handbook of water and wastewater treatment plant ...dl.mozh.org/up/contents of handbook of water and...

Water and WastewaterTreatment Plant

Operations

Handbook of

Second Edition

© 2009 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

CRC Press is an imprint of theTaylor & Francis Group, an informa business

Boca Raton London New York

Water and WastewaterTreatment Plant

Operations

Handbook of

Second Edition

Frank R. Spellman


CRC Press

Taylor & Francis Group

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Spellman, Frank R.

Handbook of water and wastewater treatment plant operations / Frank R. Spellman. -- 2nd ed.

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ISBN 978-1-4200-7530-4 (alk. paper)

1. Water treatment plants--Handbooks, manuals, etc. 2. Sewage disposal plants--Handbooks, manuals, etc. 3.

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v

Contents

Preface ...........................................................................................................................................................................xxxvTo the Reader ..............................................................................................................................................................xxxviiAuthor ..........................................................................................................................................................................xxxix

Part I. Water and Wastewater Operations: An Overview............................................................................................1

Chapter 1. Current Issues in Water and Wastewater Treatment Operations ...........................................................3

1.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................................................................31.2 The Paradigm Shift .................................................................................................................................................3

1.2.1 A Change in the Way Things Are Understood and Done.........................................................................41.3 Multiple-Barrier Concept ........................................................................................................................................5

1.3.1 Multiple-Barrier Approach: Wastewater Operations .................................................................................61.4 Management Problems Facing Water and Wastewater Operations........................................................................8

1.4.1 Compliance with New, Changing, and Existing Regulations ...................................................................81.4.2 Maintaining Infrastructure..........................................................................................................................91.4.3 Privatization and/or Reengineering..........................................................................................................111.4.4 Benchmarking...........................................................................................................................................13

1.4.4.1 Benchmarking: The Process ...................................................................................................141.5 Water: The New Oil? ............................................................................................................................................16

1.5.1 Characteristics of Water ...........................................................................................................................161.5.2 Water Use .................................................................................................................................................17

1.6 Technical Management vs. Professional Management.........................................................................................19Chapter Review Questions ................................................................................................................................................23Thought-Provoking Question ............................................................................................................................................23References and Suggested Reading ..................................................................................................................................23

Chapter 2. Water/Wastewater Operators....................................................................................................................25

2.1 Introduction ...........................................................................................................................................................252.2 Setting the Record Straight ...................................................................................................................................262.3 The Computer-Literate Jack or Jill .......................................................................................................................262.4 Plant Operators as Emergency Responders ..........................................................................................................272.5 Operator Duties, Numbers, and Working Conditions ..........................................................................................282.6 Operator Certification and Licensure....................................................................................................................29Chapter Review Questions ................................................................................................................................................30References and Suggested Reading ..................................................................................................................................30

Chapter 3. Upgrading Security .....................................................................................................................................31

3.1 Introduction ...........................................................................................................................................................313.2 Consequences of 9/11 ...........................................................................................................................................313.3 Security Hardware/Devices ...................................................................................................................................34

3.3.1 Physical Asset Monitoring and Control Devices.....................................................................................343.3.1.1 Aboveground Outdoor Equipment Enclosures.......................................................................343.3.1.2 Alarms .....................................................................................................................................343.3.1.3 Backflow-Prevention Devices .................................................................................................363.3.1.4 Barriers ....................................................................................................................................363.3.1.5 Biometric Security Systems....................................................................................................39


