Quoted speech

UNIT 1: CONDITIONAL SENTENCES

Conditionals are clauses introduced with if. The main types of conditionals are: zero conditionals, type 1(real present), type 2 (unreal present), and type 3 (unreal past).

Conditional clauses consist of two parts: the if- clause (hypothesis) and the main clause (result). When the if-clause comes before the main clause, the two clauses are separated with a comma.

When the main clause comes before the if-clause, then no comma is necessary.

e.g. If the weather is good tomorrow, we will go to the beach.

We will go to the beach if the weather is good tomorrow.

I. Zero conditionals (general truth)

If clauseMain clause

If + present simplePresent simple

They are used to express something which is always true. We can use when (=whenever) instead of if.

e.g. If/ When it rains, the roads get slippery.II. Conditional sentences type 1 (probable or real present)

If clauseMain clause

If + present simple/present cont./ present perfect/ present perfect cont.Future/imperative can/may/might/must/should/could + present bare infinitive

They are used to express real or very probable situations in the present or future.

e.g. If you work hard, youll get higher salary.

If you come early, you can talk to her.

If she arrives, tell her to wait for me.* Notes: We use if to show that something might happen. We use when to show that something will definitely happen.

e.g. a) If Steve calls, tell him Ill be back in ten minutes.

(Steve might call.)

b) When Steve calls, tell him that Ill be back in ten minutes.

(It is certain that Steve will call.) We can use should to talk about something which is possible but not very likely to happen.e.g. If John should turn up, tell him to wait for me. (I dont really expect John to turn up.)III. Conditional sentences type 2 (unreal present)

If clauseMain clause

If + past simple or past continuousWould/could/might + present bare infinitive

They are used to express imaginary situations which are contrary to facts in the present and, therefore, are unlikely to happen in the present or future. They are also used to give advice.

e.g. If I didnt have to work such long hours, I wouldnt be so tired.* Note:

Type 1 and type 2 conditionals refer to the present or the future. The use of Type 2 suggests that the situation is impossible, or imaginary. e.g.

a/ If I win the money, Ill buy a new car. (comment made by a contestant on a TV game show)

b/ If I won the money, I would buy a new car. (comment made by a member of the audience on that TV game show)IV. Type 3 Conditionals (unreal past)If clauseMain clause

If + past perfect/ past perfect continuousWould/could/might + perfect bare infinitive

They are used to express imaginary situations which are contrary to facts in the past. They are also used to express regrets or criticism.e.g. If I had known about the storm, I wouldnt have driven to Hanoi.* Note:

In formal English, the subject and the auxiliary can be inverted in Type 1, 2, and 3 conditionals with if omitted:

e.g.

Should you see Mary, tell to phone me. (if you should see Mary)

Were he to propose to you now, what would you say? (if he were to propose to you)

Were I (to be) you, I would find another job. (if I were you)

Were it not for Miguel, we wouldn't know what to do now. (if it weren't for Miguel)

Had it not been for your mistake, we wouldn't have got lost. (if it hadn't been for your mistake)V. Other ways of forming conditional sentences

In some cases, we can form conditional sentences by using other words or expressions as follows.

1. Unless

Conditional clauses can begin with unless. Unless means something similar to if not or except if.e.g. Unless I phone you, you can assume the trains on time. (If I do not phone you /except if I phone you, you can assume the train is on time.)

We dont use unless for impossible conditionse.g. If the government had not raised food prices, there would not have been so many protests.Not: Unless the government had raised food prices 2. And

Conditions with and are used to express a threat or a promise.

e.g. Open the letter and Ill never trust you again. (a threat)

Help me do the housework and Ill give you one hundred thousand dong. (a promise)3. As/ so long as, providing/provided that, on condition thatThese expressions are used when we want to impose specific conditions or set limits on a situation. As long as is more common in speaking; so long as and on condition that are more formal and more common in writing:e.g. You can play in the living room as long as you dont make a mess.Providing (that) is more common in speaking; provided (that) is more formal and more common in written language:

e.g. You can get a senior citizens reduction providing youve got a railcar.They may do whatever they like provided that it is within the law.4. Supposing/ Supposed/ What ifSupposing may be used with a conditional meaning. It can be used in first, second or third conditional sentences. The speaker invites the listener to imagine a situation:

e.g. Supposing I dont arrive till after midnight, will the guest-house still be open? (Imagine if I dont arrive till after midnight )What if/ What will happen if the plane is late?5. In case of/ In the event ofWe use in case of/ in the event of + noun to mean if and when something happense.g. In case of breakdown, please press the alarm button and call this number. (if the lift breaks down, )In the event of fire, sound the alarm.

(If there is a fire, )6. Otherwise/ Or

Otherwise means or if not. It can go at the beginning or at the end of the sentence.

e.g. Thank you for your directions. We wouldnt have found the right house otherwise.7. Even if

Even if emphasizes that something will happen, would happen or would have happened whatever the condition.

e.g. Even if we leave right now, we still won't catch the train.

8. But for/ Without

This can replace if not. It is used in formal language, and must be followed by a noun form.

e.g. If you hadnt helped me, we would have met many difficulties.

But for your help, we would have met many difficulties.VI. Using mixed time in conditional sentences

We can combine two different types of conditional patterns. 1. Mixed third / second conditionalWith this combination we are contrasting an imagined or real event in the past with the present result of that. e.g.

TRUE: I did not eat breakfast several hours ago, so I am hungry now.

CONDITIONAL: If I had eaten breakfast several hours ago, I would not be hungry now.

Note that we use this type of conditional when we regret past action or inaction.

2. Mixed second / third conditionalWith this combination, we are describing ongoing circumstances in relation to a previous past event.

e.g. TRUE: He is not a good student. He did not study for the test yesterday.

CONDITIONAL: If he were a good student, he would have studied for the test yesterday.

VII. Practice

Practice 1: Complete the sentences with verbs in parentheses.

1. You should tell your father exactly what happened. If I (be)_____ you, I (tell) ____him the truth as soon as possible.

2. If I (have) _______ my camera with me yesterday, I (take) _____ a picture of Alex standing on his head.

3. Im almost ready to plant my garden, I have a lot of seeds. Maybe I have more than I need. If I (have)_______ more seeds than I need, I (give) _____ some to my neighbor.

4. George has only two pairs of socks. If he (have) ________ more than two pairs of socks, he (have to, not)________wash his socks so often.

5. The cowboy pulled his gun to shoot at the rattlesnake, but he was too late. If he (be)________quicker to pull the trigger, the snake (bite, not) ________him on the foot. Its a good thing he was wearing heavy leather boots.

6. What (we, use) ________to look at ourselves when we comb our hair if we (have, not)________mirrors?

7. Its been a long drought. It hasnt rained for over a month. If it (rain, not) ________soon, a lot of crops (die) ________. If the crops (die) ______, many people (go) ________ hungry this coming winter.

8. According to one scientific theory, an asteroid collided with the earth millions of years ago, causing great changes in the earths climate. Some scientists believe that if this asteroid (collide, not) ________ with the earth, the dinosaurs (become, not) _______ extinct. Can you imagine what the world (be) ________like today if dinosaurs (exist, still) ________?

Do you think it (be) ________ possible for dinosaurs and human being to coexist on the same planet?

9. Ive hung out the clothes. Its lovely and sunny. If it (stay) _______ like this, they (be) ________ dry in two hours.

10. French is essential in this job. All the telephonists speak it. If they (not know) ________ French, they (not understand) _______ half the callers.11. Tell him to bring his bicycle. If he (leave)_______ it outside someone (steal)_______ it.12. Why do people always wear dark clothes at night? If pedestrians (wear)_______ light coloured clothes drivers (see) _______them much more easily.13. The government are talking about pulling the village down to make room for an airport.If they (start) ______doing it, the village people (resist)_______?

14. I can hear the speaker all right but I wish I could see him too. If he (stand) _______on a barrel we all (see) _______him and that (be) _______much better.15. My unmarried friends are always telling me how to bring up my children. I sometimes think that if they (have) ______children they (make) ______just as many mistakes as I do.16. If you freeze the water, it (turn) ______ to ice.

Practice 2: Complete the following sentences with if or when.1. _____I am late to work, my boss gets very angry. That is why I am always on time. 2. _____ I leave work, I usually go to the fitness center to work out. 3. _____he eats, he tries to choose healthy foods. 4. His car is very reliable, and he rarely has any trouble with it. But he has had a couple of difficulties in the past. ______his car breaks down or he has any problems, he calls the auto club. 5. His car is terrible! It always breaks down. ______ his car breaks down or he has any problems, he calls the auto club. 6. Mary gets six weeks paid vacation a year. She loves to travel. _____ she goes on vacation, she always goes somewhere exotic. 7. Diane works harder than anyone I know. I don't think she has taken a day off in three years. But she does really love to travel. ______she goes on vacation, she goes somewhere exotic. 8. He loves going to the movies. ______he goes to the movies, he always gets a large popcorn with tons of butter. 9. She hates TV. She thinks television is a waste of time. ______she watches television, it is usually a documentary or a news program. 10. My friend always keeps in touch by mail. _____ I get a letter, I usually write back immediately.

