatites (Hu et al.,2006).

2.3.3. Tectonic settingThe tectonic features on both sides of Tan–Lu fault are alsomarkedly

different. The tectonic basement line in Jiaodong trends nearly E–WandNE–NNE, whereas in Luxi, the general trend is NW. A series of NE–NNEorientated fractures are well developed in the Jiaodong areawithminorNW trending linear structures distributed intermittently. Severalworkers argued that theNE–NNE fractures belong to the secondary faultsof the main Tan–Lu fault (Shen et al., 2003; X.P. Qiu et al., 2008). TheWulain–Qingdao–Haiyang–Muping fault marks the boundary betweenthe Jiaobei terrain and Jiaonan orogen belt (Xu et al., 2001). Faults inwestern Shandong are generally distributed in NW direction and arecharacterized by concentric ring and radial patterns emerging outwardfrom the Xinzhai–Sishui–Pingyi–Mengyin area in the central part of theregion (Hu et al., 2006).

2.4. Tan–Lu fault and its significance

Since 1957, when the 904 brigade of the former Ministry of geolog-ical survey established the general features of the Tan–Lu fault, thefracture patterns, properties, evolution, chronology, and geodynamicsetting of this major fault, and its relationship with the Sulu–Dabie oro-genic belt have attracted considerable attention (Wanget al., 2000). TheTan–Lu fault is a giant fault zone extending 2400 km, composed of a se-ries of NNE oriented faults near the margin of theWest Pacific and EastAsia continent. The fault runs from the Hubei Wuxue (formerly knownas Guangji) in the north shore of the Yangtze River, along NE and NNEdirection, through Susong, Qianshan, Lujiang and Jiashan in AnhuiProvince, Sihong and Suqian of Jiangsu Province, Tancheng, and Yishuiin Shandong Province, across the Bohai Bay, the three provinces inNortheast China and Xunke of Heilongjiang, and continues into theRussian territory (Wang et al., 2000).

The Tan–Lu fault zone is divided into three sections, among whichthe middle section named Yishu fault zone is composed of four parallelfaults: the Changyi–Dadian, Anqiu–Juxian, Yishui–Tangtou and Tangwu–Gegou faults from east to west (Wang et al., 2000). Liu and Zhang(2001) argued that the four faults have the same orientation, and havea linked evolution with common properties, and timings of formationand activity. An age polarity exists from West to East, with the older

segment formed before Paleozoic and the younger segment in Cenozoic.SinceMesozoic to recent, the activity along the fault system, particularlythe two faults on the eastern side have become intense giving rise to thedifference in the geological features between eastern Shandong andwestern Shandong since Mesozoic.

Based on the evidence that Tan–Lu fault continues to the north ofBohai Bay in Eastern China with similar fracture system, and basedon isotope geochronology of the early Cretaceous fault activity,magmatic activity and sedimentary response, some workers advo-cate that the Tan–Lu fault originated in the early Cretaceous afterthe collision between North and South China blocks. Models sug-gested include the oblique subduction of Izanagi plate at a highrate (Xu and Zhu, 1994; Liu et al., 2002; Niu et al., 2002; Zhu et al.,2002).

The link between the formation of Tan–Lu fault and the collisionbetween North and South China Blocks is argued on the basis of anumber of factors including the sudden cessation of the fault on thesouth side of the of Dabie orogenic belt, translational amplitudemismatch between the Sulu–Dabie orogenic belt and the northernboundary of the North China plate, the North China and South Chinaplate convergence process, and the evolution of surrounding marinecover layer. The proposal of a transform fault based on paleomagneticdata (Zhang et al., 1984; Hsü et al., 1987; Watson et al., 1987; Xu etal., 1987; Okay and Sengor, 1992; Dong et al., 1998), rotated sutureline (Lin and Fuller, 1990; Zhang, 1997; Gilder et al., 1999; Yang andYu, 2001), embedded collision boundary (Yin and Nie, 1993; Tangand Xu, 2002), tear fault (Li, 1994; Chung, 1999) and pivotal fault(Chang, 1996) and other models have also been proposed.

Zhu et al. (2003) argued that the Tan–Lu fault zone originated dur-ing the early orogenic movement, and transformed into a majorintracontinental left-lateral strike-slip fault and extended to thenorth during the circum-Pacific tectonic activity. Other workers,based on the occurrence of basement ductile shear zone in thePresinian metamorphic rocks (Zhou and Hu, 1998; F.Y. Wu et al.,2008; G.Y. Wu et al., 2008), recognized that the Tan–Lu fault zone isa regional structure inherited since the late Proterozoic, and termedthe fault as Ancient Tan–Lu fracture, reformed and activated in theIndosinian and Yanshanian (Xu and Zhu, 1994).

Many workers believe that the Tan–Lu fault is a large strike-sliptranslational fault zone. Xu and Zhu (1994) proposed the sinistralstrike-slip amplitude of up to 740 km. Zhu et al. (2004a,b) arguedthat part of the 550 km translational amplitude along the fault zoneoccurred during the collisional orogeny, and the other part is thedeformational response of oblique subduction of the ancient Pacificplate to the East Asian continent. Zhang and Dong (2008) notedthat Tan–Lu fault exists as a large scale translational structure withlimited displacement (b200 km), although J.D. Zhang et al. (2010a)and Tang and Xu (2002) did not envisage any major displacement.

Li (2010) summarized the evolutionary history of the Tan–Lu faultand divided into 5 stages: initial stage (Pt3), activation stage (J1–J2),sinistral strike-slip stage (J2–K1), tensile-shear rift stage (K1–K2),and compressional fault-block stage (E–Q). Zhu et al. (2004a,b) ar-gued that the Tan–Lu fault experienced early Cretaceous largescale sinistral strike-slip, Late Cretaceous–early Tertiary extensionand the late Tertiary thrusting. The time when Tan–Lu faultchanged from sinistral translation to dextro-rotatory stage is be-tween 90 and 120 Ma, i.e. the later period of early Cretaceous.This also marks the main mineralization stage of the Jiaodonggold deposits. Ren et al. (1997) suggested that Tan–Lu fault hadexperienced sinistral compressive-twisting (pre-mineralization),extension (syn-mineralization), dextro-rotatory and compressivedislocation (post-mineralization).

The Tan–Lu fault records repeated activity and extends deep into themantle (Zhao et al., 2012), with various rift–compressive torsion–tensional torsion during different stages since the Paleozoic. The associ-ated magmatic activity evolved from ultrabasic, basic–felsic–basic, and


alkaline, resulting in the formation a variety of ore deposits includingdi-amond, chromium, nickel, copper and iron-bearingmagmatic deposits;gold, silver, molybdenum, tungsten, tin, lead, zinc, antimony, mercury,and gemstone-bearing hydrothermal ore deposits and oil and hydrocar-bon reservoirs. The nature ofmineralization on both sides of the Tan–Lufault zone shows apparent periodicity, partial symmetry, overlapsand also significant differences. Thus, the Tan–Lu fault served asmajor corridor for magmatism and metallogeny.

3. Ore mineralization

3.1. Geology and main rock types in the ore belt

The gold belts in Shandong Province can be broadly classified intothree areas including the Jiaobei uplift area, Jiaolai Basin area and Luxiarea. The Jiaobei uplift area has generally been subdivided into fivebelts based on the NE–NNE faults, the Sanshandao–Cangshangmetallogenic belt, the Loukou–Laizhou metallogenic belt and theZhaoyuan–Pingdu metallogenic belt, located in the Jiaoxibei area,Qixia–Penglai–Fushan metallogenic belt in the middle part ofJiaodong peninsula, and Muping–Rushan metallogenic belt in theeastern domain.

The gold deposits in Jiaoxibei uplift (e.g. Sanshandao, Jiaojia,Linglong, Sizhuang, Cangshang) are mainly controlled by theSanshandao fracture, Jiaojia fault, and Zhaoping fault, all striking NE. Aset of parallel secondary faults trending generally NE and partly NWto EW have developed (Song et al., 2012). The Precambrian metamor-phic complex located in the hangingwall of east Zhaoping fault and be-tween Sanshandao fault and Jiaojia fault, is composed of NeoarcheanTTG gneiss, meta-gabbro and amphibolite with minor relict enclavesof the Jiaodong group and Mesoarchean Tangjiazhuang group. Thefoot wall between Jiaojia fault and Zhaoping fault is mainly composedof the Jurassic Linglong granite, intruded by Cretaceous Guojialinggranodiorite, and related dykes (lamprophyre, diabase-porphyrite, dio-rite porphyrite and granitic dykes). The main fault cuts through theLinglong granite. On the southern and the northern sides of the Jiaoxibeiarea, minor Cretaceous sedimentary cover is present, and Quaternarysediments are distributed along the paleo-river channels and the coast-al tract (H.Q. Zhang et al., 2008; Song et al., 2012).

The Penglai–Qixia gold belt is located between the Jiaoxibeiuplift gold belt and Muping–Rushan belt. The NE–NNE trendingLinjiazhuang–Shangzhuang fault marks the western boundary and theXiaogujia fault is the eastern boundary. The Wulipu fault cuts throughthemiddle of the ore belt, and these three faults also show the develop-ment of several secondary faultswith general trend similar to that of themajor fault. Themajor rocks here are similar to those in the Zhaoye belt,composed of Achaean–Paleoproterozoic metamorphic rocks of theJiaodong group, Fenzishan group, and Penglai group. The magmaticrocks are distributed over 50% of the exposed rocks and include theCishan gneissic biotite granite, and the Guojialing granodiorite thathas close spatial and temporal relationship with the ore deposits (Xuet al., 1989; Miao et al., 1997; Li, 2000). The Guojialing batholith cutsthrough the Cishan batholith. Several lamprophyre, dolerite, diorite,porphyry syenite, quartz porphyry, pegmatites and other mafic–intermediate–felsic acid dykes traverse the area. The ore veins aremainly located in the inside and outside contact zone of the Guojialingbatholith. The rocks belonging to the Jiaodong Group also contain nu-merous alteration veins (Hou et al., 2004).

TheMuping–Rushan gold belt along the easternWulian–Yantai faultcontains more than 100 gold prospects among which the Tangjiagou,Denggezhuang, Jinniushan, Yinggezhuang, Jinqingding, and Sanjiagold deposits are the major ones. The main rock types in this areabelong to the Jingshan group metamorphic core complex in the westand the Mesozoic Kunyushan batholith and Sanfushan batholith. Themetamorphic core complex is composed of the Jingshan group, withits lower part characterized by serpentine marble, tremolite marble

and granulites, and the upper part composed of biotite schist, diopsidegranulite, biotite granulite and marble (X.A. Yang et al., 2011). TheJiaodong group metamorphic rocks are represented by granulites, am-phibolites, biotite schist and marble (Wen et al., 2010). The Sanfushanbatholith shows an intrusive contact relationship with the Kunyushanbatholith. The major dykes in the area are lamprophyre, granodioriteporphyrite, and diorite porphyrite. Apart from the NNE striking faults,several NE and NW trending secondary faults are also present (Wenet al., 2010).

Located in between the Su–Lu orogenic belt and the Jiaobei uplift,the Jiaolai Mesozoic Basin covers nearly half of the total area ofJiaodong. The basin is filled with Cretaceous fluvial–lacustrine clasticsediments and volcanic materials. The total thickness of the sedimen-tary sequence is more than 7000 m. The basin bounded by the Tan–Lufault zone and the Wulian–Qingdao–Jimo–Muping fault belt is con-trolled by the NE–NNE trending down-faulted graben (Song, 2008).The Jiaolai basin has a double-layer structure with the basement com-posed of the Neoarchean Jiaodong group metamorphic rocks and thePaleoproterozoic Jingshan felsic metamorphic rocks, containinggraphite schist and marble. These are covered by Cretaceous conti-nental sediments belonging to the Laiyang group, Qingshan groupand Wangshi group from bottom to top. The topmost layer is com-posed of Quaternary cover. A number of granitic intrusions occuraround the basin within the basement rocks such as the Kunyushangneissic monzonitic granite, the Queshan monzonitic granite andbiotite granite, the Yuangezhuang monzonitic granite porphyries andthe Yashan granite. These intrusions (including volcanic–subvolcaniccounterparts) are considered to have provided the heat sourcefor ore mineralization in the area (H.Q. Zhang et al., 2008). ThePengjiakuang and Fayunkuang are the two main ore deposits locatedin the margin of the Jiaolai Basin. Faults trending in different direc-tions have developed within the mining area, such as the set of NEtrending faults and the NNW and NS trending faults with cut acrossthe former. Several dykes of intermediate and mafic composition areemplaced along these faults (Liu et al., 1999; G.Z. Xu et al., 2004; Y.G.Xu et al., 2004a).