vi

Handbook of Water and Wastewater Treatment Plant Operations, Second Edition

3.3.1.6 Card Identification and Access and Tracking Systems ..........................................................403.3.1.7 Fences......................................................................................................................................403.3.1.8 Films for Glass Shatter Protection .........................................................................................413.3.1.9 Fire Hydrant Locks .................................................................................................................423.3.1.10 Hatch Security.........................................................................................................................423.3.1.11 Intrusion Sensors.....................................................................................................................433.3.1.12 Ladder Access Control............................................................................................................433.3.1.13 Locks .......................................................................................................................................433.3.1.14 Manhole Intrusion Sensors .....................................................................................................443.3.1.15 Manhole Locks........................................................................................................................443.3.1.16 Radiation Detection Equipment for Monitoring Personnel and Packages ............................443.3.1.17 Reservoir Covers .....................................................................................................................453.3.1.18 Side-Hinged Door Security.....................................................................................................463.3.1.19 Valve Lockout Devices ...........................................................................................................473.3.1.20 Vent Security ...........................................................................................................................473.3.1.21 Visual Surveillance Monitoring ..............................................................................................48

3.3.2 Water Monitoring Devices .......................................................................................................................483.3.2.1 Sensors for Monitoring Chemical, Biological, and Radiological Contamination.................493.3.2.2 Chemical Sensors: Arsenic Measurement System .................................................................493.3.2.3 Chemical Sensors: Adapted BOD Analyzer...........................................................................503.3.2.4 Chemical Sensors: Total Organic Carbon Analyzer...............................................................503.3.2.5 Chemical Sensors: Chlorine Measurement System ...............................................................503.3.2.6 Chemical Sensors: Portable Cyanide Analyzer ......................................................................513.3.2.7 Portable Field Monitors to Measure VOCs............................................................................523.3.2.8 Radiation Detection Equipment..............................................................................................523.3.2.9 Radiation Detection Equipment for Monitoring Water Assets ..............................................533.3.2.10 Toxicity Monitoring/Toxicity Meters .....................................................................................54

3.3.3 Communication and Integration...............................................................................................................543.3.3.1 Electronic Controllers .............................................................................................................543.3.3.2 Two-Way Radios .....................................................................................................................553.3.3.3 Wireless Data Communications..............................................................................................55

3.3.4 Cyber Protection Devices.........................................................................................................................553.3.4.1 Antivirus and Pest-Eradication Software ...............................................................................563.3.4.2 Firewalls ..................................................................................................................................563.3.4.3 Network Intrusion Hardware and Software............................................................................56

3.4 SCADA..................................................................................................................................................................573.4.1 What Is SCADA?.....................................................................................................................................583.4.2 SCADA Applications in Water/Wastewater Systems ..............................................................................593.4.3 SCADA Vulnerabilities ............................................................................................................................593.4.4 The Increasing Risk .................................................................................................................................603.4.5 Adoption of Technologies with Known Vulnerabilities ..........................................................................603.4.6 Cyber Threats to Control Systems...........................................................................................................623.4.7 Securing Control Systems........................................................................................................................623.4.8 Steps to Improve SCADA Security .........................................................................................................62

The Bottom Line on Security ...........................................................................................................................................66Chapter Review Question .................................................................................................................................................66References and Suggested Reading ..................................................................................................................................67

Chapter 4. Water/Wastewater References, Models, and Terminology......................................................................69

4.1 Setting the Stage ...................................................................................................................................................694.2 Treatment Process Models ....................................................................................................................................694.3 Key Terms Used in Water and Wastewater Operations........................................................................................69Chapter Review Question .................................................................................................................................................77References and Suggested Reading ..................................................................................................................................78


Contents

vii

Part II. Water/Wastewater Operations: Math and Technical Aspects......................................................................79

Chapter 5. Water/Wastewater Math Operations.........................................................................................................81

5.1 Introduction ...........................................................................................................................................................815.2 Calculation Steps...................................................................................................................................................815.3 Equivalents, Formulae, and Symbols....................................................................................................................815.4 Basic Water/Wastewater Math Operations............................................................................................................81

5.4.1 Arithmetic Average (or Arithmetic Mean) and Median ..........................................................................815.4.2 Units and Conversions .............................................................................................................................84

5.4.2.1 Temperature Conversions........................................................................................................845.4.2.2 Milligrams Per Liter (Parts Per Million)................................................................................85