Practice 3: Underline the correct word or expression.

1. Ill lend you the money on condition that/ unless you pay it back soon.

2. Even if/ But for her help, Id be in trouble now.

3. Unless/ Provided it stops raining. We wont be going to the park.4. I couldnt lend them the money even if/ otherwise they wanted.5. Try to be there on time, and/otherwise well miss the beginning of the film.6. Ill wear Mums necklace for the party.

What if/ Otherwise you lose it?

7. Supposing/ Providing we went to London What could we do there?

8. Be late again provided/and youll have to see the manager.

9. In case of/ On condition that an emergency, call this number.Practice 4: Change the statements into conditional sentences.e.g. Roberto came, so I wasnt disappointed. If he hadnt come, I would have been disappointed.

1. There are so many bugs in the room because there isnt a screen on the window.

2. I didnt buy a bicycle because I didnt have enough money.

3. I wont buy a bicycle because I dont have enough money.

4. You got into so much trouble because you didnt listen to me.

5. The woman didnt die because she received immediate medical attention.

6. Nadia didnt pass the entrance examination, so she wasnt admitted to the university.

7. We ran out of gas because we didnt stop at the service station. 8. I didnt see the signal, so I didnt stop.9. We only came by bus because there were no taxis.10. The examiner read the passage quickly, so the candidates didnt understand.11. He turned up at the interview looking so disreputable and unshaven that they didnt give him the job.

12. I didnt know he was so quarrelsome. Im sorry now that I invited him.

13. They asked him to leave the dining room because he wasnt wearing a shirt. 14. The bus didnt stop because you didnt put your hand up.15. We didnt listen carefully; perhaps thats why we made this mistake.Practice 5: Make an if-clause from the given information and then supply a result clause using your own words.1. I wasnt absent from class yesterday.

2. I dont have enough energy today.

3. Ocean water is salty.

4. Our teacher likes his/her job.

5. People dont have wings.

6. You didnt ask for my opinion.

7. Water is heavier than air.

8. Most nations support world trade agreements.9. I do not take a course in computer programming.10. The price of petrol goes down.Practice 6: Rewrite the following as mixed conditional sentences.

e.g. Im hungry now because I didnt eat dinner. But.

But if Id eaten dinner, I wouldnt be hungry now.

1. The room is full of flies because you left the door open. But..

2. You are tired this morning because you didnt go to bed at a reasonable hour last night. But..

3. I didnt finish my report yesterday, so I cant begin a new project today. But

4. Anita is sick because she didnt follow the doctors orders. But

5. Im not you, so I didnt tell him the truth. But.

6. I didnt know anything about plumbing, so I didnt fix the leak in the sink myself.

But.

7. I received a good job offer from the oil company, so I wont seriously consider taking the job with the electronics firm. But..

8. She didnt study hard. She wont pass the exams. But

9. You didnt wake me up. Now Im late for my appointment. But..

10. She isnt well-qualified. She didnt get the job. But.

11. We didnt go to the restaurant. We dont like fast food. But..

12. She didnt bring umbrella. Now, shes getting wet. But

13. I dont know them very well, so I didnt go to the party. But.

14. He isnt at the lecture because he wasnt told about it. But

15. They didnt take a map with them. Theyre lost now. But

Practice 7: Creating sentences with the same meaning by omitting if.

1. If you should need more money, go to the bank before six oclock.

2. If I were you, I wouldnt do that.

3. If they had realized the danger, they would have done it differently.

4. If they were your teacher, I would insist you do better work.

5. If you should change your mind, please let me know immediately.

6. She would have forgotten the job if she had been better prepared.

7. Your boss sounds like a real tyrant. If I were you, I would look for another job.

8. Ill be out of the country until June 12. If you should need to reach me, Ill be at the Hilton Hotel in Seoul.9. If she knew a little English, she could start that job.10. The artists and creative thinkers throughout the history of the world have changed all of our lives. If they had not dared to be different, the history of civilization would have to be written.

11. If there should be a global nuclear war, life on earth as we know it would end forever.12. If it stopped raining, we could go out and go home.

Practice 8: Work in pairs. Explain what you would do in these situations. 1. Suppose there is a fire in this building right now. What would you do?2. Suppose there is a fire in your room or apartment or house. You have time to save only one thing. What would you save?

3. John was cheating during an examination. Suppose you were the teacher and you saw him. What would you have done?

4. You are at a party. A man starts talking to you but he is speaking so fast that you cant catch what he is saying. What would you do?5. Late at night youre driving your car down a deserted street. Youre alone. In an attempt to avoid a dog in the road, you swerve and hit a parked car. You know that no one saw you. What would you do?

6. Suppose you are walking down the street at night all by yourself. A man suddenly appears in front of you. He has a gun. He says, Give me your money! Would you try to take his gun away?

Practice 9: Rewrite each sentence, beginning as shown, so that the meaning stays the same.1. Working so much will make you tired.If

2. I regret drinking so much last night.

If only..

3. What would you do of there was an earthquake?Supposing

4. If you do the shopping, Ill cook lunch.You

5. What would you do of you found some buried treasure?If you were.

6. If Pauline hadnt been interested, the project would have been abandoned.But for..

7. If by any chance you find my wallet, could you let me know?If you happen..

8. The fire was brought under control thanks to the night-watchman.If it hadnt ..

9. Dick is in prison because a detective recongnized him.

If a detective..UNIT 2: WISHES - SUBJUNCTIVESA. WishesI. Form and meaning of wishes 1. Wish + (O) + infinitive

We sometimes use wish + infinitive as a formal alternative to want or would like with reference to present and future wish situations.e.g. I wish to see the manager. 2. Wish + past simple/ past continuous

The structure is used when we want to say that we would like something to be different in the present.

e.g. I wish I didnt have to take the train to work every day.

3. Wish + past perfect

The structure is used to express regret that something happened or did not happen in the past.

e.g. I wish I hadnt stolen the money.

4. Wish + would

The structure is used:

for a polite imperative

e.g. I wish you would pay more attention.

to express our desire for a change in a situation or someones behavior.

e.g. I wish he wouldnt give me so much work.5.

Note:

After the subject pronouns I and we, we use could instead of would. e.g. I wish I could travel abroad.

We can use were instead of was after wish.

e.g. I wish he were more careful.II. PracticePractice 1. Complete the sentences with an appropriate form of the verbs in parentheses.

1. We need some help. I wish Alfred (be) ______ here now. If he (be) _____, we could finish this work very quickly.

2. We had a good time in Houston over vacation. I wish you (come) _______ with us. If you (come) _________ with us, you (have) ______ a good time.

3. I wish it (be, not) _______ so cold today. If it (be, not) _______ so cold, I (go) _______ swimming.

4. I missed part of the lecture because I was daydreaming, and now my notes are incomplete. I wish I (pay) ________ more attention to the lecturer.

5. A: Did you study for that test?

B: No, but now I wish I (have) ________ because I flunked it.

6. A: Is the noise from the TV in the next apartment bothering you?

B: Yes. Im trying to study. I wish he (turn) _______ it down.

7. A. What a beautiful day! I wish I (lie)________ in the sun by a swimming pool instead of sitting in a classroom.

B: I wish I (be) _______ anywhere but here!

8. A: I wish we (have, not) ________ to go to work today.

B: So do I. I wish it (be) _______ a holiday.

9. A: He couldnt have said that! Thats impossible. You must have misunderstood him.

B: I only wish I (have) _______, but Im sure I heard him correctly.

10. Alice doesnt like her job as a nurse. She wishes she (go, not) ________ to a nursing school.

11. A: I know that somethings bothering you, I wish you (tell) ______ ne what it is. Maybe I can help.

B: I appreciate it, but I cant discuss it now.

12. A: My feet are killing me! I wish I (wear) _______ more comfortable shoes.

B: Yeah, me too. I wish I (know) ________ that we were going to have to walk this much.Practice 2: Work in pairs. Ask and answer the questions.

1. Where do you wish you were right now? What do you wish you were doing right now?

2. Are you pleased with the weather today, or do you wish it were different?

3. Is there anything you wish were different about the place you are living?

4. What do you wish were different about the city/town?

5. What do you wish were different about a students life?

6. Where do you wish you could go on your next vacation?

7. You didnt eat breakfast before you came to class. Now you are hungry. What do you wish?

8. You stayed very late last night. Today you are tired and sleeping. What does she probably wish?Practice 3. Use the given words to create sentences with wish. Add something that explains why you are making that wish.

e.g. go to the moon

I wish I could go to the moon for a vacation. It would be fun to be able to leap long distances in the moons lighter gravity.

1. be different

2. know several world leaders personally.

3. speak every language in the world.

4. be more patient and understanding

5. interview some great people in history.

6. travel by instant teleportation.

7. remember everything I read

8. be a big movie star

9. read peoples minds

10. be born in the last century

Practice 4: Rewrite the second sentence, beginning with I wish, so that it has a similar meaning to the first.1. It would be nice to be able to fly.2. Unfortunately Ive got to work late tonight.