The gold belt in southwestern Luxi area which incorporates theTongshi, Yinan and Cangshan domains are located in the western seg-ment of the central region of the Tan–Lu Fault. Li et al. (2009) notedthat the exposed basement in this region belongs to the ArcheanTaishan group composed of granitic gneiss, amphibolite, and granu-lite, covered by Neoproterozoic and Paleozoic–Mesozoic sedimentarystrata including carbonates and clastic rocks. Neoarchean magmaticrocks including granite, diorite, and biotite quartz diorite, early Prote-rozoic monzonitic granite and Mesozoic magmatic rocks of theTongshi complex (including diorite porphyrite, monzonitic dioriteporphyrite, and syenite porphyrite), the Tongjing complex (quartzdiorite, diorite porphyrite), the Jinchang complex (monzonitic graniteporphyrite, granite porphyrite) and the Longbaoshan complex (quartzsyenite, aegirine–augite syenite, monzonite, syenodiorite, hornblendesyenite) are also exposed in this area. The faults in this region showNNW, NW and NE trends.

3.2. Major features of the ore mineralization

Based on the ore controlling structures, andmineral paragenesis, theJiaodong gold deposits can be divided into three main types: alteredrock-type (Sanshandao, Jiaojia, Xincheng, Dayigezhuang), quartz veintype (Linglong, Denggezhuang, Rushan), and interstratified brecciatype (Pengjiakuang, Fayunkuang) (Li, 2002; S.X. Li et al., 2007a; Z. Liet al., 2007). In addition, some volcanic and polymetallic-type sulfidemineralizations have also been recognized (Zhai et al., 2004).

These different types of deposits display certain regularity in theirspatial distribution. The auriferous quartz vein type and altered rocktype gold deposits are closely associated with calc-alkaline granitoidsand are concentrated in the Jiaoxibei area. These deposits are located


either in the granites and basement rocks, or, occasionally, in thecontact zones between the granites and the basement, and the goldmineralization appears to be related to the melting of the basementstrata, together with contribution from the intrusions. Part of thegold mineralization occurs within the contact zone (Zou and Shen,2001). The quartz veins generally fill the secondary fractures alongthe major regional fault. The gold mineralization is discontinuous inthe quartz vein. Most of the industrial ore bodies are lenticular anddifferent scales of wallrock alteration like silicification, sericitization,pyritization and K-feldspathization occur surrounding the veins(e.g., Li et al., 1996). Due to the strong hydrothermal alteration andlater brittle deformation and superposition, many of the early ductiledeformation fabrics have been destroyed, with only mylonite brecciaoccurring in the fracture zone. The major ore production comes fromthe footwall of the main fault (Fan et al., 2005).

The interstratified breccia type mineralization is correlated to theMesozoic tectonics involving the pull-apart Jiaolai basin, and theores are concentrated in the interlayer gliding fault zone at the edgeof the basin (Shen et al., 1998; Yang et al., 1999).

The mineralization in southwestern Luxi area includes crypto-explosive breccia type, skarn type, ancient karst type, layered dissemi-nated limestone type, quartz vein type and porphyry altered rock type(Zeng et al., 1999). The gold mineralization mainly occurs along themargin of the volcanic complex or within the volcanic-breccia-relatedpipe, such as those of the Guilaizhuang, Zhuojiazhuang, Mofanggou,Longbaoshan and Yinan gold deposits.

4. Summary of geochronological and geochemical data

With the advent of precise isotopic geochronological and geo-chemical techniques, several studies have been carried out in the re-cent years to understand the nature and timing of gold metallogenyin the Shandong Province. In this study, we assemble the publishedage data on the Mesozoic granitoids as well as the intermediate–mafic dikes related to gold mineralization gathered from zirconLA-ICP-MS, SHRIMP zircon U–Pb, whole-rock K–Ar, biotite and feld-spar 40Ar–39Ar, and Rb–Sr isochron (Hu et al., 1987; Lin et al., 1996;Zhao et al., 1997; Guan et al., 1998; Miao et al., 1999; Zhou et al.,2003; Guo et al., 2004; Hu et al., 2004; Liu et al., 2004, 2008, 2009;Y.G. Xu et al., 2004a,b; Zhang et al., 2004a,b; Guo et al., 2005; Yanget al., 2005a,b; Li et al., 2006; Hu et al., 2007; Tang et al., 2008; Li,2009; Goss et al., 2010; Lan et al., 2012; D.B. Yang et al., 2012; K.F.Yang et al., 2012a). We also integrate the ages of mineralization as in-vestigated through Rb–Sr dating of pyrite, 40Ar–39Ar dating of quartzand feldspar, hydrothermal zircon SHRIMP U–Pb dating, 40Ar–39Ar,K–Ar and Rb–Sr dating of alteration assemblages such as sericite,hydromuscovite and biotite. Furthermore we also assemble dataon Rb–Sr dating of fluid inclusions in quartz (Luo and Wu, 1987;Li et al., 1993; Lü and Yang, 1993; Zhang et al., 1995; Yang et al.,2000; Yang and Zhou, 2001a,b; Zhang et al., 2003; Hu et al., 2004;Zhai et al., 2004; Hu et al., 2005; Li et al., 2006; Qiu L.L. etal., 2008a; Li H.K. et al., 2011). The compiled age data are listed inTables 1 and 2.

A synthesis of the available age data from Jiaodong area showsthat the ages from the granitoids can be grouped into two. The firstgroup is between 150 and 165 Ma, as represented by the Linglong,Luanjiahe, Duogushan and Wendeng batholiths. The second groupshows ages concentrated in the 110–130 Ma range such as theGuojialing, Weideshan, Sanfushan, Aishan and Laoshan batholiths.The intermediate–mafic dikes show ages mostly in the range of105–135 Ma, Similarly, the granitoids from the Luxi area also showtwo age groups: the Tongshi complex with ages in the range of175–190 Ma, and the Tongjing and Jinchang complexes with ages inthe range of 113–135 Ma. The intermediate–mafic dikes in this regionhave ages in the range of 88 to 144 Ma. As shown in Table 2, the ageof mineralization of the Jiaodong gold deposits is between 71 and

137 Ma, with the majority of data converging around 120 ± 10 Ma.The ages of mineralization in Luxi area mainly include two stages:180–170 Ma and 128–133 Ma.

The gold metallogeny and the sources of ore-forming material inthe Luxi gold belt are fairly defined and correlated to the Mesozoicintermediate–alkaline volcano-plutonic complexes (Lin et al., 1995;Wang and Gao, 2001; Yu, 2001). However, the ore forming processes,including the source of metals in the Jiaodong gold belt remainequivocal.

Some workers consider that the Mesozoic granites provided themain source for the mineralization (e.g. S.X. Li et al., 2007a). However,others regard the intermediate–mafic dikes to have a major link withthe ore mineralization (Fan et al., 2005; Hu et al., 2006; Jiang et al.,2011). From the age data, the 110–130 Ma granites and the interme-diate–mafic dikes share the same ages of mineralization, and com-bined with their close spatial association with the ore deposits, boththe granites and mafic–intermediate dykes can be considered as po-tential sources of metallogeny in this region.

Several studies have been carried out on the H–O, C–O, S stableisotopes of the ores and wall rocks of the Jiaodong gold deposits dur-ing the last two decades (Sun et al., 1995, 2001a,b; Yang et al., 1998;Gao et al., 2001; Zhang et al., 2001; Mao et al., 2002; L.C. Zhang et al.,2002a,b; Liu et al., 2003; Zhang and Sun, 2003; Song et al., 2004; Lanet al., 2010; Jiang et al., 2011). All the data from quartz H–O isotopesshow mixing of magmatic water and meteoric water, with meteoricwater entering at the late stage of mineralization. The S isotope of sul-fides in the Jiaodong gold deposits are enriched in 34S with a widevariation in the δ34S values of 3.4‰–13.6‰. The mean value con-verges at 8–9‰, which is more close to that of the surrounding meta-morphic rocks of the Jiaodong group (7.2–7.6‰; Yang et al., 1998;Gao et al., 2001; Mao et al., 2005), and Jingshan group (9.3–9.8‰;Mao et al., 2005; 5.6–8.2; Li, 1992). Huang (1994) reported the δ34Svalues from the intermediate–basic dykes of Jiaodong area to be be-tween 5.3 and 10.8‰, with some later intermediate–basic dykesshowing low δ34S values (1.4–3.4‰). Yang et al. (1998) reportedδ34S values between 6.1 and 10.1‰ for the Linglong granite and be-tween 3.97 and 8.78‰ for the Kunyushan granite. The S isotope char-acters suggest multisource for the ore-forming material in Jiaodong.Some workers considered that the main source of sulfur came fromseawater (Sun et al., 2006). The C–O isotopes of the ores show a similarcharacter (δ13CPDB concentrated between −1‰ and −6‰, theδ18OSMOW concentrated between 8‰ and 13‰) (Sun et al., 2006).Mao et al. (2005) argued that the C–H–O isotopes of Jiaodong gold de-posits indicate derivation from mantle sources. Zhang and Sun (2003)reported mantle fluid in Xiadian gold deposit. Zhang L.C. et al. (2002a,b) proposed that the C–O characters in the Pengjiakuang gold depositare different from those of the Jinqingding and Sanshandao gold de-posits, and that the carbon came from amixture of sedimentary carbon-ate rocks and deep hydrothermal fluid.

L.C. Zhang et al. (2002a,b) reported fluid inclusion He–Ar isotopescharacters of pyrite from Denggezhuang, Jiaojia, Pengjiakuang, andFayunkuang gold deposits in the Jiaodong area. The 3He/4He ratio inthese deposits shows a range of 0.43–2.36 R/Ra. The Pengjiakuang andFayunkuang deposits have 3He/4He ratio b1.0 R/Ra, and 40Ar/36Arratio of 393–310, closer to the isotopic composition of atmosphericargon (40Ar/36Ar = 295.5), suggesting that the ore-forming fluidsources are dominated by meteoric water. However, in theDenggezhuang and Jiaojia deposits, the 3He/4He ratio >1.0 R/Ra, and40Ar/36Ar ratio is 500–1148, displaying features typical of crust–mantlemixing, and dominated by mantle fluid. L.C. Zhang et al. (2002a,b)reported fluid inclusion He–Ar isotopes of pyrite from the Jinqingdinggold deposit. The 3He/4He ratio is 0.1–2.2 Ra, with an average of 0.6 Ra.The 40Ar/4He ratio is 0.1833–0.9034, with mean at 0.373, suggestingmixing of crust and mantle components, with the component of mantleHe ranging from 1.1 to 27.9%. The ore-forming fluid came mainlyfrom the crust. The fluid inclusions of different types from different gold

Table 1Compilation of the published ages of Mesozoic magmatism in Shandong Province.