5.4.3 Area and Volume......................................................................................................................................865.4.4 Force, Pressure, and Head........................................................................................................................865.4.5 Flow ..........................................................................................................................................................885.4.6 Flow Calculations.....................................................................................................................................89

5.4.6.1 Instantaneous Flow Rates .......................................................................................................895.4.6.2 Instantaneous Flow into and out of a Rectangular Tank .......................................................895.4.6.3 Flow Rate into a Cylindrical Tank .........................................................................................905.4.6.4 Flow through a Full Pipeline ..................................................................................................905.4.6.5 Velocity Calculations ..............................................................................................................905.4.6.6 Average Flow Rate Calculations ............................................................................................915.4.6.7 Flow Conversion Calculations ................................................................................................91

5.4.7 Detention Time.........................................................................................................................................915.4.8 Hydraulic Detention Time........................................................................................................................92

5.4.8.1 Hydraulic Detention Time in Days.........................................................................................925.4.8.2 Hydraulic Detention Time in Hours .......................................................................................925.4.8.3 Hydraulic Detention Time in Minutes....................................................................................93

5.4.9 Chemical Dosage Calculations ................................................................................................................935.4.9.1 Dosage Formula Pie Chart......................................................................................................935.4.9.2 Chlorine Dosage......................................................................................................................945.4.9.3 Hypochlorite Dosage...............................................................................................................94

5.4.10 Percent Removal.......................................................................................................................................955.4.11 Population Equivalent or Unit Loading Factor........................................................................................965.4.12 Specific Gravity........................................................................................................................................965.4.13 Percent Volatile Matter Reduction in Sludge ..........................................................................................965.4.14 Chemical Coagulation and Sedimentation...............................................................................................96

5.4.14.1 Calculating Feed Rate.............................................................................................................965.4.14.2 Calculating Solution Strength.................................................................................................97

5.4.15 Filtration ...................................................................................................................................................975.4.15.1 Calculating the Rate of Filtration ...........................................................................................975.4.15.2 Filter Backwash.......................................................................................................................97

5.4.16 Water Distribution System Calculations ..................................................................................................985.4.16.1 Water Flow Velocity................................................................................................................985.4.16.2 Storage Tank Calculations ......................................................................................................995.4.16.3 Distribution System Disinfection Calculations ......................................................................99

5.4.17 Complex Conversions.............................................................................................................................1005.4.17.1 Concentration to Quantity.....................................................................................................1015.4.17.2 Quantity to Concentration.....................................................................................................1015.4.17.3 Quantity to Volume or Flow Rate.........................................................................................102

5.5 Applied Math Operations....................................................................................................................................1025.5.1 Mass Balance and Measuring Plant Performance .................................................................................1025.5.2 Mass Balance for Settling Tanks ...........................................................................................................1025.5.3 Mass Balance Using BOD Removal......................................................................................................1025.5.4 Measuring Plant Performance................................................................................................................103


viii


5.5.4.1 Plant Performance/Efficiency................................................................................................1045.5.4.2 Unit Process Performance/Efficiency ...................................................................................1045.5.4.3 Percent Volatile Matter Reduction in Sludge .......................................................................104

5.6 Water Math Concepts..........................................................................................................................................1045.6.1 Water Sources and Storage Calculations ...............................................................................................1045.6.2 Water Source Calculations .....................................................................................................................105

5.6.2.1 Well Drawdown.....................................................................................................................1055.6.2.2 Well Yield..............................................................................................................................1055.6.2.3 Specific Yield ........................................................................................................................1055.6.2.4 Well Casing Disinfection ......................................................................................................1065.6.2.5 Deep-Well Turbine Pumps....................................................................................................1065.6.2.6 Vertical Turbine Pump Calculations .....................................................................................106

5.6.3 Water Storage Calculations ....................................................................................................................1075.6.4 Copper Sulfate Dosing ...........................................................................................................................1075.6.5 Coagulation and Flocculation ................................................................................................................108