3. Its a pity you were driving so fast.

4. Many people in my country smoke too much.

5. I regret I visited them.

6. There are too many adverts on television.

7. I didnt prepare properly for the party.8. The weather is too hot at the moment.B. SUBJUNCTIVESI. Present subjunctive1. Form

The present subjunctive has exactly the same form as the infinitive.

e.g. The queen lives here. (simple present tense)

Long live the queen! (subjunctive)2. Use

a. The present subjunctive is used in certain exclamations to express a wish or hope, very often involving supernatural powers:

e.g. Bless you!

b. It is sometimes used in poetry, either to express a wish or in clauses of condition or concession:

e.g. Stevenson: Fair the day shine as it shone in my childhood. (May the day shine/ I hope it will shine.)

c. The subjunctive can be used with any verb in subordinate that-clause when the main clause contains an expression of recommendation, resolution, demand, and so on. Some verbs used in this case such as:to advise (that)to command (that)to demand (that)to desire (that)to insist (that)to propose (that)to recommend (that)to request (that)to suggest (that)to urge (that)+ S+ V infinitive/

should V infinitive

e.g. I suggest that she go to see the doctor at once. d. The subjunctive can be used after the following expressions:

It is best (that)It is crucial (that)It is desirable (that)It is essential (that)It is necessary (that)It is imperative (that)It is important (that)It is recommended (that)It is urgent (that)It is vital (that)It is a good idea (that)It is a bad idea (that)

e.g. It is a good idea that you be there on time.II. Past subjunctive (Unreal present and past)1. Form

The past subjunctive has exactly the same form as the simple past except that with the verb be the past subjunctive form is either I/he/she/it was or I/he/she/it were. In expressions of doubt or unreality were is more usual than was.

e.g. He looks as if he knew the answer. 2. Use

a. The past simple can be used to refer to unreal present when we talk about imaginary or unreal situations which are contrary to facts in the present. The past simple is used with: type 2 Conditionals (unreal present)e g. If he had enough money, he would build a house. suppose/supposing/imagine e.g. Suppose/Supposing he stood you up, what would you do?

wish/If only e.g. I wish/ If only I had a better job.

would rather (present) e.g. I'd rather Mary had dinner with me.

as if/as though

e.g. John talks as if/ as though he knew everything.

it's (about/high) time e.g. It's (about/high) time you went to bed.

b. The past perfect can be used to refer to imaginary or unreal situations which are contrary to facts in the past (unreal past). The past perfect is used with: Type 3 Conditionals (unreal past) e.g. If she hadn't fallen down the stairs, she wouldn't have broken her arm.

suppose/supposing e.g. Suppose/ Supposing you had been invited, would you have gone?

wish/ if only e.g. I wish/ if only I hadn't argued with him.

would rather (past) e.g. I'd rather you had kept it a secret.

as if/as though e.g. He had never been abroad, but he spoke about New York as if/ as though he had been there many times. III. PracticePractice 1. Complete the sentences with an appropriate form of the verbs in parentheses.1. The spacemen felt as if he (fall) ______ in a paradise.

2. Id rather you (not watch) _________ TV while Im reading. 3. I suggest that the doctor (make)_____ up his mind without delay.

4. I am not a teacher of English, but suppose I (be) _____, then I (can)_____ set up a language centre.

5. His friends suggest that he (apply) _____ for that post.

6. It's high time we (get rid of)_____ these mice.

7. It is necessary that children (take care of)_____ of their old parents.

8. It is essential that Mary (be able to)_____ speak English.

9. He suggested that I (be)_____ tolerant of other people.

10. Everyone urged that Bill (continue)_____ his education.

11. The director requests that all packages (mail)_____ at the central office.Practice 2. Rewrite the second sentence so that it has a similar meaning to the first, including the words in bold.1. I dont think its a good idea to buy that jacket. (were)

2. I want to have a party, but my flat isnt big enough. (wish)

3. John would prefer to eat pizza rather than chips. (rather)

3. Jane regrets spending all that money on new clothes. (wishes)4. Colin wishes he hadnt missed the bus; now he is late for work. (if)

5. Its a pity I didnt make it for your wedding. (wish)6. If the weather gets better, well go on a sailing trip tomorrow. (provided)

7. Why dont you wipe your feet when you come back from the park? (would)8. Sam would prefer to go out rather than stay at home. (rather)9. I didnt know your address; thats why I didnt send you a postcard. (if)10. We really must discuss this again. (important)11. May the President live a long time. (long)

12. I should really be leaving. (time)

13. John doesnt know all the answers though he pretens to. (acts)14. Jack prefers me not to say anything about the missing money. (rather)

Practice 3: Complete each sentence with a suitable word or phrase.1. Its time all of us . in bed.2. Id rather you. slowly and more carefully.3. may, I will always be on your side.4. I wish you.. the lecture instead of Professor Brown.

5. Dont rush your decision. Id rather you over.

6. The authorities .. the money be paid at once.

7. I wish I could . at your party, but I was busy Im afraid.

8. Mary sometimes acts as if she. either way what happened.

9. What did about the problem we discussed?10. Its time I my way.UNIT 3: INFINITIVES GERUNDS - PARTICIPLESA. INFINITIVESI. Forms of the infinitivesBare infinitive

To-infinitive

Simple

play

to play

Perfect

have played

to have played

Continuous

be playing

to be playing

Perfect + continuous have been playing

to have been playingA simple infinitive refers to the same time as in the main clause.

e.g. I'm pleased to meet you.

We use a perfect infinitive for something before the time in the main clause.

e.g. I'd like to have seen that program yesterday.

We use a continuous infinitive for something happening over a period.

e.g. You're lucky to be winning.

In the negative, not comes before the infinitive.

e.g. I'd rather not sit at the front.

II. Use of to-infinitive1. To-infinitive as subject and complement

a. To-infinitive as subject.

e.g. To turn down the invitation seems rude.

But this pattern is not very usual. More often we use it as an 'empty subject'

referring forward to the infinitive clause.

e.g. It seems rude to turn down the invitation.b. To-infinitive can be a complement after be.

e.g. His ambition is to go to Australia.2. To-infinitive expressing a purpose or comment.a. To-infinitive can express purpose.

e.g. Laura has gone to town to do some shopping.

b. To-infinitive can also express a comment on the sentence.

e.g. To be frank, you didn't make a very good impression.3. After some verbsafford expect agree fail

plan

aim

prepare

appear pretend

arrange

promise

ask happen

prove attempt

refuse

seek

help seem beg

hesitate

wait

hope

tend

threaten

choose

train

claim

manage come neglect undertake

dare decide

demand

learn

care

4. Verb + object + to-infinitiveThe following verbs take this pattern:

adviseallowaskbegcommandencourageforbidforceinstructinviteobligeorderpermitpersuaderemindtellwantwarn

5. Its adjective + to-infinitive

e.g. Its important to be there on time.Here are some examples of adjectives in this pattern.

'Good'/'Bad': marvelous, terrific, wonderful, perfect, great, good, nice, pleasant, lovely; terrible, awful, dreadful, horrible

Adjectives in ing: interesting, exciting, depressing, confusing, embarrassing, amusing

Difficulty, danger and expense: easy, difficult, hard, convenient, possible,

impossible; safe, dangerous; cheap, expensive

Necessity: necessary, vital, essential, important, advisable, better/best

Frequency: usual, normal, common; rare

Comment: strange, odd, incredible; natural, understandable

Personal qualities: good, nice, kind, helpful; mean, generous; clever, intelligent, sensible, right; silly, stupid, foolish; careless; wrong; polite, rude6. Noun phrase + to-infinitive

e.g. Our decision to pass the exam is encouraged by our teacher.Some nouns in this pattern are:

ability

decision

intention

proposal

agreement

demand

need

refusal

ambition

desire

offer

reluctance

anxiety

determination plan

request

arrangement eagerness

preparations willingness

attempt

failure

promise

wish

choice

7. Question word + to-infinitive

We can use a question word or phrase (what, who, when, etc.) before a to-infinitive.

e.g. I just don't know what to say.

This pattern expresses an indirect question about what the best action is. What to say means 'what I should say'.* Notes:

We cannot use why in this pattern. We can use whether but not if.e.g. I was wondering whether to ring you. We'll have to decide whether to go (or not).8. Patterns with too and enoughWe can use too or enough with a quantifier, adjective or adverb.

e.g. There's too much work for you to finish today.III. Use of bare infinitives1. After a modal verb

e.g. Nothing can go wrong. They must be having a party next door.

2 After would rather/would sooner and rather thane.g. I didn't enjoy it. I'd rather have stayed at home.

They decided to accept the offer rather than go to court.

3. Verb + object + bare infinitive

a. Make, let and have + object + bare infinitive.

e.g. The official made me fill in a form.

b. A verb of perception (see, hear, feel, smell, watch) + object + bare infinitive. In this case, the action is complete.e.g. Someone saw the men leave the building.

B. GERUNDSI. Form of gerunds

Active

Passive

Simple playing

being played

Perfect having played having been playedA simple gerund is the ing-form of a verb, e.g. meeting, dancing, jogging.

We use a perfect gerund for something before the time of the main clause.

e.g. Sarah remembered having visited the place before.

(The visit was before the memory.)