location Rock type Age (Ma) Method References

JiaodongLinglong Granodiorite 153 ± 4 SHRIMP U–Pb Miao et al. (1999)Linglong Monzonitic granite 157 ± 4 SHRIMP U–Pb Miao et al. (1999)Linglong Granodiorite 158 ± 3 SHRIMP U–Pb Miao et al. (1999)Linglong Monzonitic granite 154 ± 4 SHRIMP U–Pb Miao et al. (1999)Linglong Monzonitic granite 152 ± 10 SHRIMP U–Pb Miao et al. (1999)Linglong Monzonitic granite 160 ± 3 SHRIMP U–Pb Miao et al. (1999)Linglong Monzonitic granite 164 ± 2 40Ar–39Ar,Biotite Hu et al. (1987)Linglong Granite 159 ± 1, 159 ± 2 LA-ICP-MS U–Pb K.F. Yang et al. (2012a)Luanjiahe Granite 158 ± 2, 157 ± 2 LA-ICP-MS U–Pb K.F. Yang et al. (2012a)Kunyushan Monzonitic granite 160 ± 3 SHRIMP U–Pb Hu et al. (2004)Kunyushan Granodiorite 147 40Ar–39Ar, biotite Guo et al. (2005)Kunyushan Monzonitic granite 142 ± 3 SHRIMP U–Pb Guo et al. (2005)Kunyushan Monzonitic granite 129.0 ± 0.6–126.9 ± 0.6 40Ar–39Ar, biotote Li et al. (2006)Kunyushan Granite 157–158 40Ar–39Ar, hornblende Li (2004)Duogushan Granodiorite 163 ± 17 LA-ICP-MS U–Pb Guo et al. (2005)Duogushan Granodiorite 161 ± 1 SHRIMP U–Pb Guo et al. (2005)Wendeng Monzonitic granite 161 ± 9 LA-ICP-MS U–Pb Guo et al. (2005)Wendeng Monzonitic granite 157 ± 5 LA-ICP-MS U–Pb Guo et al. (2005)Wendeng Monzonitic granite 160 ± 3 SHRIMP U–Pb Guan et al. (1998)Guojialing Monzonitic granite 128 ± 6 SHRIMP U–Pb Hu et al. (1987)Guojialing Monzonitic granite 134 40Ar–39Ar, biotite Guan et al. (1998)Guojialing Granodiorite 126 ± 2 SHRIMP U–Pb Guan et al. (1998)Guojialing Granodiorite 129 ± 3 SHRIMP U–Pb Guan et al. (1998)Guojialing Monzonitic granite 128 ± 2 SHRIMP U–Pb Guan et al. (1998)Guojialing Granodiorite 130 ± 3 SHRIMP U–Pb Guan et al. (1998)Guojialing Granodiorite 129 ± 1 LA-ICP-MS U–Pb K.F. Yang et al. (2012a)Shangzhuang Granite 124–125 40Ar–39Ar, biotite Li (2004)Shangzhuang Granite 127–128 40Ar–39Ar, hornblende Li (2004)Weideshan Granodiorite 108 ± 2 LA-ICP-MS U–Pb Guo et al. (2005)Queshan Granite 124–125 40Ar–39Ar, biotite Li (2004)Sanfushan Feldspar porphyritic granite 113 ± 1 SHRIMP U–Pb Guo et al. (2005)Sanfushan Feldspar porphyritic granite 112 ± 2 LA-ICP-MS U–Pb Guo et al. (2005)Sanfushan Monzonitic granite 118 ± 1 SHRIMP U–Pb Goss et al. (2010)Aishan Monzonitic granite 116 ± 2 SHRIMP U–Pb Goss et al. (2010)Aishan Monzonitic granite 125 ± 3 SHRIMP U–Pb Goss et al. (2010)Laoshan Monzonitic granite 126.23 ± 0.9 LA-ICP-MS U–Pb Zhao et al. (1997)Laoshan Syenite granite 113.03 ± 0.8 LA-ICP-MS U–Pb Zhao et al. (1997)Laoshan Alkaline granite 110.83 ± 0.8 LA-ICP-MS U–Pb Zhao et al. (1997)Laoshan Quartz monzonite 146.83 ± 0.9 LA-ICP-MS U–Pb Zhao et al. (1997)Laoshan Alkaline granite 106.64 ± 2.13 40Ar–39Ar, albite Zhao et al. (1998)Laoshan Monzonitic granite 120.02 ± 2.40 40Ar–39Ar, biotite Zhao et al. (1998)Laoshan Alkaline granite 115 ± 2 SHRIMP U–Pb Goss et al. (2010)Wulianshan Granite 116 ± 4 LA-ICP-MS U–Pb Zhou et al. (2003)Dadian Hornblende monzonite 123 ± 4 LA-ICP-MS U–Pb Zhou et al. (2003)Maershan Monzonitic granite 115 ± 1 LA-ICP-MS U–Pb Zhou et al. (2003)Qibaoshan Pyroxene monzonite 126 ± 3 LA-ICP-MS U–Pb Zhou et al. (2003)Liudusi Pyroxene diorite 114.5 ± 0.8 LA-ICP-MS U–Pb Guo et al. (2005)Fengboding Feldspar porphyritic granite 114 ± 1 LA-ICP-MS U–Pb Guo et al. (2005)Yashan Monzonite 113 ± 1 SHRIMP U–Pb Goss et al. (2010)Beibo Dolerite porphyre 122.5 ± 1.5–126.9 ± 1.7 LA-ICP-MS U–Pb Liu et al. (2009)Liudusi Diorite 114.5 ± 0.8 TIMS zircon U–Pb Guo et al. (2005)junan Dolerite 120.2 ± 1.9 SHRIMP U–Pb Liu et al. (2008)juxian Dolerite 119.0 ± 1.7 SHRIMP U–Pb Liu et al. (2008)Gongjia Gabbro, diorite 113 ± 2 LA-ICP-MS U–Pb Hu et al. (2007)Gongjia Gabbro 114 ± 1 LA-ICP-MS U–Pb Tang et al. (2008)Gongjia Gabbro 111 ± 1 LA-ICP-MS U–Pb Tang et al. (2008)Gongjia Diorite 112 ± 1 LA-ICP-MS U–Pb Tang et al. (2008)Sanjia Lamprophyre 126.7 ± 2.0 Whole-rock K–Ar Guo et al. (2004)Sanjia Lamprophyre 122.2 ± 1.8 Whole-rock K–Ar Guo et al. (2004)Rizhao Mafic enclave 124.2 ± 0.4 Hornblende Ar–Ar Yang et al. (2005a,b)Rizhao Mafic dyke 111.2 ± 0.1 Whole-rock Ar–Ar Yang et al. (2005a,b)Longkou Odinite 110.9 ± 2.2 Whole-rock K–Ar Liu et al. (2004)Longkou Odinite 110.8 ± 2.2 Whole-rock K–Ar Liu et al. (2004)Longkou Odinite 105.2 ± 2.1 Whole-rock K–Ar Liu et al. (2004)Longkou Gabbro 128.0 ± 2.7 Whole-rock K–Ar Liu et al. (2004)Longkou Gabbro 129.6 ± 2.7 Whole-rock K–Ar Liu et al. (2004)Longkou Amptovogesite 121.4 ± 2.7 Whole-rock K–Ar Liu et al. (2004)Longkou Amptovogesite 126.3 ± 2.5 Whole-rock K–Ar Liu et al. (2004)Longkou Amptovogesite 129.1 ± 2.5 Whole-rock K–Ar Liu et al. (2004)Longkou Gabbro 106.2 ± 2.1 Whole-rock K–Ar Liu et al. (2004)Longkou Gabbro 104.4 ± 2.0 Whole-rock K–Ar Liu et al. (2004)Longkou Amptovogesite 134.9 ± 2.6 Whole-rock K–Ar Liu et al. (2004)Longkou Amptovogesite 136.9 ± 2.7 Whole-rock K–Ar Liu et al. (2004)

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Table 1 (continued)

location Rock type Age (Ma) Method References

Weihai Amptovogesite 134.7 ± 3.1 Whole-rock K–Ar Liu et al. (2004)Weihai Amptovogesite 134.2 ± 2.7 Whole-rock K–Ar Liu et al. (2004)Weihai Amptovogesite 102.3 ± 2.0 Whole-rock K–Ar Liu et al. (2004)Weihai Amptovogesite 114.8 ± 2.2 Whole-rock K–Ar Liu et al. (2004)Weihai Amptovogesite 115.8 ± 2.3 Whole-rock K–Ar Liu et al. (2004)Weihai Amptovogesite 126.7 ± 2.6 Whole-rock K–Ar Liu et al. (2004)Weihai Amptovogesite 121.0 ± 2.4 Whole-rock K–Ar Liu et al. (2004)Yantai Amptovogesite 113.6 ± 2.5 Whole-rock K–Ar Liu et al. (2004)Yantai Amptovogesite 109.3 ± 1.05 Whole-rock K–Ar Liu et al. (2004)Sujiadian Alkali pyroxenite 110.85 ± 2.1 Whole-rock K–Ar Liu et al. (2004)Sujiadian Alkali pyroxenite 110.68 ± 2.1 Whole-rock K–Ar Liu et al. (2004)Guocheng Monzonite porphyry 114 ± 2 LA-ICP-MS U–Pb Tan et al. (2008)Guocheng Diorite porphyry 116 ± 1 LA-ICP-MS U–Pb Tan et al. (2008)

LuxiTongshi Monzonitic diorite porphyrite 190 ± 1 40Ar–39Ar Lin et al. (1996)Tongshi Monzonitic porphyrite 188 ± 2 40Ar–39Ar Lin et al. (1996)Tongshi Syenite porphyrite 185 Whole-rockRb–Sr Zhang et al. (2004a,b)

Diorite 177 ± 4 SHRIMP U–Pb Y.G. Xu et al. (2004b)Jinchang Monzonitic granite 128–126 LA-ICP-MS U–Pb Wang et al. (2011)Jinchang Granite porphyry 133,127 LA-ICP-MS U–Pb Wang et al. (2011)Tongshi Diorite porphytite 175.7 ± 3.8 SHRIMP U–Pb Hu et al. (2004)Tongshi Fine-grained quartz monzonite 184.7 ± 1.0 LA-ICP-MS U–Pb Lan et al. (2012)Tongshi Porphyritic quartz monzonite 181.5 ± 0.9 LA-ICP-MS U–Pb Lan et al. (2012)Tongshi Medium-grained syenite porphyrite 180.1 ± 0.7 LA-ICP-MS U–Pb Lan et al. (2012)Tongshi Fine-grained syenite porphyrite 180.5 ± 0.9 LA-ICP-MS U–Pb Lan et al. (2012)Jinchang Monzonitic granite porphyrite 121 ± 2 Whole-rock Rb–Sr Li (2009)Tongjing Diorite porphyrite 113.4 Whole-rock Rb–Sr Li (2009)Tongjing Quartz diorite porphyrite 125.5 Whole-rock K–Ar Li (2009)Tongjing Diorite porphyrite 117.5 Whole-rock K–Ar Li (2009)Tongjing Diorite porphyrite 115.2 ± 9.1 Whole-rock Rb–Sr Li (2009)Tongjing Monzonitic diorite porphyrite 135.8 ± 2.7 LA-ICP-MS U–Pb Li (2009)Jinchang Monzonitic granite porphyrite 135.7 ± 1.7 LA-ICP-MS U–Pb Li (2009)Jinchang Diorite porphyrite 136.1 ± 2.8 LA-ICP-MS U–Pb Li (2009)Luxi Diabase 105.7 ± 1.1 Whole-rock K–Ar Liu et al. (2004)Luxi Gabbro 89.27 ± 1.77 Whole-rock K–Ar Liu et al. (2004)Luxi Gabbro 88.16 ± 1.7 Whole-rock K–Ar Liu et al. (2004)Luxi Diabase 116.3 ± 1.1 Whole-rock K–Ar Liu et al. (2004)Luxi Diabase 116.4 ± 2.3 Whole-rock K–Ar Liu et al. (2004)Luxi Diabase 100.8 ± 2.1 Whole-rock K–Ar Liu et al. (2004)Luxi Gabbro 103.7 ± 2.0 Whole-rock K–Ar Liu et al. (2004)Luxi Gabbro 100.5 ± 1.2 Whole-rock K–Ar Liu et al. (2004)Luxi Diabase 107.1 ± 2.4 Whole-rock K–Ar Liu et al. (2004)Longquanhzuang Diabase 116.3 ± 1.1 Whole-rock K–Ar Liu et al. (2004)Mengshuizhen Diabase 100.8 ± 2.1 Whole-rock K–Ar Liu et al. (2004)Nansucun Diabase 103.07 ± 2.0 Whole-rock K–Ar Liu et al. (2004)Suwangcun Diabase 107.1 ± 2.4 Whole-rock K–Ar Liu et al. (2004)Tangjiawu Olivine diabase 105.7 ± 1.1 Whole-rock K–Ar Liu et al. (2004)Mengyin Mafic dykes 144 SHRIMP U–Pb Liu et al. (2008)Zichuan Mafic dykes 143 SHRIMP U–Pb Liu et al. (2008)Yinan Gabbro 127.3 ± 2.0 SHRIMP U–Pb Y.G. Xu et al. (2004a)Laiwu Porphyritic diorite 130 ± 2 SHRIMP U–Pb Y.G. Xu et al. (2004b)Yinan Diorite 126 ± 3 SHRIMP U–Pb Y.G. Xu et al. (2004b)Yinan Diorite 132 ± 2 SHRIMP U–Pb Y.G. Xu et al. (2004b)Tongjing Diorite 129 ± 3 SHRIMP U–Pb Y.G. Xu et al. (2004b)Longbaoshan Quartz syenite 129.4 ± 0.7 LA-ICP-MS U–Pb Lan et al. (2011)Longbaoshan Aegirine–augite syenite 130.1 ± 1.7 LA-ICP-MS U–Pb Lan et al. (2011)Longbaoshan Monzonite 129.9 ± 0.8 LA-ICP-MS U–Pb Lan et al. (2011)Longbaoshan Syenodiorite 131.7 ± 1.4 LA-ICP-MS U–Pb Lan et al. (2011)Longbaoshan Hornblende syenite 130.1 ± 1.0 LA-ICP-MS U–Pb Lan et al. (2011)Longbaoshan Porphyritic monzonite 129.3 ± 4.5 Whole-rock Rb–Sr Zhang et al. (2005)


deposits in Jiaodong area show broadly identical features. The dominanttype belongs to low salinity H2O–CO2–NaCl ± CH4 system, withthe main mineralization temperature in the range of 170–335 °C,and pressures in the range of 70–250 MPa. The origin of the fluidis debated, but mostly considered as fluids exsolved from deep-seated magmas, mixed with meteoric water in the shallow crust(Fan et al., 2005).

Yang and Zhou (2001a) reported the εNd(t) values, calculated at t =122 Ma, as −11.7 to −19.4 for pyrites, −15.6 to −21.3 for sulfides,b−20 for metamorphic rocks, −16.1 to −21.8 for granites and −10.1

to −16.8 for intermediate–mafic dikes in the Jiaodong Peninsula. TheεNd(t) values of pyrites and other sulfides broadly overlap forthe granites, metamorphic rocks and intermediate–mafic dikes.The data have been interpreted to suggest that the ore-formingmaterials were derived from multiple sources (Zhai et al., 2001;Yang et al., 2003).

During the ore forming process, strong isotopic fractionation oc-curs between the fluid and surrounding rocks resulting in the widerange and uncertainty in the measured H–O, C–O, and S isotopicdata. Compared with these, the He–Ar and Sm–Nd isotopic systems

Table 2Compilation of the published ages of gold mineralization in Shandong Province.

Gold deposits Ore (rock) type Age (Ma) Method References

JiaodongLinglong Sericite 100.7 ± 3.5 Rb–Sr Zhai et al. (2004)Linglong Sericite 111.3 ± 2.8 Rb–Sr Zhai et al. (2004)Linglong Sericite 126.5 ± 5.7 Rb–Sr Zhai et al. (2004)Linglong Sericite 100.2 ± 3.7 Rb–Sr Zhai et al. (2004)Linglong Sericite 112 ± 2 Rb–Sr Zhai et al. (2004)Linglong Zircon 121.6–122.7 U–Pb Zhai et al. (2004)Linglong Pyrite 122.7 ± 3.3–123.0 ± 4.2 Rb–Sr Yang and Zhou (2001a,b)Linglong Pyrite 120.6 ± 0.9 Single Rb–Sr L.L. Qiu et al. (2008a)Linglong xishan 108 vein Sericite 100.74 ± 3.58 Rb–Sr Luo and Wu (1987)Linglong xishan 108 vein Sericite 100.28 ± 3.75 Rb–Sr Lü and Yang (1993)Linglong xishan Sericite 111.38 ± 2.81 Rb–Sr Luo and Wu (1987)Linglong xishan Hydromuscovite 115.0 ± 3.7 Rb–Sr Li et al. (1993)Linglong xishan Hydromuscovite 110.0 ± 2.0 K–Ar Li et al. (1993)Linglong potouqing Sericite 80.67 ± 0.23 Rb–Sr Lü and Yang (1993)Cangshang Sericite 121.3 ± 0.2 40Ar–39Ar Zhang et al. (2003)Jincheng Sericite 116.3 ± 13 40Ar–39Ar Zhai et al. (2004)Jincheng Quartz 114.4 ± 0.9 40Ar–39Ar Zhai et al. (2004)Jiaojia Hydromuscovite 105.0 ± 7.0 Rb–Sr Li et al. (1993)Jiaojia Hydromuscovite 88.1 ± 1.0 Rb–Sr Li et al. (1993)Jiaojia Hydromuscovite 106.0 ± 2.0 K–Ar Li et al. (1993)Jiaojia Quartz inclusion 134 ± 8 Rb–Sr Zhai et al. (2004)Jiaojia Feldspar 100 K–Ar Zhai et al. (2004)Jiaojia Alterated rocks 115 ± 5 Rb–Sr Zhai et al. (2004)Jiaojia Sericite 105 ± 7 Rb–Sr Zhai et al. (2004)Jiaojia Sericite 106 ± 2 K–Ar Zhai et al. (2004)Jiaojia Sericite, muscovite 120.5 ± 0.6–119.2 ± 0.2 40Ar–39Ar Li et al. (2003)Xincheng Alterated rocks 116 ± 5 Rb–Sr Zhai et al. (2004)Xincheng Sericite, muscovite 120.7 ± 0.2–120.2 ± 0.3 40Ar–39Ar Li et al. (2003)Wangershan Sericite, muscovite 121.0 ± 0.4–119.4 ± 0.2 40Ar–39Ar Li et al. (2003)Lingshangou Hydromuscovite 115.0 ± 5.0 Rb–Sr Li et al. (2003)Majiayao Sericite 106.14 ± 4.92 Rb–Sr Luo and Wu (1987)Majiayao Hydromuscovite 135.1 ± 5.2 Rb–Sr Li et al. (2003)Majiayao Hydromuscovite 120.0 ± 2.0 K–Ar Li et al. (2003)Majiayao Quartz inclusion 137.6 ± 7.1 Rb–Sr Zhai et al. (2004)Dongfeng Sericite 71.86 ± 9.6 Rb–Sr Lü and Yang (1993)Sanshandao Sericite 121.0 ± 2.0 40Ar–39Ar Li et al. (2003)Denggezhuang Sericite 118 ± 9 Rb–Sr Li et al. (2003)Dongji Feldspar 116.34 ± 0.81 40Ar–39Ar L.C. Zhang et al. (2002a,b)Dongji Quartz 114.4 ± 0.2 40Ar–39Ar Li et al. (2003)Dazhuangzi Quartz 115.6 ± 1 40Ar–39Ar Zhang et al. (2003)Muping Sulfide 120 Rb–Sr Zhai et al. (2004)Rushan Sericite 113.31 ± 4.43 Rb–Sr Luo and Wu (1987)Rushan Microcline 121.30 ± 5.87 Rb–Sr Luo and Wu (1987)Rushan Alterated rocks 101.78 ± 3.40 Rb–Sr Luo and Wu (1987)Rushan Sericite 112.31 ± 3.31 Rb–Sr Luo and Wu (1987)Rushan Zircon 117 ± 3 SHRIMP U–Pb Hu et al. (2004)Rushan Sericite 109.3 ± 0.3–107.7 ± 0.5 40Ar–39Ar Li et al. (2006)Rushan Sericite 156–155, 108–107 40Ar–39Ar Li (2004)Xiayucun Sericite 124.6 ± 2.5 K–Ar Zhai et al. (2004)Xiayucun Sericite 100.5 ± 1.9 K–Ar Zhai et al. (2004)Pengjikuang Quartz 117.3–118.4 40Ar–39Ar Yang et al. (2000)Pengjikuang Quartz 115.2 ± 1 40Ar–39Ar Yang et al. (2000)Pengjikuang Quartz 117 ± 0.1 40Ar–39Ar Yang et al. (2000)Pengjikuang Quartz 116 ± 0.4 40Ar–39Ar Yang et al. (2000)Pengjikuang Ore 128 ± 7 Rb–Sr Yang et al. (2000)Pengjikuang Slifide 120 Rb–Sr Yang et al. (2000)Pengjikuang Quartz–Biotite 117.5 ± 0.3–118.4 ± 0.3 40Ar–39Ar Zhang et al. (2003)Pengjikuang Sericite 120.9–119.1 40Ar–39Ar Li et al. (2006)Fayunkaung Pyrite 128.49 ± 7.2 Rb–Sr Zhang et al. (2003)

LuxiTongjing Zircon 128.6 ± 3.6 SHRIMP U–Pb H.K. Li et al. (2011)Jinchang Biotite 133 ± 6 Rb–Sr Hu et al. (2005)Jinchang Biotite 128 ± 2 Rb–Sr Hu et al. (2005)


are less affected by fractionation, and can be used as better tracersfor the material sources. The available isotopic data from Jiaodonggold deposits suggest multiple sources for the metals. The magmathat generated the granitoids and the melanocratic dykes of inter-mediate to mafic composition are the primary sources of gold min-eralization, suggesting the involvement of both mantle and crustalcomponents.

5. Geodynamic models on gold metallogeny in Jiaodong and Luxi

Previous studies have proposed various models for the goldmetallogeny in the Shandong Province. Thus, gold mineralizationin the Jiaodong area has been correlated to multiple long-termmetallogenic processes (S.X. Li et al., 2007a; Z. Li et al., 2007), mantleuplift (Wang et al., 1999; Zhou et al., 2002), crust–mantle interaction


(Sun et al., 2000a,b), multistage metallogeny (Yang, 1998), and meta-morphic hydrothermal processes (Yang et al., 1998). The speculatedgeodynamic settings include effects of the Pacific plate subduction(J.S. Qiu et al., 2002; Y. Qiu et al., 2002a), transformation of tectonicregime from compression to extension during collisional orogenicprocess (Chen et al., 1998; Goldfarb et al., 2001; Mao et al., 2002;Chen et al., 2004), anorogenic gold formation (Zhai et al., 2004),large-scale upwelling of heat and deep material (Liu et al., 2001),polygenetic coupling of mineralization (Deng et al., 2004), and in-volvement of mantle processes (Niu et al., 2009).

6. Geophysical studies

The exploration and development of concealed ore deposits, espe-cially the large and super large deposits, require a precise under-standing of the metallogenic processes and tectonic settings (Yanget al., 2006). Since sources in the deep crust and mantle are also in-voked for many major metallogenic belts, the application of geophys-ical techniques has gained more significance in the field of economicgeology (e.g., Huang et al., 2009). In the following sections, we sum-marize the available regional geophysical data from various tech-niques and evaluate their significance for the gold mineralization inthe Shandong Province.

6.1. Heat flow data

The thermal structure of crust and mantle is one of the impor-tant parameters in understanding lithospheric dynamics as itreflects the thermal evolution history and modern tectonic archi-tecture of the lithosphere. The observed surface heat flow value isa signature of the thermal state of the crust and mantle, and is com-posed of two main components. One is the crust including radioac-tive elements and magmas, and the other is the upper mantle,where partial melting at high temperatures through asthenosphericinput plays an active role. In modern active regions of astheno-spheric upwelling and magmatic input, markedly higher heat flowis detected in comparison with the lower heat flow in old and stablecratonic blocks.

Xing et al. (2002, 2006a,b) synthesized the heat flow values for theNCC, and pointed out that the Bohai bay and Subei areas are character-ized by high heat flow values (80–90 mW/m2). Among the Cenozoicdeep structures, the Handan, Zhongtiao and Tan–Lu fault zones show

Fig. 3. Heat flow values, a–a′ is the profile going cross the North China CratoPanel a–a′ is modified after Xing et al. (2002) and b–b′ is modified after Den

medium heat flow values (50–60 mW/m2), whereas the Ordos,Qinshui, Luhuai and Jiaodong areas which are located in the thicklithosphere region have low heat flow values (40–50 mW/m2).From Fig. 3, which shows a profile a–a′ parallel to North Latitude36°, the heat flow value in the Tan–Lu fault regions shows a promi-nent hump of up to 65 mW/m2, and the Jiaodong and Luxi area onboth sides show lower values of ca. 50 mW/m2. The profile b–b′ inFig. 3 shows the heat flow value along the Tan–Lu fault as 66 mW/m2 which is higher than the values of Jiaodong and Luxi areas. Nota-bly, the heat flow value of eastern Shandong is higher than that ofwestern Shandong.

Some of the previous studies proposed the Tan–Lu fault as a mod-ern zone of high heat flow (Zu et al., 1996; Bai et al., 1998; He et al.,2001; Hu et al., 2001; Che et al., 2002), with the maximum heat flowvalue of 104.30 mW/m2 and a mean of 63.21 mW/m2 in the lowerLiaohe segment of the fault (Lu et al., 1993). The heat flow in theeastern Linyi is more than 62.4 mW/m2 which is obviously higherthan that of Luxi uplift (Liu et al., 1991). The Jiashan segmentshows a value of 77 mW/m2, which is also higher than those onboth sides.

6.2. Aeromagnetic data

Aeromagnetic anomaly displays the physical response of mag-netic bodies in the continental crust. The nature and distribution ofmagnetic anomalies bear a close relation with the structure andcomposition of the deep crust, and has therefore been widely usedto interpret regional geological features including deeply emplacedconductors (e.g., Anand and Rajaram, 2003; Zhao et al., 2007). Thecover sequences in the NCC have low magnetic properties, and theNeoarchean and Paleoproterozoic metamorphic units in the shallowlevels of the crust are weakly magnetic, with a mean magneticsusceptibility of 30 × 10−6 SI to 90 × 10−6 SI. However, the mag-netic properties of Mesoarchean and Paleoarchean rocks, which aremostly Fe-rich mafic units at depth, have higher mean magneticsusceptibility ranging from 300 × 10−6 SI to 1000 × 10−6 SI. Theintermediate and basic magmas yield stronger magnetic signals.Moreover, the Curie point depth for the NCC is equivalent to themiddle crust (uppermost lower crust), and therefore the magneticanomaly may represent the features of the crystalline rocks in theupper crust (Xing et al., 2002).

n along 36°N; b–b′ is the profile across the Tanlu fault running NW–SE.g et al. (2012).

image of Fig.�3


The aeromagnetic characteristics of the Tan–Lu fault show a pro-nounced zone of linear and positive anomaly. High values are clearlyimaged when passing though the fault, implying the presence of mag-matic rocks emplaced at depth (Liu et al., 1991). Many researchers sug-gested that the aeromagnetic features on the eastern side of the Tan–Lufault aremainly negative anomalies, but on the opposite side, the anom-alies are mainly positive, with different values and variable trends(Xu et al., 2002; Zhang et al., 2007; Huo et al., 2009; Li, 2009). In a recentstudy, Huo et al. (2009) pointed that in the eastern part of the Tan–Lufault, mainly in the Jiaoliao and South Yellow sea areas, negative anom-alies with negative and close to zero background field value are typical,whereas in the southeastern Jiaodong area, a linear positive magneticanomaly is prominent. This zone (the southeastern Jiaodong area) de-fines NE and NNE trending axial zones, whereas the positive anomalyin the western part of the Tan–Lu fault defines EW and NW trendingaxial zones.

Fig. 4 shows the aeromagnetic map of the Shandong Province. TheJiaodong and Luxi areas show distinct difference with regard to theregional magnetic fields, taking the Yishu fault as the boundary. TheJiaodong area shows overall large negative magnetic values with littlepositive trends, in contrast to the Su–Lu orogenic belt where mainlypositive magnetic field is seen. The lowest values for Jiaodong areless than minus 100 nT, and the highest value is 150 nT. However,in the Luxi area, the lowest value is minus 80 nT and the highest is>300 nT. The neighboring Tai'an and Tan–Lu fault show a widerange of positive magnetic anomaly (Xu et al., 2002).