But we do not need to use the perfect if it is clear from the context that the time was earlier.

e.g. Sarah remembered visiting the place before.

In the negative, not comes before the gerund.

e.g. I can't help not being amused by these silly jokesII. Use of gerunds1. Gerund clause as subject

e.g. Keeping a copy of your letters is a good idea.

In subject position, the gerund is much more usual than the to-infinitive.2. Verb + gerundsAdmit

escape

permit postpone

practiceanticipate

fancy

appreciate

finish

quit

avoidcan't help

imagine

resent

confess

involve

resist

consider

justify

resume

delay

give up detest

mention

dislike

suggest

enjoy

miss

keep (on)

risk

deny

3. After expressions such as, its no use, its (no) good, its (not) worth, theres no point (in), have difficulty in, etc.e.g. Its no use arguing about what had happened. 4. After prepositions

e.g. My husband is good at cooking.5. After no

e.g. No parking.

* Notes:

1. Some verbs take either form, to-infinitive or a gerund with almost no difference in meaning.

e.g. I hate to leave/hate leaving everything to the last minute..

These verbs are begin, bother, can't bear, cease, commence, continue, hate, intend, like, love, prefer, propose, start.Like takes a to-infinitive when it means that something is a good idea, rather than a pleasure.e.g. I like to keep all these papers in order.

When the main verb has a continuous form, we normally avoid using another ing form after it.

e.g. The spectators were already beginning to arrive. 2. Some verbs take wither form but they have different meanings.The to-infinitive and gerund have different meanings after remember, forget;

regret; dread; try; stop; mean; go on; need, want, require and deserve.

a . We use remember and forget with a to-infinitive to talk about an obligation.e.g. Did you remember to turn off the electricity?

We use a gerund to talk about past events.

e.g. I don't know. I can't remember turning it off.

b. We use regret + to-infinitive for a present action, especially when giving bad news.

e.g. We regret to inform you that your application has been unsuccessful.We use a gerund to express regret about the past.

e.g. I regret wasting/regret having wasted so much time last year.

c. We use dread + to-infinitive mainly in the expression I dread to think/imagine...

e.g. I dread to think what might happen to you all alone in a big city.We use a gerund for something that causes fear.

e.g. I always dreaded being seen by that man.

d. Try + to-infinitive means 'attempt to do' and try + gerund means making an experiment' or to a new experience.

e.g. I'm trying to light a fire, but this wood won't burn. ~

Why don't you try pouring some petrol on it?

e. After stop we often use the to-infinitive of purpose. But stop + gerund means to end an action.

e.g. At the next services he stopped to buy a newspaper.

You'd better stop dreaming and get on with some work.

f. Mean + to-infinitive has the sense of 'intend'. But mean + gerund expresses result, what is involved in something.

e.g. I'm sorry. I didn't mean to step on your foot.

I have to be at the airport by nine. It means getting up early.

g. Go on + to-infinitive means to do something different, to do the next thing. Go on +ing-form means to continue doing something.e.g. After receiving the award, the actor went on to thank all the people who had helped him in his career.

The band went on playing even after everyone had left.

h. We usually use need, want and deserve with a to-infinitive.

e.g. We need to leave at eight. Tony wants to borrow your typewriter.

A gerund after these verbs has a passive meaning.

e.g. The typewriter needs/wants cleaning.III. PracticePractice 1: Fill in each gap with the most suitable words.1. I can't stand _______all the time.

2. Our teacher won't allow ________ dictionaries during the test.

3. We advised ______ a taxi instead of walking to the restaurant.

4. The city doesn't allow _______ along curbs painted red.

5. She prefers ______ dinner because she doesn't like to cook.

6. I hope you don't mind _______ while you eat.

7. John is never on time to work! I _______ every day.

8. Sarah urged ________ in the next election.

9. He needs to get a visa extension immediately. The authorities won't permit ________ in the country without a visa.

10. Travel agents usually advise ______flight bookings three days before departure.

Practice 2: Rewrite each sentence, beginning as shown, so that the meaning stays the same.1. If I take the job, Ill have to move to Paris.

Taking the job.

2. Its very kind of you to give me a lift.

I appreciate.

3. It might be a good idea to use honey instead of sugar.

Why dont you try

4. Im quite happy to look after the baby for you.

I dont mind.

5. I must see the manager.

I demand..

6. Go on, Jack, apply for the job, said Sally.

Sally encouraged ..

7. You wouldnt know where the Hilton Hotel is, would you?

Do you happen.

8. Parking is not permitted here.

You re..

Practice 3: Rewrite each sentence including the words in capitals so that the meaning stays the same.1. Im sorry I didnt go to university. (REGRET)

2. There is a risk that he will miss the plane if he waits. (RISKS)

3. I think that its a right street. (APPERS)

4. Jean succeed in finishing all her work on time. (MANAGE)

5. Calling Jim is pointless, because his phone is out of order. (USE)

6. It is compulsory for all students to leave a cash deposit. (REQUIRED)7. They said they would like me to stay with them in Florida. (INVITED)8. Brenda really hates staying in that house. (HELP)

C. PARTCIPLESI. Present participle

1. Form: Ving

e.g. running, working

2. Use

2.1. To form continuous tenses

e.g. Shes studying.

2.2. As adjectives used to modify a noun that affects someone or something else.

e.g. an interesting book 2.3. It can sometimes replace an active relative clause when:

- the verb in the relative clause is in the continuous tense:

e.g. The boy who was waiting in the hall expected a phone call.

The boy waiting in the hall expected a phone call.- the verb in the relative clause expresses a habitual or continuous action.

e.g. Boys who attend in this school have to wear uniform.

Boys attending in this school have to wear uniform.

2.4. After verbs of sensation

Some basic verbs of sensation such as see, hear, feel, smell, and the verbs listen to, notice, watch can be followed by object + present participle.

e.g. I smell something burning.

In this case, the action may be either complete or incomplete.

Note: The verbs above can also be followed by object + bare infinitive which implies the action is complete.

e.g. We saw him leave the house.

2.5. After catch, find.

- catch + object + participle means finding or discovering somebody doing something, especially something wrong.

e.g. If she catches you reading the diary, she will be very angry.

- find + object + participle means discovering somebody doing something in a particular situation, especially when its unexpected.

e.g. I found the mouse running into the house.

2.6. After go, come, spend, waste, be busya. go and comeGo and come can be followed by active participles to talk about some activities away the home, especially leisure activities

e.g. My mother is going shopping.

The children came running into my house.

b. spend/waste + an expression of time and money + present participle.

e.g. We spent a lot of money repairing the house.c. be busy + present participle

e.g. Shes always busy working.2.7. A present participle phrase can replace a main clause

a. When two actions by the same subject occur simultaneously its usually possible to express one of them by a present participle. The participle can be before or after the finite verb.

e.g. He holds the rope with one hand and stretches out the other to the boy.

Holding the rope with one hand, he stretches out the other to the boy.He rode away and he whistled.

He rode away whistling.

b. When one action is immediately followed by another by the same subject, the first action can often be expressed by a present participle. The participle must be placed first.

e.g. The teacher opened the bag and took out a book.

Opening the bag, the teacher took out a book.

c. When an action that is the result of another action:

e.g. Moments later a bomb exploded, leaving three people dead and twelve others injured.2.8. A present participle can replace an adverbial clause of reason, time, result, or condition in active voice.

e.g. Being athletic, Tom found that the climb was quite easy.(Clause of reason) We met John while shopping. (Clause of time)They pumped waste into the river, killing all the fish. (Clause of result)Studying hard, youll pass the exam. (Clause of condition)

II. Past participle1. Form: V-ed

However, it is also formed in various other ways for irregular verbs. e.g. studied, fallen, gone2. Use

2.1. As an adjective modifies a noun that is affected by someone or something else.

e.g. The children were interested in the cartoon.2.2. To form the perfect tenses/ infinitives and the passive voice

e.g. She has worked as a teacher for three years.

The mouse was caught by the cat.

2.3. A past participle can replace a passive relative clause.

e.g. The police are trying to identify the man injured in the accident.2.4. Its used in the pattern: Have/get something done.

e.g. I had my motorbike cleaned.III. Perfect participle1. Form

Having + past participle

e.g. having watched2. Use2.1. The perfect participle emphasizes that the first action is complete before the second one starts.

e.g. Having read the instructions, he opened the bottle.

2.2. It is used when the first action covered a period of time.

e.g. Having been his own boss for such a long time, he found it hard to accept orders from another.IV. PracticePractice 1: Complete the sentences using the correct form of the word in brackets.

1. A woman (wear)_____ a blue hat opened the door.2. Champagne, (produce)_______ in France, is exported all over the world.3. My sister works in a bakery (make)______ cakes.4. A million dollars worth of jewellery (belong)_______ to the President's wife has been stolen.5. Pictures (paint) ________by Picasso usually sell for millions of pounds.6. A lorry (carry)________ fruit crashed on the motorway.7. This is a vegetarian restaurant. None of the dishes (serve) ________here contain meat or fish.8. The Harry Potter books, (write)______ by JK Rowling, have all been made into films.9. He was sitting in an armchair (read) ________

10. (Work) _______in the company for many years, he knew everyone and everything.