The geological setting of Shandong Province shows that Mesozoicgranitoids are widely distributed in this region, which probablycontributes to the prominent negative magnetic anomalies. The Su–Lu orogenic belt is dominantly composed of metamorphic orogens

Fig. 4. Aeromagnetic anomaly sketRedrawn after Xu et al. (2002).

exhumed from depth, which yields the higher magnetic anomaly. Onthe opposite side, the geology is characterized by dominant outcropsof the Precambrian basement strata which contribute to the high mag-netic anomaly. The orientation of the magnetic anomaly axis clearly co-incides with the trend of the tectonic line, and thus the aeromagneticfeatures in our study area sharply correlate with the geological setting.

6.3. Gravity data

The shallow gravity anomaly in the Shandong region reflects theCenozoic cover sequence whereas the deep gravity anomaly is in-duced by the density interface of the middle and lower crust, espe-cially the Moho and upper mantle (Xing et al., 2002). The differentrock types in Shandong Province have different densities: the averagedensity of Archean rocks is 2.81 g/cm3; that of the early Paleozoicrocks is 2.71 g/cm3; the late Paleozoic rocks show 2.61 g/cm3; theMesozoic (Jurassic and Cretaceous) rocks show 2.52 g/cm3; thePaleogene–Neogene rocks show 2.35 g/cm3; and the Quaternaryformations show 1.71 g/cm3.

Li and Yang (2011) reported gravity data beneath the NCC usingEGM 2008 model and considered that the eastern NCC has complexdensity fluctuations in the lithosphere arising from the major riftbasins. Their data placed the lower boundary of the lithosphere at60 km depth in this region. Zhou et al. (2004) summarized the gravityanomaly features for the whole of the NCC, where the eastern partshows positive and the western part shows negative anomalies. Thenegative anomaly grades into positive in the NW to SE direction,following the trend of lithosphere thinning from the west to east.

Tang (2006) presented data along 4 gravity lines trending SE–NWand cutting through the Tan–Lu fault, fromwhich we select 3 transects

ch map of Shandong Province.

image of Fig.�4

Fig. 5. Gravity profiles c–c′, d–d′ and e–e′ across Tanlu Fault in NW–SE orientation.Modified after Tang et al. (2006).


image of Fig.�5


as shown in Fig. 5. Clearly, the gravity fields on both sides of Tan–Lufault are different, with a negative anomaly in the northwest region,and a positive anomaly in the southeast, as also pointed out in someprevious studies (Huo et al., 2009). From the d–d′ and e–e′ transects,significantly higher values (almost 20 × 10−5 m/s2) of gravity anom-alies are seen along the fault zone. This feature may reflect the faultzone extending deep into the upper mantle, and the resultant upwell-ing of high density mantle along the fault. The Moho depth in thecoastal areas on the east side of the fault zone is at slightly shallowerlevel, about 33–35 km, but it reaches 38–40 km on the west side ofthe fault. The Moho depth beneath the fault is about 36–37 km, withthe thickness of the crust gradually increasing from east to west.

Fig. 6 shows the gravity anomaly map of Shandong Province. TheTan–Lu fault is prominently displayed as a major gravity gradientbelt. The Luxi area shows negative anomaly, with lowest gravityvalue of −20 × 10−5 m/s2 and highest one as −4 × 10−5 m/s2.Otherwise, excluding the Jiaolai basin, the middle part of easternShandong displays positive anomaly whereas the other parts includ-ing North Jiaodong and Jiaonan orogenic belt show negative anomaly.The lowest value is between −6 × 10−5 and −5 × 10−5 m/s2, andthe highest at 12 × 10−5 m/s2. Combined with the seismic soundingand crustal depth data for the Shandong Province, it is evident thatthe crustal thickness in Jiaodong is lesser than that in Luxi. It is possi-ble that the thinned sialic layer in the middle and upper crust inducesthe higher gravity value which is the signature of the lower crust ormantle upwelling in this region (Xu et al., 2002).

6.4. Seismic data, including mantle tomography

Seismic P and S wave velocity anomalies can be used to understandthe comprehensive effect of horizontal and vertical inhomogeneity ofthe physical and chemical properties of the inner earth. P wave velocitycan be influenced by density changes, variation in rheological properties,

Fig. 6. Bouguer gravity anomaly skeModified after Xu et al. (2002).

the changes in chemical composition and the earth's interior ther-mal structure, among other parameters. Thus, based on the distribu-tion of the velocity anomaly, it is possible to infer the thickness ofthe crust and lithosphere and also to analyze the asthenosphericinhomogneities such as upwellings. Major seismic transects havebeen conducted across the Tan–Lu fault zone in previous studiesincluding the Manzhouli–Suifenhe (Zhang et al., 1998), InnerMongolia Dongujimqinqi–Liaoning Donggou (Lu et al., 1993), JiangsuXiangshui–Inner Mongolia Mandula (Liu et al., 1991), ShanghaiFengxian–InnerMongolia Alashanzuoqi (Yang et al., 1990), andQinghaiMenyuan–Fujian Ningde (Wang et al., 1995). Some of these transectspass through the North segment of Tan–Lu fault (north of Bohai Bay),the middle segment (Shandong) and the South segment (Suwan) andhave been employed to evaluate the lithospheric structure of easternChina.

In the recent years, several geophysical studies have been carriedout in the eastern NCC. Zheng et al. (2008) used the teleseismicdata from the NCISP-1 experiment to image the velocity structuresof lithosphere and to investigate the upper mantle anisotropy of theprofile (Latitude 36.4°N, Longitude 117°–119.7°E) (Fig. 7). The studyshowed that the Moho depth ranges from 31.6 to 36 km along theprofile and shows a rise in Moho by ca. 2 km beneath the easternTan–Lu fault zone, and 2.5 km beneath the Luxi uplift. The depth ofthe LAB (lithosphere–asthenosphere boundary) ranges from 63 to72 km, the SKS splitting fast directions consistently trend NE–SW orENE–WSW to the east of the transition region, while trending consis-tently NW–SE in the west. Zhu and Zheng (2009) analyzed mobileseismic array observation data and performed seismic imaging ofthe LAB. A lithosphere thickness of about 60–80 km from ShandongGaomi to Jinan was estimated. In the western Taihang Mountainalong the TNCO, the depth to LAB ranges up to 130 km, suggestingthat the lithosphere beneath the eastern NCC has been considerablythinned.

tch map of Shandong Province.

image of Fig.�6

Fig. 7. S-wave seismic features along 36.4°N. (a) The seismic image of profile and (b) the velocity model on both sides of Tanlu fault; red color indicates high velocity and blue colorindicates low velocity.Modified after Zheng et al. (2008).


Z.W. Li et al. (2011a) used the Pn wave arrival time data to invertthe Pn wave velocity structure tomography on the top of the uppermantle of the NCC and surrounding areas. The most conspicuous ab-normal structure in the eastern NCC is the high velocity anomaly inthe Bohai Bay basin, with velocity ranging to >8.2 km/s. The velocityis lower in the Luxi uplift and southward (7.8–7.9 km/s). The zonesneighboring Tan–Lu fault and Jiaodong peninsula show prominentlow Pn wave velocity. In the TNCO, significantly slow Pn velocitiesare present beneath the Taihang Mountain, which also extends north-ward to the Yinchuan–Hetao Rift on the northern margin of the OrdosBlock and Yinshan Orogen. Otherwise, fast velocities are mainly locat-ed beneath the Western Block. Xu and Zhao (2009) collected a largenumber of data from local, regional and teleseismic events to deter-mine the 3-D seismic velocity structure beneath the eastern part ofthe NCC and the surrounding regions. The cross section (Latitude37°N, Longitude 109°–135°E) shows that the thickness of the seismiclithosphere is only 60–100 km under Huabei Basin, with the thinnestlithosphere (b60 km) located in Jiaodong peninsula and central BohaiSea, suggesting the ascend of asthenospheric materials reaching closeto the Moho discontinuity in these areas.

Tian and Zhao (2011) synthesized the local and regional earthquaketravel time and relative travel time residuals from teleseismic events toinvert the tomographic images of P and S wave velocity and Poisson'sratio of the crust and mantle down to 600 km depth under the entireNCC region. NNE–SSW trending low-velocity anomalies are visible inthe upper mantle beneath the TNCO and the Tan–Lu fault zone. Thelow-V zone under the TNCO is oblique and extends down to about600 km depth, whereas the low-V zone along the Tan–Lu fault risesfrom the mantle transition zone or further deep in the lower mantle.S. Yang et al. (2011a) studied the 3D upper mantle small scale convec-tion and the stressfield applied in the bottomof crust by convection. Be-neath the Bohai Bay–Jiaodong peninsula–North Jiangsu Basin of eastern

NCC, major upwelling divergent flow related to the hot material in-duced by the subduction of Pacific plate beneath the Eurasian platewas suggested in their study.

The profiles f–f′ and g–g′ parallel to 36°N, 36.5°N and crossing theTanlu Fault zone were analyzed by Chen et al. (2006) and L. Chen etal. (2008) using the P and S receiver functions. An et al. (2009) alsoused S wave tomographymethod to obtain the 3-D lithosphere structureof profile f–f′, g–g′ and h–h′ (almost parallel to 38°N, 104.5°E, −124°E)(Figs. 8–10).

Along the profile g–g′, a sharp increase in lithosphere thicknessfrom the Jiaodong uplift to the Luxi uplift is seen, although previousRF-based studies showed only a slight increase in lithosphere thick-ness. The extension of Tan–Lu fault to depths below 50 km suggeststhat the fault may be rooted further down into the asthenosphere.Along profile h–h′, a plume-like low velocity anomaly is clearly im-aged between the Taihang Mountain and the Tangshan–Xingtai seis-mic zone, extending upward to 70 km depth. The thickness of thelithosphere shows a sharp change across the northward extrapolationof the Tan–Lu Fault, further confirming that the fault extends down tothe asthenosphere.

Zhao et al. (2012) employed data from seismic reflection andrefraction sounding from more than 40 profiles to analyze the Mohodiscontinuity and P-wave velocity structure in and around the Tan–Lufault. Fig. 11a shows the P-wave velocity profile across the Su–Luultrahigh-pressure metamorphic belt and the Tan–Lu fault along theSE–NW profile, from the site (34°N, 123°E) to the site (38°N, 117°E)(see transect i–i′). A high-velocity feature is revealed near the Su–Lu re-gion in the upper crust. A low velocity zone at depths greater than28 km is visible in the lower crust beneath the Su–Lu region. The max-imum depth of the discontinuity reaches nearly 33 km. Fig. 11b showsthe P-wave velocity profile along longitude 118°Ewhich passes throughthe Tan–Lu fault zone between latitudes 32°N and 33°N (profile j–j′). It

image of Fig.�7

Fig. 8. S-wave tomography profile f–f′ across Tanlu fault along 36°N.Modified after An et al. (2009). The upper solid line and dotted line denote LABdepth from Chen et al. (2006) and L. Chen et al. (2008), respectively.


can be seen that a lowvelocity zonewith amaximum thickness of about20 km exists in the upper crust beneath the Tan–Lu fault. Such alow-velocity feature in the upper crust beneath the fault is differentfrom the high-velocity properties beneath its neighboring Dabie andSu–Lu orogen.

Fig. 9. S-wave tomography profile g–g′ across Tanlu fault along 36.4°N.Modified after An et al. (2009). The upper solid line and dotted line denote LABdepth from Chen et al. (2006) and L. Chen et al. (2008).

6.5. Magnetotelluric data

Wei et al. (2008) used an ultra-broadband and high-precisionequipment to perform MT measurements along the Wenshui–Rizhaoprofile stretching southeast (Fig. 12), covering the area discussed inour present study. Their study identified a dominant high resistivityzone at depth 30–38 km on the left part of the profile. The centralpart of the transect shows medium conductivity (400–1000 Ω·m).The second high conductivity layer with a thickness 10–25 km lies atdepth 50–60 km, with a uniform medium resistivity (65–400 Ω·m)zone beneath this layer, and a high resistivity body appearing below adepth 160 km.

Another conductive layer at depths 30–40 km, with a complexinterface characterized by alternating swells and sags has also been im-aged. This zone is overlain by a high-resistivity body (>2500 Ω·m),laced with five distinct zones of varied size at different depths, separat-ing the body into several smaller high-resistivity units. In this section, asecond high-conductivity layer is absent; instead, another distinct zoneexists at depth 60 km, beneath which a high-resistivity body extends toa depth of almost 120 km. Further downward, the resistivity valuesdecline to 65–400 Ω·m.

Xiao et al. (2009) analyzed the magnetotelluric (MT) characteralong a profile across the Su–Lu orogen. Fig. 13 shows this profilewhich starts in the western part of the NCC, extends S129°E, acrossthe Tan–Lu fault, Su–Lu ultrahigh-pressure metamorphic zone, andSu–Lu high pressure metamorphic zone, and terminates in theYangtze Block in east. High conductivity domains marked as C1, C2and C3 are present beneath the Yangtze and North China Blocks.The depth of the C1 and C3 zones are similar, at about 15 km, butC3 is around 33 km depth at the bottom of lower crust. There is nohigh conductivity layer at the same depths under the Su–Lu orogen.