11. The cup (fill) _________ with milk stood on the table.

12. (Not see) _________ each other for ages, they had a lot to talk about.

13. (Bear) _________ into a rich family, she got everything she wished for.

14. (Be) __________ the child of poor people, he often went to bed hungry.

15. (Park) the car, he went to a restaurant.

16. (watch) _________ the film a dozen times, she knew the dialogues by heart.

Practice 2: Rewrite the sentences with participle clauses.1. Sam left school early because he felt sick.2. The teacher was impressed by Daniels work, so she gave him the highest score.

3. Because he didn't study hard enough for his exam, Ryan couldn't pass it.

4. As I havent received all the applications yet, I am not eager to hire anyone.

5. The golden ring, which was stolen weeks ago, was found.

6. As I have an assignment to finish, I cannot come with you.

7. When my sister heard the good news, she wanted to cry.

8. Because I didnt want to lose my passport, I gave it to my father.

9. After he had been told to do the dishes, John entered the kitchen with a frown.

10. As I had been to England before, I knew where to find a good hotel.Practice 3. Using participles to join sentencesJoin each of the following pairs of sentences, using either a present participle a past participle, or a perfect participle.

e.g. He got off his horse. He began searching for something on the ground.

Getting off his horse, he began searching for something on the ground.1. I knew that he was poor. I offered to pay his fare.

2. We barricaded the windows. We assembled in the hall.

3. She became tired of my complaints about the programme. She turned it off.

4. He found no one at home. He left the house in a bad temper.

5. She hoped to find the will. She searched everywhere.

6. The criminal removed all traces of his crime. He left the building.

7. He realized that he had missed the last train. He began to walk.

8. He was exhausted by his work. He threw himself on his bed.

9. He had spent all his money. He decided to go home and ask his father for a job.

10. He escaped from prison. He looked for a place where he could get food.

11. She didnt want to hear the story again. She had heard it all before.

12. They found the money. They began quarrelling about how to divide it.

13. She entered the room suddenly. She found them smoking.

14. I turn on the light. I was astonished at what I saw.

15. We visited the museum. We decided to have lunch in the park.

16. He offered to show us the way home. He thought we were lost.

17. He found his revolver. He load it. He sat down facing the door.

18. She asked me to help her. She realized that she couldnt move it alone.

19. He fed the dog. He sat down to his own dinner.

20. He addressed the congregation. He said he was sorry to see how few of them had been able to come.

21. He thought he must have made a mistake somewhere. He went through his calculations again.

22. I have looked through the fashion magazines. I realize that my clothes are hopelessly out of date.

23. The tree had fallen across the road. It had been uprooted by the gale.

24. People were sleeping in the next room. They were wakened by the sound of breaking glass.

25. I knew that the murderer was still at large. I was extremely reluctant to open the door.

26. He stole the silver. He looked for a place to hide it.

27. We were soaked to the skin. We eventually reached the station.

28. I sat in the front row. I used opera glasses. I saw everything beautifully.

29. One evening you will be sitting by the fire. You will remember this day.

30. I didnt like to sit down. I knew that there were ants in the grass.

31. She believed that she could trust him absolutely. She gave him a blank cheque.

32. Slates were ripped off by the gale. They fell on people passing below.

33. The lion found his cage door open. He saw no sign of his keeper. He left the cage and walked slowly towards the zoo entrance.

34. The government once tried to tax people according to the size of their houses. They put a tax on windows.

35. I had heard that the caves were dangerous. I didnt like to go any further without a light.

36. She wore extremely fashionable clothes. She was surrounded by photographers and pressmen. She swept up to the microphone.

UNIT 4: INVERSION - EMPHASISA. INVERSION

I. Definition of inversion Inversion means putting the verb before the subject.The term inversion covers two different grammatical operations:1. Using a question form of the main verb

e.g. Never have I enjoyed myself more!

2. Changing the normal positions of verb and subject

e.g. Along the street came a strange procession.

II. Cases of inversion

1. Inversion after negative adverbials

1.1. Time expressions: never, rarely, seldom

These are most commonly used with present perfect or past perfect or with modals such as can and could. Sentences of this type often contain comparatives.

e.g. Seldom has he seen anything stranger.

Rarely had I had so much responsibility.

1.2. Time expressions: hardly, barely, scarcely, no sooner

These refer to an event which quickly follows another. They are usually used with past perfect, although no sooner can be followed by past simple. Note the words used in the contrasting clause.

Structure:

Hardly

Barely

Scarcely

No sooner + had + S+ P.P + than + clause (simple past)

e.g. Scarcely had I got out of bed when the doorbell rang.No sooner had he finished dinner, when she walked in the door.1.3. Phrases containing no/not

These include under no circumstances, on no account, at no time, in no way

On no condition, not until, not only (but also).

e.g. Under no circumstances can we accept credit cards.

At no time did she say she would come.

1.4. Little

Little also has a negative or restrictive meaning in this sense:

e.g. Little did he know what he should do. 2. Inversion after so/such that

2.1. This occurs with so and adjectives when the main verb is be. It is used for emphasis.

e.g. So strange was the situation that I couldn't sleep.2.2. Such used with be means so much/ so great

e.g. Such was the force of the storm that trees were uprooted

3. Inverted conditional sentences without if

Three types of Ifsentence can be inverted without If . This makes the sentences more formal and makes the event less likely.

e.g. Should he decide to come, please phone me.4. Inversion after as, so, neither, and nor to express agreement or disagreement.

e.g. I dont like violent films. - Neither do I.

My sister is a musician, as is her sister.5. After 'Only' expressions such as 'only after', 'only when', 'only then', etc.When the expressions only after/ only by/ only if/ only when come at the beginning of a sentence, the inversion is in the main clause.

e.g. Only if you follow my advice will you pass the exam.

III. Practice

Practice 1: Choose the most suitable words underlined.

1. Jim promised that he would never/ never would he tell anyone else.2. Not until it was too late I remembered/ did I remember to call Susan.3. Hardly had we settled down in our seats than/ when the lights went out.4. Only after checking three times I was/ was I certain of the answer.5. At no time I was aware/ was I aware of anything out of the usual.

6. Only Catherine and Sally passed/did they pass the final examination.

7. So the waves were high/ So high were the waves that swimming was dangerous.

8. Only when Peter has arrived/ has Peter arrived can we begin the programme.

9. No sooner had it stopped raining than/ when the sun came out.

10. If should you leave early/ Should you leave early could you give me a lift?

Practice 2: Rewrite each sentence, starting as shown so that the meaning stays the same.

1. It was only when the office phoned me that I found out about the meeting.

Not until.. .

2. The facts were not all made public until later.

Only

3. If I had realized what would happen, I wouldnt have accepted the job.

Had..

4. The response to our appeal was so great that we had to take on more staff.

Such..5. Harry broke his leg, and also injured his shoulder.

Not only..

6. The police didnt at all suspect that the judge was the murderer.

Little

7. If you do happen to see Helen, could you ask her to call me?

Should.

8. The bus driver cannot be blamed for the accident in any way.

In

9. The snowfall was so heavy that all the trains had to be cancelled.

So..

10. If the government raised interest rates, they would lose the election.

Were..

11. As soon as I got into the bath, someone knocked at the door.

No sooner

12. Its not common for there to be so much rain in March.

Seldom

13. Just after the play started there was a power failure.

Hardly

14. The Prime Minister has hardly ever made a speech as inept as this.

Rarely.

15. We had only just arrived home when the police called.

Scarcely...

16. Press photographers are banned from taking photographs backstage.

On no

17. The way so much money has been spent to so little purpose must be a record!

Never before

18. The judge was taken ill just after the trial proceedings began.

Barely

Practice 3: Rewrite each sentence so that it contains the words in capitals, and the meaning stays the same.

1. Were Smith to resign, I might stand a chance of getting his job. (IF)

2. Such was the demand for tickets that people queue day and night. (GREAT)

3. The money is not to be paid under any circumstances. (NO)

4. Three days passed before we arrived at the first oasis. (NOT UNTIL)

5. Hardly had the ship left port, when a violent storm developed.

6. They would have discovered land sooner had they carried a compass. (IF)

7. Little did Brenda know what she was letting herself in for. (IDEA)

8. It was only when I stopped that I realized something was wrong. (DID I)

9. The accused never expressed I regret for what he had done. (AT NO TIME)

10. So exhausted were the runners that none of them finished the race. (TOO)

Practice 4: Complete each sentence with a suitable word or phrase.

1. Should you need anything, could you let me know?2. Were.., everyone in it would have been killed.

3. Had..harder, I would probably have passed all my exams.

4. Should.. neighbourhood, why dont you drop in?

5. Had..immediately, your daughter would not be so ill.

6. Were.you, I would turn you down flat!

7. Should........., just call room service, and order a meal.

8. Were..job, we couldnt be sure that she would accept.

9. Hadmeasures, this political crisis could have been avoided.

10. Should.lost, we would have heard from him by now.

11. Never . such a beautiful dress.

12. No sooner than was a knock at the door.

13. Only by.. did we finish the report on time.

14. On no account.. arrive late on Monday morning.

15. Not since I was young. such an enjoyable day.

B. EMPHASIS

I. Ways of expressing emphasis in English1. Changing word order to change focus.

1.1 Passive

Passive constructions vary the way information is given in a sentence, putting more emphasis on what comes first. By using a passive sentence, we emphasize by showing what happens to something rather than who or what does something.

e.g. This road has been built recently.

1.2. Fronting and inversion

Fronting involves changing the word order of clauses in a sentence and putting first for emphasis a clause that would usually not be first.

e.g. What to deal with this issue, Im not sure.

Inversion refers to changing the normal word order in the sentence so that a prepositional phrase is emphasized before the verb. This also involves putting the verb before the subject.

e.g. Up into the air went the balloon.

1.3. Cleft and pseudo cleft sentences

These sentences are introduced by it is/ it was. who/which/that or by a clause beginning with what. Different parts of the sentence can be emphasized in this way.

e.g. Mike stole the money. It was Mike who stole the money. (emphasis on the subject = Mike)

Doing morning Practices help me stay healthy.

What helps me stay healthy is doing morning exercises.Its also possible to put emphasis on verbs, using auxiliary do/did/.

e.g They are planting more trees in the forest.

What they are doing is planting more trees in the forest.

2. Adding words for emphasis.

2.1. All

Clauses beginning with all emphasize the only thing.

e.g. All she wants is good health.2.2. Own

This intensifies possessive adjectives.

e.g. It was my own idea.

2.3. Very and indeed

e.g. He did the job very well indeed.

2.4. Emphasizing negatives

Ways of emphasizing not include: at all, in the least, really.

e.g. It was not cold at all.2.5. Question words ending in ever

These words add an air of disbelief to the question.

e.g. Whoever you are, I still believe in you.2.6. Auxiliary do

e.g. I do believe that you should ask for your parents advice about this situation.2.7. Echoing phrases with so

These phrases express agreement.

e.g. This is the book you are looking for.

- So it is.

3. Other means

3.1. Time phrases

Common examples are: day after day, time and time again, over and over again, day in, day out.

e.g. She watches the cartoon over and over again.

3.2. Repetition of main verbs

e.g I tried and tried, but I did not succeed.

II. Practice

Practice 1: Complete each sentence with one suitable word.

1. You cant complain. Its your own fault, isnt it?2. That looks like Janet.

- ..it is! My goodness, hasnt she changed.

3. Im sorry to keep you waiting. I.. hope you havent been here long.

4. It is by nocertain that the Prime Minister will attend the meeting.

5. I really enjoyed in winter is a bowl of hot soup.

6. I searched and.. for my keys but I couldnt find them.

7. .. you are all going to sleep I cant quite work out!

8. What the government then. was to raise interest rates.

9. There isnt much to eat. .. weve got is some leftovers.Practice 2: Rewrite each sentence, beginning with words in capitals, so that the meaning stays the same.

1. I dont know who is going to pay for the damage. (WHO)

2. Although the ticket may seem expensive, it is good value for money. (EXPENSIVE)

3. I really cant stand lukewarm food. (WHAT)

4. In the end Martha went to the police. (WHAT)5. Every day, its the same old routine in my job. (DAY IN)

6. I think you must have seen a ghost. (IT)

7. Her car was the last car we expected to be stolen. (HERS)

8. The parcel finally arrived on Wednesday. (IT)9. I bought it because it was a bargain. (IT WAS BECAUSE)

Practice 3: Rewrite each sentence so that it contains the words in capitals and the meaning stays the same.

1. The bad weather continued for days. (AFTER)

2. I cant stand getting up early. (WHAT)

3. The car doensnt need anything else except new tyres. (ALL)

4. Brenda didnt worry at all about her exams. (LEAST)

5. I felt extremely tired. (INDEED)

6. Keith told me about the hotel. (WHO)

7. Thats exactly the same book Im reading! (VERY)

8. Please stay longer. (DO)

9. It was a really awful film. (JUST)

10. You did something that was wrong. (WHAT)

11. The calculator Ive got doesnt need a battery. (OWN)

12. What on earth you are doing here at this time? (WHATEVER)

13. Actually, you are not right at all (QUITE)

14. Its very imoportant for me to know the answer. (SIMPLY)

UNIT 5: DIRECT AND INDIRECT SPEECHThere two ways to convey a message of a person, or the words spoken by a person to the other person, using direct or quoted speech, and indirect or reported speech.

A. DIRECT AND INDIRECT SPEECHI. Direct speech

Direct speech refers to reproducing words exactly as they were originally spoken. Quotation marks () are used.

Quoting one sentence

a. She said, My brother is a student.

b. My brother is a student, she said. c. My brother, she said, is a student.

In (a): Use a comma after she said. Capitalize the first word of the quoted sentence. Put the final quotation marks outside the period at the end of the sentence.

In (b): Use a comma, not a period, at the end of the quoted sentence when it precedes she said.

In (c): if the quoted sentence is divided by she said, use a comma after the first part of the quote. Do not capitalize the first word after she said.

Quoting more than one sentence

d. My brother is a student. He is attending university, she said.e. My brother is a student, she said. He is attending a university.In (d): Quotation marks are placed at the beginning and the end of the complete quote. Notice: There isnt a quotation mark after student.In (e): If she said comes between two quoted sentences, the second sentence begins with a quotation marks and a capital letter.

Quoting a question or an exclamation

f. She asked, When will you be here?

g. When will you be here? she asked.

h. She said, Watch out!

In (f): The question mark is inside the quotation marks.In (g): If a question mark is used, no comma is used before she asked.

In (h) The exclamation point is inside the quotation marks.

i. My brother is a student, said Ann.My brother, said Anna, is a student.In (i): The noun subject (Anna) follows said. A noun subject often follows the verb when the subject and the verb come in the middle or at the end of a quoted sentence. (Note: A pronoun subject always precedes the verb. Very rare: My brothers a student, said she.

Lets leave, whispered Dave. Please help me, begged the unfortunate man.

Well, Jack began, its a long story.Say and ask are the most commonly used quoted verbs. Some others are: add, agree, announce, answer, beg, begin, comment, complain, confess, continue, explain, inquire, promise, remark, reply, respond, shout, suggest, whisper.

II. Indirect speech

In indirect speech, we give the exact meaning of a remark or a speech without necessarily using the speakers exact words.

e.g. She said that she was going to London the following week.

There is no comma after say in indirect speech. When we turn direct speech into indirect, some changes are necessary. The next sections deal with some kinds of sentences in indirect speech.III. PracticePractice 1: Add the necessary punctuation, quotation marks and capitalization.

1. Henry said there is a phone call for you2. There is a phone call for you he said3. There is said Henry a phone call for you4. There is a phone call for you its your sister said Henry5. There is a phone call for you he said its your sister6. I asked him where is the phone7. Where is the phone she asked8. Stop the clock shouted the referee we have an injured player9. Who won the game asked the spectator10. Im going to rest for the next three hours she said I dont want to be disturbedThats fine I replied you get some rest Ill make sure no one disturbs you11. Where do you come from John asked12. Its here Bill said13. Ive got a good idea Mark said

14. Is this something she asked that we all ought to know

15. As I was leaving he explained I heard someone shout

16. Dont shout at me he cried17. John said were late

18. You are stupid sometimes she said19. What a surprise she exclaimed

20. Is there anyone in she inquiredPractice 2: Add the necessary punctuation. Notice that a new paragraph begins each time the speaker changes.1. When the police officer came over to my car he said let me see your drivers license please

Whats wrong Officer I asked was I speeding

No, you werent speeding he replied you went through a red light at the corner of Fifth Avenue and Main Street you almost caused an accident

Did I really do that I said I didnt see a red light

2. INSPECTOR WILEY INVESTIGATES

- Its all lies Boyle cried

- You think so Inspector Wiley asked mildly

- Think so? I know it Boyle answered sharply

- And no doubt the inspector continued you can prove it. Where were you on Saturday night, the night of the robbery

- I was at Roxy with my girlfriend Boyle replied. We saw Gone with the Wind. The film lasted four hours

- But cried the inspector the Roxy was closed all last weekend

Practice 3. Fill each gap with say/tell/ask and an object if necessary.1. He often .. things like that.

2. She always .. .her troubles.

3. The children if they can go out to play.4. Dont do that! She. to them.

5. Theyve arrived, she.

6. How are you both? she .

7. I.that I didnt know what to do.

8. The nurse... if he needed anything else.

9. Did he.where you came from.

10. Did she. where she had put my books.

11. The policeman where we were going.

12. He didnt me how long the job would take.

13. Theres no match on Saturday.- Who.so?

14. You were right. Those curtains look terrible!- Iso!

15. When I was introduced to the Princess, she. a few words to me.

16. That little boys very bad. He lots of lies.

17. How much are those bananas?- Ive got no idea. Go and ..the price.B. STATEMENTS IN INDIRECT SPEECHI. Tense changes.

1. Indirect speech can be introduced by a verb in a present tense: He says that. This is usual when we are:

a. reporting a conversation that is still going.

b. reading a letter a reporting what it says.

c. reading instructions and reporting them

d. reporting a statement that someone makes very often, e.g. Tom says that hell never get married.