F1 is located below the Tan–Lu fault which is an electrical transitionarea that has a steep altitude at mid-upper crust levels (b20 km),and dips gently towards NW evidently at mid-lower crust (>20 km).The resistivity inside the zone is less than 103 Ω·m, but on both sides,the resistivity is greater than 104 Ω·m.

6.6. Analysis of geophysical data from the Jiaodong and Luxi gold belts

6.6.1. Interpretation of magnetic and gravity data beneath the gold beltsThe Jiaodong Group which is widely distributed in the Jiaodong

area generally shows weak magnetic characters except for the am-phibolites which are strongly magnetic. The regional stable weakmagnetic field with partial positive anomalies might reflect the un-even demagnetization induced by the regional metamorphism. TheMesozoic batholiths whose magnetic property is weaker than thatof the Jiaodong group rocks show a steady and low or negative mag-netic character, depending on the individual rock units, and the frac-ture pattern such as contact zone of the fracture, or secondary faultswithin the batholiths. The weak magnetic properties of these rocksmight be due to partial physical demagnetization as well as chemicaldemagnetization through alteration by ore-bearing hydrothermalsolutions.

The magnetic anomaly of Jiaodong ore zone and the distribution ofgold deposits show a marked correlation. Most of the gold depositsare located in the low and mildly varying negative anomaly fields,with only few deposits located in the negative magnetic anomalyregions.

There are two main high Bouguer gravity anomalies in the Jiaodongpeninsula, one located in the southern part of a NE oriented negativeBouguer gravity anomaly zone. The other one is distributed adjacentto the Laiyang Basin which is surrounded by ring of negative anomalytrending NE, NNE and EW. The negative anomaly is consistent withthe distribution of the Mesozoic granitoids formed by remelting of thebasement rocks, and the positive anomaly coincides with the Mesozoicvolcanic rocks. There is an apparent correlation between the gold-bearing zones in Jiaodong with zones of gravity anomaly gradients. A

image of Fig.�9

image of Fig.�8

Fig. 10. S-wave tomography profile h–h′ cross North China Craton along 38°N.Modified after An et al. (2009).


part of the gold deposits are located in the zone where there is asystematic variation in the gravity anomaly from high to low,and might suggest the spatial relationship of the mineralizationwith the low density granitoids. For example, the gold depositsof Dayigezhuang, Xiadian, and Jiudian gold in the Zhaoyuan–Pingdu gold belt, and the Denggezhuang, Jinniushan, Jinqingdingdeposits of the Muping–Rushan gold belt are located in the gravityanomaly gradient belt. The Sanshandao–Cangshang gold field,Jiaojia–Xincheng gold field and Linglong deposit fall within the re-gion of a smooth gradient in gravity anomaly.

Fig. 11. Crustal structure. i–i′ is the profile across Tanlu fault in NW–

Modified after Zhao et al. (2012).

The rocks in the Luxi area show wide variation in their magneticproperties. The sedimentary units are weakly magnetic or non-magnetic. The Precambrian TTG and potassic granites have weak, butpositive magnetic properties. The diorite complex and Mesozoic gran-ite, aswell as the diorite andmafic intrusive rocks are stronglymagneticand define regional positive magnetic anomaly. Thus, a positive mag-netic anomaly located in the Precambrian granite and Mesozoic dioriteoutcrop areas and a low negative magnetic field in the early PaleozoicCambrian and Ordovician strata and Mesozoic and Cenozoic zones canbe clearly demarcated.

SE orientation. j–j′ is the profile across Tanlu fault along 118°E.

image of Fig.�11

image of Fig.�10

Fig. 12. Magnetotelluric profile l–l′ across Tanlu fault in NW–SE orientation.Modified after Wei et al. (2008).


The regional gravity field coincides with the magnetic fields and isobviously related to the basement rocks, Mesozoic–Cenozoic basin,structural features and deep crust and mantle structure. Broadly, a

Fig. 13.Magnetotelluric profile m–m′ across Tanlu fault and Sulu orogen in NW–SE orientatioand number; S1–S3, relative low resistivity zone and number at top of upper mantle; A–C,Modified after Xiao et al. (2009).

large scale of low gravity anomaly zone is seen in the region. TheTaishan group and Proterozoic–Mesozoic intrusive rocks are locatedwithin the high gravity anomaly zone, but the Mesozoic and Cenozoic

n. F1–F5, Electrical transition zone and number in crust; C1–C3, high conductivity zonedifferent resistivity areas in the shallow upper mantle.

image of Fig.�12

image of Fig.�13


rift basins fall within the regional low gravity anomaly zone, due tothe thick and low density sedimentary cover in these regions. Thelinear gravity gradient belt reflects the tectonic location of the basinand its controlling fractures.

The gold deposits of Luxi are located in the regional positive mag-netic anomaly and negative gravity anomaly zones, mostly neighbor-ing the Mesozoic diorite intrusions.

Fig. 14. P-wave tomography profile k–k′ along 37°N passing through the study area.Modified after Huang and Zhao (2006).

6.6.2. Interpretation of seismic and heat flow data beneath the gold beltsThe S-wave velocity structure of lithosphere along the profile

running through Tan–Lu fault is shown in Fig. 7 (upper panel) andthe average velocity model for both sides of the Tan–Lu fault is alsoshown (Fig. 7, lower panel). Beneath the eastern part, a low-velocity layer (3.55 km/s) which is about 5 km thick tapers into themiddle crust. In the western profile, a low velocity layer (3.8 km/s)with an average thickness of 10 km is wedged into the lower crust.Peng et al. (2003) suggested that the depths of such low velocitylayers in the crust are related with crustal detachment layer and duc-tile shear zone, so that the magma property and mineralization wouldmarkedly fluctuate with depth. The shallow buried low velocity zonemight reflect the control of felsic to intermediate magmas, whereasthe low velocity zone at deeper regions might be a reflection of themafic–ultramafic magmas in the region. The geological informationfrom Jiaodong shows that intermediate and felsic magmatic rocksare widespread in this region, whereas the mafic members are morecommon in the Luxi area, correlating with the low velocity beltsdetected from geophysical studies.

Below the Moho depth, there is another low velocity zone(4.2 km/s) with an average thickness of about 8 km which wedgesinto the higher-velocity (4.5 km/s) mantle material. The S-wavevelocity increases to 4.7 km/s at the bottom of the lithosphere. Thislow velocity zone represents asthenosphere upwelling into the litho-sphere. In Fig. 9, a sharp increase in lithosphere thickness can be seenalong the transect q–q′ from east to west. However, the data shown inFigs. 7 and 8 illustrate a gentle variation in the lithosphere across theTan–Lu fault. Within the Tan–Lu fault, an arcuate upwelling is no-ticed, clearly suggesting that this fault is a major corridor for astheno-sphere upwelling in this region.

Fig. 11 shows the lithosphere structure beneath Tan–Lu fault andSu–Lu orogen. The Moho depth beneath the Tan–Lu fault (33 km) isat shallower levels than in the neighboring areas. Xu and Zhao(2009) identified a 20 km low velocity zone beneath the Tan–Lufault. In high heat flow areas, partial melting plays a key role in pro-ducing low velocity zones (Yang and Jin, 1998). As discussed in a pre-vious section, the heat flow values along the Tan–Lu fault areconsiderably higher than those on both sides of this fault. Therefore,the low velocity zone beneath the fault can be correlated to partialmelts. This inference is also consistent with the Tan–Lu fault as a cor-ridor for asthenosphere upwelling.

Fig. 14 represents a tomographic slice along 37°N in eastern Chinaand neighboring areas. In this figure, a large low velocity zone is seenbelow the Jiaodong area, suggesting upper mantle/asthenosphere up-welling. A high velocity belt exists between the 400 km and 600 kmdepth, related to the deep subduction of the Pacific slab. The low ve-locity zone is considered as the slab edge. The downgoing Pacific slabbecomes horizontal at this depth (mantle transition zone), accumu-lates and extends far west to below the Taihang Mountain region inthe Central Orogenic Belt (Trans-North China Orogen) of the NCC.

In summary, the main difference in the lithospheric features be-tween the Jiaodong and Luxi areas is that the lithosphere depths be-neath Jiaodong are shallower than in the Luxi area. The low velocityzones at depth in Jiaodong are also shallower than those in Luxi. Aprominent upper mantle low velocity zone is present under eastShandong Province, Tan–Lu fault and part of Luxi area close to thefault. The low velocity zone correlates with mantle upwelling and

might be the potential reason for magmatism and gold metallogenyin the Shandong Province.

6.6.3. Interpretation of magnetotelluric data beneath the gold beltsWei et al. (2010) proposed that in “cold” stable platform, the resis-

tivity of lithosphere shows a decreasing tendency with increasingdepth. In “hot” younger volcanic arc zone or in zones of intense tec-tonic movements, the resistivity of continental upper crust decreaseswith increasing depth. As the depth increases, the crust transits intothe upper mantle, and the resistivity of continental lithosphere in-creases. However, close to the asthenosphere, the resistivity declineswith depth.

Fig. 12 shows the electrical conductivity structure of the litho-sphere along a NW oriented profile crossing the Tan–Lu fault. Thehigh-conductivity layers at 30–38 km and 30–40 km in the twosections correspond to Moho depths of this area. The depths of thesecond high-conductivity layer at 50–60 km and 120 km seen in thetwo sections correspond to the LAB depths (Wei et al., 2008). Appar-ently, the lithosphere beneath the Su–Lu orogenic belt is thicker thanthat in the Luxi area.

This inference is also consistent with the data shown in Fig. 13.The high conductivity zone in the eastern part of the NCC does notcoincide with the Su–Lu orogenic belt, and the resistivity along theTan–Lu fault is lower than those on both sides of the fault. This meansthat the lithosphere beneath the Su–Lu orogen is much thicker, withno upwelling asthenosphere beneath. This also explains why the goldmetallogeny is concentrated in the Jiaodong and Luxi areas.

7. Summary of information from xenolith data

The petrologic and geochemical signatures of mantle xenoliths canbe used to interpret the nature and evolution of the lithospheric man-tle. In a recent overview, Tang et al. (in press) summarized the datafrom mantle xenoliths, including those entrained in the Paleozoic di-amondiferous kimberlites in the Mengyin and Fuxian regions in theeastern NCC which attest to the presence of Archean lithospheric

image of Fig.�14


keel at the time of kimberlite emplacement (Menzies et al., 1993;Griffinet al., 1998a,b; Gao et al., 2002; H.F. Zhang et al., 2008a). In contrast, theCenozoic basalts carry peridotite xenoliths with imprints of younger(Proterozoic–Present), thinner (b80 km) and hotter (50–105 mW/m2)lithosphere, with predominantly fertile compositions (Griffin et al.,1998a,b; Fan et al., 2000; Xiao et al., 2010). The majority of peridotitexenoliths in the Paleozoic kimberlite from the eastern NCC are highlyrefractory harzburgites and dunites characterized by high Fo (>92),typical of cratonic lithospheric mantle. However, the peridotite xeno-liths in the Cenozoic basalts from the eastern NCC are fertile lherzoliteswith low Fo (b92 andmost b91), typical of oceanic lithospheric mantle.The high-Mg# (Fo > 92) harzburgites are interpreted as relics of theArchean lithosphere, whereas the low-Mg# lherzolites are consideredto represent modified lithospheric mantle and/or newly accreted litho-spheric mantle beneath the eastern NCC (Tang et al., in press and refer-ences therein). Melt–peridotite interaction leading to different degreesof modification of the lithospheric mantle has been invoked to explainthe Fo variation. Such interaction is known to lower the Fo of mantleperidotites (Griffin et al., 1998b; Zhang, 2005). The peridotites fromthe eastern NCC and the northern margin of the craton are character-ized by lower Fo, and suggest extensivemodification of the lithosphericmantle.

Furthermore, the Paleozoic kimberlite-borne peridotite xenolithsare relatively enriched in Nd isotopic composition, with εNd rangingfrom−2.5 to +5 (H.F. Zhang et al., 2008a). In contrast, the peridotitexenoliths in the Cenozoic basalts show depletion in Nd isotopic com-position, with εNd > +5 (Xu et al., 1998; Fan et al., 2000; Xiao et al.,2010). The depleted Nd isotopic compositions also indicate litho-spheric modification by melts with depleted isotopic compositions.

The peridotites from eastern NCC show TRD ages ranging fromProterozoic to present (Tang et al., in press and references therein),the relatively young and variable TRD ages of the peridotite xenolithsin the Cenozoic basalts also suggest different degrees of modificationof the lithospheric mantle beneath the NCC through the addition ofmelt (Xiao et al., 2010).

With a prolonged subduction regime operating from the east,water played an important role during the modification of the sub-continental lithospheric mantle of the eastern NCC. The Cenozoiclithospheric mantle beneath eastern China is remarkably dry relativeto typical cratonic mantle (Yu et al., 2011). The remarkably low watercontent in the mantle beneath the NCC has been interpreted as arelict feature of the Precambrian architecture. In contrast, the watercontent of Mesozoic lithospheric mantle beneath the eastern NCC,represented by clinopyroxene phenocrysts in the Feixian basalts(Tan et al., 2012), is much higher than the MORB (50–200 ppm),suggesting strong hydration and modification of the Mesozoic litho-spheric mantle beneath the NCC.