When the introductory verb is in the present, present perfect, or future tense we can report the direct speech without any change of tense.e.g. Paul (phoning from the station): Im trying to get a taxi.

Ann (to Mary who is standing beside her): Paul says he is trying to get a taxi.

2. But direct speech is usually introduced by a verb in the past tense. Verbs in the direct speech have then to change into a corresponding past tense. The changes are shown in the following table.

Direct speechIndirect speech

Simple presentI never eat meat, he explained.Simple pastHe explained that he never ate meat.

Present continuousIm waiting for Ann, he said.Past continuousHe said he was waiting for Ann.

Present perfectI have found a flat, he said.Past perfectHe said that he had found a flat.

Present perfect continuousHe said, Ive been waiting for ages.Past perfect continuousHe said he had been waiting for ages.

Simple pastI took it home with me, she said.Past perfectShe said she had taken it home with her.

FutureHe said, Ill be in Paris on Monday.Present conditionalHe said he would be in Paris on Monday.

Future continuousIll be using the car myself on the 24th, she said.Conditional continuousShe said shed be using the car herself on the 24th.

Notes:In written English past tenses usually do change to past perfect but there are the following exceptions:a. Past/ past continuous tenses in time clauses do not normally change, such as when, after, before, as soon as, until, etc. e.g. He said, When we lived in France, we often drove around Paris. He said when they lived in France they had often driven/ drove around Paris.The main verb of such sentences can either remain unchanged or become the past perfect.

b. Past tense used to describe the state of affairs which still exists when the speech is reported remains unchanged.e.g. She said. I decided not to buy the house because it was on a main road.

She said that she had decided not to buy the house because it was on a main road.3. Unreal past tenses (subjunctives) in indirect speech.- Unreal past tenses after wish, would rather/sooner and it is time do not change.e.g. We wish we didnt have to take exams, said the children.

The children said they wished they didnt have to take exams.

I/he/she/we/they had better remains unchanged. You had better can remain unchanged or be reported by advise + object + infinitive.

e.g. Youd better not drink wine, she said.

She advised us not to drink wine. Conditional sentence types 2 and 3 remain unchanged.

e.g. If my children were older, I would emigrate, he said.

He said that if his children were older he would emigrate.

4. Modal verbs in indirect statements4.1. Had better

You had better can be reported by advise somebody to do something or warn somebody to do something.e.g. She said, Youd better go home now.

She advised me to go home then.

You had better not go swim in this river, he said. He warned them not to swim in that river.

4.2. Might

- Might remains unchanged except when used as a request form:

e.g. He said, Lan might phone me today. He said Ann might phone him that day.

But :

e.g. You might post these for me, he said.

He asked me to post them for him.

4.3. Ought to/ should - Ought to/should for obligation or assumption remains unchanged:

e.g. They ought to/ should widen the road, I said.

I said that they ought to/ should widen the road.

- But you ought to/ should, if used to express advice rather than obligation, can be reported by advise + object + infinitive.4.4. Used to- used to doesnt change

e.g. I used to live here so I know it very well, he said.

He said that he used to live there so he knew it very well.

4.5. Could4.5.1. Could for ability

- could for present ability can remain unchanged or be reported by would be able.

e.g. She said, I could do it tomorrow.

She said he could do it/ would be able to do it the next day.

- Could in type 2 conditional sentences is reported similarly.

e.g. If I had enough money I could buy this house, he said.

He said that if he had enough money he could/ would be able to buy that house. - Could in type 3 conditional sentences is reported unchanged.

- Could for the past ability can remain unchanged or be reported by had been able.

e.g. I could play football when I was two, he said.

He said he could/had been able to play football when she was two.

4.5.2. Could for permission

- In type 2 conditional sentences could remain unchanged or be reported by would be allowed:

e.g. If I paid my fine I could walk out of prison today, he said. He said that if he paid his fine he could/would be allowed to walk out of prison that day.- Could in the past can remain unchanged or be reported by was/were allowed to or had been allowed to.

e.g. She said, When I was a teenager, I could go out before 9 p.m. She said that when she was a teenager she could/ was allowed to go out before 9 p.m.II. Pronouns and possessive adjectives changesPronoun and possessive adjectives usually change from first or second to third person, except when the speaker is reporting his own words.

e.g. He said, Ive forgotten the combination of my safe.

He said that he had forgotten the combination of his safe.

Pronoun changes may affect the verb:e.g. He says, Ill know her

He says he knows her.III. Adverbs of time and place changes

Adverbs and adverbial phrases of time change as follows:DirectIndirect

nowthen

todaythat day

tonightthat night

yesterdaythe day before/ the previous day

yesterday morning / afternoonthe previous morning/ afternoon

the day before yesterdaytwo days before

last week (month, etc.)the previous week (month)

agobefore

tomorrowthe following day/ the next day

tomorrow morning/afternoon, etcthe following morning/ afternoon, etc.

next week (month, etc.)the following week, etc.

the day after tomorrowin two days time

Adverbs of placeHere can become there but only when it is clear what place is meant.

e.g. At the station, he said, Ill be here again tomorrow.

He said hed be there again the next day.

IV. Demonstrative adjectives and pronouns changes1. This used in time expression usually becomes that:

e.g. He said, She is coming this week.

He said that he was coming that week.

2. Otherwise, this and that used as adjectives usually change to the:

e.g. He said, I bought this pearl for my mother.

He said that he had bought the pearl for his mother.

3. This, these used as pronouns can become it, they/them

e.g. He showed me two bullets. I found these embedded in the paneling.

He said had found them embedded in the paneling.

e.g. He said, We will discuss this tomorrow.

He said that they would discuss it/ this matter the next day.

4. This/ these (adjectives or pronouns) used to indicate choice or to distinguish some things from others, can become the one(s) near him, etc., or the sentence can be reworded.

e.g. Ill get this (one), she said to me. He said that he would get the one near him.

Or:

He pointed to/ showed me the one he wanted.V. PracticePractice 1: Put the following sentences into indirect speech.

1. I have something to show you, I said to her.

2. Nothing grows in my garden. It never gets any sun, she said.

3. Im going away tomorrow, mother, he said.

4. Ive been in London for a month but so far I havent had time to visit the Tower, said Rupert.

5. It isnt so foggy today as it was yesterday, I remark.

6. The new underpass is being officially opened the day after tomorrow, said the BBC announcer.

7. We have moved into our new flat. We dont like it nearly so much as our last one, said my aunt.

8. We have a lift but very often it doesnt work, they said.

9. From one of the windows of my flat I can see the Eiffel Tower, he said.

10. I have no idea what the time is but Ill dial 8081, and find out, said his daughter.

11. He said, My wife has just been made a judge.

12. Ill come with you as soon as Im ready, she replied.

13. I have a German lesson this afternoon and I havent done my homework yet, said the small boy.

14. If you let the iron get too hot you will scorch your clothes, I warned her.

15. You havent given me quite enough. The bill is for J14, and youve paid me only J13, he pointed out.

16. Ann said, Englishmen make good husbands because they are nearly always willing to help in the house.

17. Mary answered, I like men to be useful but I dont like them to be too domesticated. I prefer them to keep out of the kitchen altogether. Men look silly in aprons anyway.

18. Motoring report: The new Rolls Royce runs so quietly that all you can hear is the ticking of the clock.

19. I dont know what to do with all my plums, I suppose Ill have to make jam. The trouble is that none of us eats jam, she said.

20. We like working on Sundays because we get double pay, explained the builders.

21. He said, Im quite a good cook and I do all my own washing and mending too.

22. You can keep that one if you like, Joan, he said. Ive got plenty of others.

23. Im going fishing with mother this afternoon, said the small boy, and we are going into the garden now to dig for worms.

24. Youve got my umbrella, said I crossly. Yours is in your bedroom.

25. I know exactly what they said, the private detective explained to his client, because I bugged their phone.

Practice 2: Some tenses/forms do not change when direct speech becomes indirect. Put the following sentences into indirect speech, being careful to avoid ambiguity. 1. I couldnt get into the house because I had lost my key, so I had to break the window, he said.

2. The mirror is there so that you can see yourself when you are dancing, the instructress told him.

3. I wrote to him the day before yesterday. I wonder why he hasnt rung up, she said.

4. If the ground is dry on the day of the race, my horse might win, said the owner.

5. Youd better slow down. Theres a speed limit here, she said to me.

6. If Tom wants seat, hed better apply early, she said.

7. We walked 50 miles last night to see the Minister and protest about our rents being raised. He was very polite and promised to do what he could for us, said one of the tenants.

8. They should put traffic lights here, otherwise therell be more accidents, said she.

9. Its time we began training for our next match, the coach said to them.

10. If you leave home at six, you should be here by nine, he said to me.

11. If it rains this afternoon it will be too wet to play the match tomorrow, the captain said.

12. I meant to plug in the electric blanket but I plugged in the electric kettle by mistake. Im always doing silly things like that, she told her guest.

13. I was intending to do it tomorrow, he said, but now I dont think Ill be able to.

14. Bill should do very well at the university, Mrs Smith, said the headmaster. Hes doing very well here.

15. I dont think your father likes me, said the young wife.

You mustnt think that, said the husband, its just that hes old and finds it hard to get used to new people.

16. The steak is overdone again. Im not complaining; Im just pointing it out, said her husband.

I wish youd stop pointing things out, said his wife.

17. They couldnt open the safe on the spot so they carried away with them, the night watchman reported.

18. If you saw my father, youd recognize him at once. He is the most extraordinary looking man, she said to me.

19. I found an old Roman coin in the garden yesterday, he said, and Im going to take it to the museum this afternoon.

20. He said, I got out of my boat, leaving the engine running, but while I was standing on the quay the gears suddenly engaged themselves and the boat went straight out of the harbour with no one on board.

21. Would you like me to go out with you? I said.

Id rather go alone, he answered.

22. My brother said, You may take my car if you like. I shant be needing it tomorrow or the day after.

23. Yesterday Tom and I went to look at a house that he was thinking of buying. It was rather a nice house and had a lovely garden but Tom decided against it because it was opposite a cemetery, said Celia.

24. He said, My wife wants to take a job but Id rather she concentrated on out home.

25. I dont know what your father will say when he sees what a mess your puppies have made of this five-pound note, said my mother.

26. Its high time you passed your test; Im tired of driving round with an L-plate on the front of the car, my sister said.

27. Id wish youd seen it, I said to her.B. QUESTIONS IN INDIRECT SPEECHI. Types of questions1. Yes/no questions

e.g. Are you an engineer?

2. Information questions

e.g. Where does he live?

3. Question tags

e.g. Everyone took the test, did they?4. Alternative questions

e.g. Are you Vietnamese or English?

II. General rules

1. When we turn direct questions into indirect speech, the following changes are necessary. Tense, pronouns, and possessive adjectives, and adverbs of time and place change as in statements.

The interrogative form of the verb changes to affirmative form. The question mark (?) is therefore omitted in indirect questions

e.g. He said, Where does she live?

He asked where she lived.

2. If the introductory is say, it must be changed into a verb of inquiry, e.g. ask, inquire, wonder, want to know, etc.

e.g. Jack said, Where is the station?

Jack asked where the station was.

3. ask can be followed by the person addressed.

e.g. He asked, What have you done today?

He asked (me) what I had done that day.

But inquire, wonder, want to know can not take an indirect object, so if we wish to report a question where the person addressed is mentioned, we must use ask.

e.g. He said, John, when are you going to school?

He asked John when he was going to school.

4. If the direct question begins with a question word (when, where, who, whom, how, why, etc.), the question word is repeated in the indirect question.

e.g. She said, What do you want?

She asked what they wanted.III. Yes/ No questions in indirect speech

1. Rules for changing Yes/No questions into indirect speechNormally we can use either if or whether. If is the more usual:

e.g. Do you know Bill? she said. She said if/ whether I knew Bill.Whether + infinitive is possible after wonder, want to know.

e.g. Shall I wait for him or go on? he asked.

He wondered whether to wait for him or go on

Or He wondered whether he should wait for him or go on.

d. Whether is neater if the question contains a conditional clause as otherwise there would be two ifs.

e.g. If you get the job, will you move to Hanoi? Nam said.

Nam asked whether Id move to Hanoi if I got the job. 2. Special cases1. Questions begin with Shall I/ wea. Speculations or requests for information about a future event.

e.g. When shall I know the result of the test? he asked. He asked when he would know the result of the test.b. Requests for instructions or advice

e.g. What shall I do next?

He asked what he should do with it.

c. Offers

e.g. Shall I bring you some coffee? He offered to bring me some coffee.

d. Suggestions

e.g. Shall we meet at the theatre? She suggested meeting at the theatre.

2. Questions begin with will you/ would you/ could youThese may be ordinary questions, but may also be requests, invitations, or, very occasionally, commands. Ordinary questions:e.g. Will you be there tomorrow? he asked. He asked if she would be there the next day.

Requests:e.g. Will you wash the dishes, please? Anna said. Anna told me to wash the dishes. Invitations:

e.g. Could you come around for dinner? she asked.

She invited me to come around for dinner.

Commandse.g. Will you stand still! he shouted.

He ordered me to stand still.3. Yes/No short answers

Yes/No short answers are expressed in reported speech with subject + appropriate auxiliary verb/ introductory verb.

e.g. Will you help me paint the house? she asked him.

Yes, he said.

She asked him to paint the house and he said he would/ he agreed.IV. Other kinds of questions in indirect speech

1. Information questions

When we report a wh-question, we repeat the original question word (who, what, when, where, how etc.) in the reported clause.e.g. Where do you live? Rebecca asked.

Rebecca asked me where I live2. Question tags

Tag questions are omitted in indirect speech. We use an appropriate introductory verb to convery the same meaning.

e.g. You wont tell anyone about it, will you? she said to him.

She asked him not to tell anyone about it.3. Alternative questions

When we report an alternative question, we use if or whether.

e.g. Do you want to go by car or by sea? the travel agent asked.

The travel agent asked if/ whether I wanted to go by car or by sea.V. PracticePractice 1: Put the following questions into indirect speech.

1. Who has been using my typewriter? said my mother.

2. Do you want to see the cathedral? said the guide.

3. Do you mind working on the night shifts? he asked.

4. Would you like to come with us? they said

5. Who did you give the money to? asked Ann.

6. How long does it take to get to Edinburgh by coach? asked the tourist.

7. How much do you think it will cost? he said.

8. What did you miss most when you were in prison? Mary asked the ex-convict.

9. Another passenger came in and said, Is this seat taken?10. How do you get on with your mother-in-law? said Paul.

11. How did you get into the house? they asked him.

12. What were you doing with these skeleton keys? said Mr. Jones.

Were you trying to get at the secret files?

13. Did you sleep well? asked my hostess.

14. Have you been here long? the other students asked him.

15. Can you tell me why Paul left the university without taking his degree? Pauls sister asked.

16. How many people know the combination of the safe? said the detective.

17. Are there any letters for me? said Mary.

18. How long have you been learning English? the examiner said.

19. Why arent you talking the exam? said Paul.

20. Are these free-range eggs? said the customer.

21. Where are you going for your summer holiday? I asked them.

22. Will it be all right if I come in a little late tonight? asked the au pair girl.

23. Have you ever seen a flying saucer? said the man.

24. Where can I park my caravan? she asked the policeman.

25. Would you like a lift? said Ann.

Which way are you going? I said

26. Who do you want to speak to? said the telephonist.

27. Does anyone want tickets for the boxing match? said Charles.

28. What are you going to do with your old car? I asked him.

29. Do you grow your own vegetable? I asked.

30. What train are you going to get? my friend inquired.

31. Could you change a five-pound note? Im afraid I havent got anything smaller, said the passenger to the conductor.

32. How many sleeping pills have you taken? said the night sister.

I have no idea, said Mr Jones sleepily.

33. Could we speak to the manager, please? said the two men.

Have you an appointment? said the secretary.

34. Do you think you could live entirely on your own for six months, said Tom, or would you get bored?

35. Did any of you actually see accident happen? said the policeman.

36. Could I see Commander Smith? the lady asked.

Im afraid hes in orbit, I said. Would you like to leave a message?Practice 2: Report the following conversations.1. Will you be here for the next ten minutes? she said.

Yes, I answered.2. Havent you got a TV set? he asked.

No, I said, nobody in our village has got one.

3. Can I lose five kilos in one week? the fat woman asked.

No, said the doctor.

4. Wouldnt you like to look ten years younger? said my hairdresser.

No, I replied.

5. Have you ever been convicted of driving under the influence of drink? she asked him.

No, he said.

6. Ive just received my sons school report; would you like to see it? he asked.

No, I said.

7. Did you hear a terrible crash about 3 a.m. this morning? said my host.

Yes, I said. What was it?

8. Shall I have to do the whole exam again if I fail in one paper? said the student.

Yes, said the teacher.

9. Would you like a cigarette? said Peter.

No, thanks, said John. I dont smoke.

10. Its ridiculous to take three suitcases for a weekend, I said.

Couldnt you manage with two?

No, she said.

11. Did you ring me up last night? said Mary.

Yes, I said.

12. Are you going away for the weekend? asked my father. Yes, I said.C. REQUESTS, COMMANDS, SUGGESTIONS, ADVICE AND INVITATIONS, AND EXCLAMATIONS IN INDIRECT SPEECHI. To report commands, instructions, requests or suggestions in reported speech, we use an appropriate introductory verb (ask, order, beg, suggest, etc.) and the to-infinitive, -ing form or that clause depending on the introductory verb.

e.g. How about going to the cinema? I said to them.

I suggested going to the cinema.

II. Introductory verbsIntroductory verbsDirect speechReported speech

+ to infinitivedemand

agreepromiseofferthreatenrefuseGive me the money.

Yes, Ill help you.Ill return the book to you soon.Would you like me to help you?

Stop shouting or Ill punish you.

No. I wont do it again.He demanded to be given the money.

She agreed to help me.

He promised to return the book to me soon.

He offered to help me.

H