8. Discussion

8.1. Tectonic setting of gold metallogeny

The Shandong Province, located in the south-eastern part of theNCC, is tectonically linked to the circum-Pacific belt (Goldfarb et al.,2007). The gold metallogeny in this region is strongly controlled bymagmatism and structural features. The distribution of gold depositsin the Jiaodong and Luxi areas are controlled by the NE–NNE and NWfractures, respectively. These faults are the secondary fractures ofTan–Lu fault. Notably, there are no major gold deposits within theTan–Lu fault, but most of the deposits are located on both sides ofthe major fault. The mineralization becomes more intense closer tothe proximity of the fault. Although there are some minor depositswithin the fault zone, these are not economically productive. Al-though the Tan–Lu fault played an important role in controlling thedistribution of gold deposits and also provided the major channel

for ore-forming fluids, the fault is not the major location for thegold deposits in Jiaodong.

Lithospheric thinning in the eastern part of the NCC has been con-sidered as a consequence of mantle plume activity, and here we fur-ther evaluate this process, particularly based on the geophysicalsignatures integrated in this study. In Fig. 10 a zone of mantle upwell-ing is clearly seen below the Bohai Bay, but there is no evidence toprove that this mantle plume existed during Mesozoic. Goldfarb etal. (2007) correlated the gold deposits in the North China, Yangtze,and Siberian craton margins, as well as in other young terranes inCalifornia, to the giant Cretaceous mantle plume in the southernPacific basin. However, the mantle plume is located far away fromthe NCC, and therefore it cannot be invoked as the main reason forthe Shandong gold metallogeny.

The available isotopic age data on the magmatism and metallogenyin this region converge into two major phases: 180–150 Ma and110–130 Ma, with the ore-forming materials derived from multiplesources. Mantle–crust interaction is well represented inmany of the lo-calities, with the large-scale felsic and mafic magmas, volcanic rocksand pull-apart basins suggesting that the ultimate control of gold min-eralization in the Shandong Province is related to the strong lithospher-ic thinning event that took place in the Late Mesozoic (e.g., Yang andZhou, 2001a,b; Yang et al., 2003). In early Cretaceous, a critical transi-tion occurred in the tectonic style from compression to extension ineastern China (e.g., Zhou et al., 2003). This phase is characterized by vo-luminous granitoid magmas emplaced within extensional setting withcrust–mantle mixing, especially in Jiaodong, Liaodong, Luxi, Liaoxi andYanshan area on both sides of the Tan–Lu fault (Zhang and Zhang,2007).

During the period of 135–119 Ma, the Izanagi plate subductedbeneath Eurasia in the NNW direction at an estimated speed of30–21.1 cm/y, and after 127 Ma, the speed of subduction rapidlydecreased. In the period of 119–110 Ma, the Izanagi plate subductedat a speed of 20.5 cm/y beneath Eurasia in the N and NNE directions(Deng et al., 2003). This transition led to a change in the struc-tural architecture of the Tan–Lu fault from sinistral to dextralcompression, accompanied by large scale lithosphere thinningin the eastern part of the NCC. Thus, the Pacific plate subduc-tion beneath the NCC is regarded as one of the major triggerfor the gold mineralization.

Based on a synthesis of the geological, geochronological, geo-chemical and geophysical data in this study, we consider that thegold metallogeny in Shandong Province was dominantly controlledby the underplating of asthenospheric magma beneath the litho-sphere mantle and lower crust. The ascending asthenosphericmagmas caused partial melting of the crustal materials and generatedfelsic magma chambers (Tan et al., 2008). This process occurred in anextensional environment of back-arc induced by Pacific slab subduc-tion, and therefore, the gold mineralization in the Shandong Provincebelongs to intraplate metallogeny.

8.2. Mantle dynamics

Mafic and intermediate magmas are closely associated in timeand space with the granitoids and gold mineralization in theShandong Province. Mesozoic granite plutons and mafic–intermediatedykes are common in the Jiaodong area, whereas in the Luxi area, themafic–intermediate rocks are much more abundant, signifying therole of mantle dynamics in magma generation and metallogeny.

Most workers recognized that the Linglong and Luanjiahe granitesin the Jiaodong area were derived from crustal remelting, involvingthe Precambrian metamorphic basement rocks belonging to theJiaodong and Jingshan groups. The Guojialing granite is consideredto have been derived through mixing of components from bothcrust and mantle (Sun, 1999; Li et al., 2005; Wang and Huo, 2008).Some workers proposed that the Guojialing pluton was derived


from the newly formed mafic lower crust generated by mantlemagma underplating (Luo and Yang, 2010). Others, such as Q.Zhang et al. (2008b) do not support the model that the Jiaodonggroup metamorphic rocks in the upper and middle crust contributedto the magma source of the Linglong granite, and proposed that theprimary source of granite is at the bottom of lower crust. They arguedthat the crust and mantle mixing occurred in the lower crustal domain.It is clear that during Mesozoic, the eastern Shandong Province experi-enced strong uplift and denudation exhuming the deep-seated meta-morphic basement rocks to shallower levels. Zhang et al. (2006)considered that during early Cretaceous, the uplift and denudationin the Jiaodong area is of the order of at least 7 km. J. Zhang et al.(2010b) and K.F. Yang et al. (2012a) suggested that the magmasource of the Linglong and Guojialing plutons come from continen-tal crust belonging to both the NCC and Yangtze Craton, basedon zircon U–Pb dating and Lu–Hf isotopes. The variably negativezircon εHf(t) values of −39.6 to −5.4 with Paleoproterozoicto Paleoarchean Hf model ages of 2125 ± 124 to 3310 ± 96 Ma(J. Zhang et al., 2010b) were considered to support this model.Hou et al. (2007) considered that the Linglong suite was derivedby partial melting of Neoarchaean metamorphic lower-crustalrocks at a depth of >50 km with an eclogite residue, whereas theGuojialing suite was formed by the reaction of delaminated eclogiticcrust-derived melt with the upwelling asthenospheric mantle. Gosset al. (2010) studied the Sanfushan, Aishan, Yashan, and Laoshanbatholiths in the Jiaodong area and recognized that these rockswere likely derived from partial melting of the lower or middlecrust caused by mafic magma underplating and followed by variousdegrees of mantle-derived mafic magma and felsic crustal magmainteraction accompanied by fractional crystallization.

Fig. 15. εNd(t) versus (87Sr/86Sr)i diagram for the Mesozoic magmatic rocks in Shandong PrThe isotope data sources are as follows: Jiaodong lamprophyre (Liu et al., 2003, 2005;Ma et al.,pluton(Zhou et al., 2003; Hou et al., 2007; J. Zhang et al., 2010b); Luanjiahe pluton(K.F. Yang et a2010b); Luxi lamprophyre (Qiu et al., 1997); Luxi diorite (Xu et al., 2003; Yang et al., 2006); Luxal., 2012); Tongshi batholith (Y.G. Xu et al., 2004b; Lan et al., 2012); Tongjing batholith (Y.G. Xu2011). The fields for lower crust of the Yangtze Craton, upper and lower crusts of the NCC are

Thus, it is clear that mantle input played an important role duringthe widespread and varied magmatism and the related goldmetallogeny in the Shandong Province. Several investigations havebeen carried out on the mantle derived felsic, intermediate, maficand ultramafic rocks including the suites of lamprophyre, dioriteand gabbro (Sun et al., 2000a,b, 2001a; Liu et al., 2005, 2012; Shenet al., 2005; Tan et al., 2008, 2012; Ma et al., 2011). Compared withthe Jiaodong area, Mesozoic alkaline rocks constitute importantunits in the Luxi area (e.g., Zhang et al., 2005; Lan et al., 2011), andthe intermediate and mafic magmatic rocks are more widely distrib-uted in Luxi. These rocks have been the topic of several investigationsin the recent years based on geochemical and geochronological tech-niques (Guo et al., 2001; Xu et al., 2001; J.S. Qiu et al., 2002; Y. Qiu etal., 2002a; H.F. Zhang et al., 2002; Guo et al., 2003; Liu et al., 2004,2006, 2009; Y.G. Xu et al., 2004a,b; Zhang et al., 2004a,b; Qiu et al.,2005; S.X. Li et al., 2007a; Z. Li et al., 2007; Yang et al., 2008; Wang etal., 2011; Huang et al., 2012).

Since Sr–Nd–Pb–Hf isotopes provide important keys to model theprimary magma sources, here we synthesize the salient isotopic geo-chemical data on granites, diorites, gabbros and lamprophyres fromthese areas. Fig. 15 shows the εNd(t) vs. (87Sr/86Sr)i plots of the Meso-zoic magmatic rocks from the Shandong Province. The data show thatthe Linglong, Kunyushan and Luanjiahe plutons are mainly derivedfrom the lower crust of the Yangtze Craton and part of the uppercrust of NCC, with partial input of mantle materials. The Guojialingand Sanfushan plutons are also derived from crustal sources withEM2 mantle input. The data on Jiaodong intermediate and maficdykes and lamprophyre and the Luxi lamprophyre, Longbaoshanbatholith plot along the mantle evolution trend closed to EM2 field.The Luxi gabbro consists of both of EM1 and EM2 types. The Jinan

ovince.2011); Jiaodong intermediate–mafic dykes (Zhou et al., 2003); Linglong pluton, Guojialingl., 2012a); Sanfushan pluton and Kunyushan pluton (J.D. Zhang et al., 2010a; J. Zhang et al.,i gabbro(Y.G. Xu et al., 2004a; Qiu et al., 2005; Z. Li et al., 2007; Yang et al., 2008; Huang etet al., 2004b;Wang et al., 2011); and Longbaoshan batholith (Zhang et al., 2005; Lan et al.,from Jahn et al. (1999). DM, EM1 and EM2 are from Zindler and Hart (1986).

image of Fig.�15


and Zouping gabbros show EM1 affinity whereas the Yinan gabbroshows EM2 mantle source. The Luxi diorite and Tongjing batholithshow mixing of EM1 and EM2, although dominantly EM1 type.The Tongshi batholith in Luxi area displays EM1 and DM mixingsuggesting that the asthenosphere was involved in the magma forma-tion. Thus, the mantle characteristics of the Jiaodong and Luxi areasare different. The Jiaodong region is mainly characterized by EM2type enriched mantle, whereas the mantle beneath the Luxi area ismainly EM1 type. The Yinan gabbro, Luxi diorite and Tongjing bath-olith which occur close to the Tan–Lu fault show either mixedEM1 + EM2 or EM2 features.

Fig. 16 shows the Pb isotope characteristic of the Shandong Prov-ince rocks, where we also plot the Pb isotope data on pyrites fromJiaodong. The Pb isotope values of pyrites converge between orogenicand mantle fields, with a minor population between mantle andlower crust, suggesting that Pb was derived from multiple sources.The locations of these pyrite samples are the same as those of theJiaodong lamprophyre and the intermediate–mafic dykes, as well asthe Guojialing pluton which would suggest that the ore forming ma-terials in Jiaodong were mainly contributed by the magmas whichgenerated these rocks. A part of the data from Luxi diorite andYinan gabbro plot along the orogenic trend, whereas the other partbelonging to the Jinan and Zouping rocks fall below the lower crustaltrend. The Tongshi batholith (monzonite and monzodiorite) data alsoplot below the lower crustal value whereas the Tongjing batholithshows a wide scatter, falling mainly between orogenic and mantletrends. In the right panel in Fig. 16, all the data are located in thelower crustal domain, with only a few data from the Tongjng batho-lith and Jiaodong lamprophyre showing ocean island volcanic affinitysuggesting input from depleted asthenosphere.

Fig. 17 shows the initial Pb(t) data of mantle derived magmaticrocks from our study area including the Luxi diorite and gabbro,which all show EM1 affinity. The Tongjing batholith, the Tongshibatholith, and the Jiaodong lamprophyre suggest mixing of EM1 andEM2, whereas the Longbaoshan batholith shows EM2 affinity. Especiallythe Tongshi batholith contains twodistinct domains, the lower Pb isotopiccompositions may be related to the monzonite and monzonitic dioriteporphyrite, and the higher Pb isotopic compositions belong to the syenite

Fig. 16. Pb isotope features of ores and Mesozoic intrusives in Shandong Province. Jiaodong p2012) Jiaodong intermediate–mafic dykes (Liu et al., 2006); Jiaodong Linglong, Guojialing, S2004a; Z. Li et al., 2007a); Luxi diorite (Yang et al., 2008; Wang et al., 2011); Tongjing batholJiaodong lamprophyre(Hou et al., 2004). Abbreviations: UC—upper crust; LC—lower crust;

porphyrites (Lan et al., 2012). In Fig. 17b, part of the data on theTongshi batholith, Tongjing batholith, Longbaoshan batholith,Luxi gabbro and Jiaodong lamprophyre are located in the MORBarea. This may suggest the contribution of asthenospheric materialin the magma genesis. Yang et al. (2008) argued that initial Pbisotope signature provides a robust tool to distinguish betweenthe NCC basement and Yangtze Craton basement, and showedthat 206Pb/204Pb > 17.80, 207Pb/204Pb > 15.50 and 208Pb/204Pb > 38.00characterizes the Yangtze Craton basement. Thus, the Tongshi bath-olith (syenite porphyrites), Tongjing batholith (diorite porphyrites)and part of the Jiaodong lamprophyre, and Longbaoshan batholithmay contain contributions from the Yangtze Craton, whereasthe other magmatic rocks including Luxi diorite and gabbro, andJiaodong lamprophyre were mainly derived from the enrichedmantle beneath the NCC.

Fig. 18 assembles the εHf(t) vs. T features of the Mesozoic plutonsin Shandong Province. The Luxi gabbro and Tongshi batholith displayboth positive and negative εHf(t) value, suggesting mixing of crust andmantle. The presence of old zircons as xenocrysts in the Tongshi,Tongjing and Longbaoshan batholiths suggests the contribution of an-cient continental crust in magma genesis. Ancient inherited zirconsare also present in the Linglong and Guojialing plutons. The wide-spread occurrences of Neoproterozoic zircons in these youngermagmatic intrusives suggest the involvement of Yangtze Craton con-tinental crust during the formation of the Linglong and Guojialingplutons.

In summary, the Sr–Nd–Pb–Hf isotopic data indicate that theLinglong granite was derived from partial melting of the ancient con-tinental crust belonging to both Yangtze and the North China Cratons,suggesting formation under crustal extension stage after the collisionbetween Yangtze Craton and the NCC. The Tongshi complex formedbefore this stage, but the positive εHf(t) and high εNd(t) values implythe input of asthenospheric material after the subduction of Yangtzeplate (Lan et al., 2012), marking the signature of initiation of litho-sphere thinning in the NCC, a feature that is different from that inthe eastern Shandong Province.

The Guojialing granodiorite magma was derived probably bythe melting of lower crust with heat input from a modified mantle

yrite (Sun et al., 1995; Zhang et al., 2001; Zhou et al., 2003; Song et al., 2004; Tan et al.,anfushan, Luanjiahe plutons (Hou et al., 2007); Kunyushan, Luxi gabbro (Y.G. Xu et al.,iths (Wang et al., 2011); Tongshi batholiths (Y.G. Xu et al., 2004b; Lan et al., 2012); andO—orogeny; M—mantle; and OIV—oceanic island volcanic.

image of Fig.�16

Fig. 17. Plots of initial 207Pb/204Pb (a) and 208Pb/204Pb (b) vs initial 206Pb/204Pb for Mesozoic mafic intrusives in Shandong Province.Data resources: Luxi gabbro (Y.G. Xu et al., 2004a; Z. Li et al., 2007); Luxi diorite (Yang et al., 2008;Wang et al., 2011); Tongjing batholiths (Wang et al., 2011); Tongshi batholiths (Y.G. Xu etal., 2004b; Lan et al., 2012); Jiaodong lamprophyre (Hou et al., 2004); andLongbaoshanbatholith (Zhanget al., 2005; Lan et al., 2011). TheNorthernHemisphere reference line (NHRL) is fromHart (1984), the EM1 and EM2 fields and the 4.55 geochron are from Zindler andHart (1986). The fields of I-MORB (IndianMORB), P&N-MORB (Pacific and North Atlantic MORB) are fromBarry and Kent (1998), the fields of NCC mafic rocks and Yangtze Craton mafic rocks are from Yan et al. (2003) and Liu et al. (2008).


image of Fig.�17

Fig. 18. Diagram of Hf isotopic evolution in zircons for Mesozic intrusives of Shandong Province. CHUR, chondritic uniform reservoir and CC, continental crust.Data resources: Tongjing porphyre diorite(Wang et al., 2011); Luxi gabbro (Huang et al., 2012); Longbaoshan batholith (Zhang et al., 2005; Lan et al., 2011); Jiaodong Sanfushan andKunyushan pluton (J. Zhang et al., 2010b); Luanjiahepluton (D.B. Yang et al., 2012; K.F. Yang et al., 2012a); and Linglong andGuojialingpluton (J. Zhang et al., 2010b; D.B. Yang et al., 2012;K.F. Yang et al., 2012a).


belonging to EM2 type. K.F. Yang et al. (2012a) studied the Mesozoicgranites of Jiaodong and correlated the magma genesis of theGuojialing pluton to asthenospheric upwelling. At the same time,the Tongjing batholith in Luxi area shows mixed EM1 and EM2 fea-tures, and the Longbaoshan batholith shows EM2 character.

The Mesozoic intermediate and mafic rocks in the Luxi area dom-inantly show contribution from EM1 type mantle, whereas theTongshi and Tongjing batholiths proximal to the Tan–Lu fault showmixed EM1 and EM2 characters, and the Longbaoshan batholithshows EM2 feature, suggesting an increasing degree of crustal con-tamination from the subducted Yangtze Craton crust during magmagenesis. Also this contamination occurred at the magma source andnot during ascend and emplacement (Xu et al., 2001; Guo et al.,2003; Y.G. Xu et al., 2004a,b; Yang et al., 2008). The intermediate–mafic rocks in Jiaodong mainly represent EM2 type mantle, withlamprophyres showing asthenosphere input during magma forma-tion followed by limited crustal contamination (Ma et al., 2011).Sun et al. (2001a) studied the geochemical characteristics of K-richmelanocratic dykes including lamprophyres, andesite porphyritesanddacite-porphyries associatedwith goldmineralization in the JiaodongPeninsula and correlated the parental magma to an enriched mantlewedgewhich transformed froma continental lithospheremantle throughmetasomatism by crust derived fluids. According to them, the fluidsweredominated byH2O released during the underthrusting of an oceanic crust.

Tang et al. (2011) proposed that the Mesozoic and Cenozoic litho-spheric mantle in the central part of the NCC belongs to EM1 type, butthat in the southeastern part belongs to EM2 type. They argued thatthe recycled ancient crust played an important role in the formationof the EM1mantle. The Luxi area shows features similar to the centralpart of the NCC. Compared with Luxi area, the Jiaodong area has moreEM2 type mantle, which means that widespread ancient lithosphericmantle is present beneath the Luxi area, whereas the Jiaodong area isunderlain bymodified lithosphere mantle. Guo et al. (2002) considered

that the EM1 type mantle in the Luxi area is the product of decompres-sion melting of ancient enriched lithosphere mantle, whereas thatbelow the Jiaodong area was derived from decompression melting oflithosphere mantle which was modified by the subduction Yangtzecrust (Zhou et al., 2003). During Pacific slab subduction beneath the Eur-asian plate, large scale lithosphere thinning occurred in the eastern partof the NCC, with the dehydration of ocean crust modifying the overlyingmantle and promoting intense crust–mantle interaction. The differencesin the nature and extent of goldmetallogeny between Jiaodong and Luxiareas are therefore a reflection of the differences in tectonics andmantledynamics during the collision of the NCC and Yangtze Craton and the su-perposition of subsequent Pacific plate subduction.

8.3. Implications on craton destruction, refertilization andasthenospheric upwelling

The geophysical data reviewed and integrated in our study showthat the thickness of the crust in the Jiaodong and Luxi areas are near-ly the same (35 km), whereas the Moho is at shallower depth be-neath the Tan–Lu fault (32 km). However, the thickness of thelithosphere (depth to LAB) is different on both sides of the Tan–Lufault; the eastern part is more thinner (74 km), and the LAB depthbelow Tan–Lu fault is 64 km. The Tan–Lu fault is rooted in the mantle(extending up to 50 km). The LAB depths in Luxi area show variationfrom 65 km (close to the Tan–Lu fault) to almost 85 km in the west-ern part. Thus, there is a clear mantle inhomogeneity beneath theNCC. The Luxi area shows evidence for more ancient lithosphere man-tle, whereas the Jiaodong area is characterized by newly formed lith-ospheric mantle, generated probably during Yangtze Craton collisionand Pacific plate subduction. The presence of ancient lithospheremantle on both sides of Tan–Lu fault precludes delamination as amajor mechanism, and supports the model of thermal erosion underextensional setting.

image of Fig.�18


Compared to the Jiaodong area, the Luxi area is located within in-traplate environment. The effects of the NCC–Yangtze Craton collisionwas more pronounced in the southeast part close to the Tan–Lu faultand Dabie–Sulu orogen. The eastern part of Tan–Lu fault was affectednot only by the NCC and Yangtze Craton collision, but also by thestrong influence of Pacific plate subduction. Based on the synthesisof geophysical data and the distribution of gold mineralization, andincorporating models published in previous studies, we illustrate atectonic model for the Mesozoic gold metallogeny of ShandongProvince in Fig. 19. During 130–110 Ma, the Pacific plate subductionbeneath the Eurasian plate led to dehydration of the underthrustedcrust and large scale mantle convection in the asthenosphere. Theseprocesses transferred the mantle materials (fluid and melt) to theupper mantle and lower crust. The heat input into the bottom of thelithosphere from the upwelling asthenosphere caused the melting oflithosphere mantle, and the modified mantle underplated beneath thelower crust of the Tan–Lu fault channeling mafic magmas on both sidesof the fault. The Jiaodong area, characterized by shallower lithospheredepth, witnessed more asthenosphere mantle input which inducedextensive crust–mantle interaction and voluminous felsic magmatism.

8.4. Implications on gold metallogeny in Shandong Peninsula

The gold metallogeny in Shandong Peninsula is not an isolatedevent in the NCC. S.R. Li et al. (2012a), Li et al. (2013) and Li andSantosh (2013) studied the Mapeng batholith of Shihu gold deposit,the Sunzhuang pluton of the Yixingzhai gold deposit and the Wu'anbatholith of Xishimen iron deposit in the Taihang Mountains area inthe central part of the NCC (along the Trans-North China Orogen).The ages obtained from these rocks (ca. 130 Ma) are very similar tothose from the Shandong Province, implying that they formed in thesame geodynamic settings of lithosphere thinning during Pacific sub-duction. However, compared with the Luxi and the Taihang Mountainareas, some of the mineralization in the Jiaodong area are much youn-ger (b100 Ma), which reflects the multistages and multiple scales of

Fig. 19. Plate tectonic model showing the geodynamicModified after K.F. Yang et al. (2012a).

mineralization in the Jiaodong area. This is probably because the lith-osphere mantle beneath the Jiaodong area had been extensively mod-ified by the Yangtze Craton collision, the remnants of which arepresent near the margin of the eastern NCC. The magmatism causedby asthenospheric input is more extensive than in Luxi and Taihangareas, further confirming that the lithosphere thinning beneath theeastern part of the NCC is markedly heterogeneous. Wei et al.(2008) suggested that the lithosphere beneath eastern NCC tend tobecome thinner from South to North and from West to East. Thus,the mineralization in Shandong Province is not a single event, but en-compasses multistage events.

9. Conclusions

(1) The timing of gold mineralization in Shandong Province fromisotope geochronological studies converges at ca. 120 ± 10 Ma.The mineralization in Luxi area is closely related to the Tongjingand Yinan complexes. The ore-formingmaterials in the Jiaodongarea were derived frommultiple sources and involved extensivecrust–mantle mixing.

(2) The Moho depths on both sides of the Tan–Lu fault are nearlythe same, with only a small fluctuation across the fault. TheLAB in the Jiaodong region is at a shallower level than in theLuxi area. The Tan–Lu fault is the corridor for asthenosphereupwelling. Geochemically, the mantle beneath the Luxi areais mainly of EM1 type, with only the eastern part close toTan–Lu fault showing mixed EM1 and EM2 features. In con-trast, the mantle beneath the Jiaodong area is mainly of EM2type, implying that beneath the Luxi area more ancient litho-spheric mantle exists, whereas modified lithospheric mantleand asthenosphere input are more pronounced beneath theJiaodong area.

(3) The major geodynamics under which gold mineralization oc-curred in the Shandong Province can be correlated to lithospherethinning caused by Pacific plate subduction, although the gold

setting of gold metallogeny in Shandong Province.

image of Fig.�19


and other metals were probably derived from multiple sources,some of which were generated during earlier orogenic events.The collision between the Yangtze and the North China Cratonsmarks the prelude for metallogeny in Jiaodong area and setthe stage for the later large-scale mineralization. The goldmetallogeny in Shandong Province is not single event, butresulted from multiple and multistage processes.

Acknowledgments

We are grateful to Dr. Wenjiao Xiao and two anonymous reviewersfor their constructive and valuable comments that greatly contributedto the improvement of the manuscript. This work was supported by“Large and super-large ore deposit metallogenic geodynamic back-ground, process and evaluation” by China Geological Survey Bureau(1212011220926) and the fund of NSFC (90914002). This also is a con-tribution to the Talent Award toM. Santosh under the 1000 Talents Planof the Chinese Government.

Appendix A. Supplementary data

Table showing compiled data on Sr–Nd–Pb–Hf isotopes is placedas supplementary data associated with this article, and can be foundin the online version of the journal at http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gr.2013.02.004.

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