5.6.5.1 Coagulation ...........................................................................................................................1085.6.5.2 Flocculation...........................................................................................................................1085.6.5.3 Coagulation and Flocculation Calculations..........................................................................108

5.6.6 Determining Chemical Usage ................................................................................................................1135.6.7 Sedimentation Calculations....................................................................................................................114

5.6.7.1 Calculating Tank Volume......................................................................................................1145.6.7.2 Detention Time......................................................................................................................1145.6.7.3 Surface Overflow Rate ..........................................................................................................1155.6.7.4 Mean Flow Velocity ..............................................................................................................1155.6.7.5 Weir Loading Rate (Weir Overflow Rate)............................................................................1165.6.7.6 Percent Settled Biosolids ......................................................................................................1165.6.7.7 Determining Lime Dosage (mg/L) .......................................................................................1175.6.7.8 Determining Lime Dosage (lb/day)......................................................................................1185.6.7.9 Determining Lime Dosage (g/min) ......................................................................................118

5.6.8 Filtration Calculations ............................................................................................................................1195.6.8.1 Flow Rate through a Filter (gpm).........................................................................................1195.6.8.2 Filtration Rate .......................................................................................................................1205.6.8.3 Unit Filter Run Volume ........................................................................................................1215.6.8.4 Backwash Rate......................................................................................................................1225.6.8.5 Backwash Rise Rate..............................................................................................................1225.6.8.6 Volume of Backwash Water Required (gal) .........................................................................1235.6.8.7 Required Depth of Backwash Water Tank (ft) .....................................................................1235.6.8.8 Backwash Pumping Rate (gpm) ...........................................................................................1235.6.8.9 Percent Product Water Used for Backwash..........................................................................1245.6.8.10 Percent Mud Ball Volume.....................................................................................................1245.6.8.11 Filter Bed Expansion ............................................................................................................125

5.6.9 Water Chlorination Calculations ............................................................................................................1255.6.9.1 Chlorine Disinfection............................................................................................................1255.6.9.2 Determining Chlorine Dosage (Feed Rate) ..........................................................................1255.6.9.3 Calculating Chlorine Dose, Demand, and Residual.............................................................1265.6.9.4 Calculating Dry Hypochlorite Rate ......................................................................................1285.6.9.5 Calculating Hypochlorite Solution Feed Rate......................................................................1295.6.9.6 Calculating Percent Strength of Solutions ...........................................................................1305.6.9.7 Calculating Percent Strength Using Dry Hypochlorite........................................................130

5.6.10 Chemical Use Calculations ....................................................................................................................1305.6.11 Fluoridation ............................................................................................................................................131

5.6.11.1 Water Fluoridation ................................................................................................................1315.6.11.2 Fluoride Compounds.............................................................................................................131


Contents

ix

5.6.11.3 Optimal Fluoride Levels .......................................................................................................1325.6.11.4 Fluoridation Process Calculations ........................................................................................133

5.6.12 Water Softening......................................................................................................................................1375.6.12.1 Calculating Calcium Hardness as CaCO

3

............................................................................1375.6.12.2 Calculating Magnesium Hardness as CaCO

3

.......................................................................1375.6.12.3 Calculating Total Hardness ...................................................................................................1385.6.12.4 Calculating Carbonate and Noncarbonate Hardness ............................................................1385.6.12.5 Alkalinity Determination ......................................................................................................1395.6.12.6 Calculation for Removal of Noncarbonate Hardness...........................................................1405.6.12.7 Recarbonation Calculation....................................................................................................1405.6.12.8 Calculating Feed Rates .........................................................................................................1415.6.12.9 Ion Exchange Capacity .........................................................................................................1415.6.12.10 Water Treatment Capacity ....................................................................................................1425.6.12.11 Treatment Time Calculation (Until Regeneration Required)...............................................1435.6.12.12 Salt and Brine Required for Regeneration ...........................................................................143

5.7 Wastewater Math Concepts.................................................................................................................................1445.7.1 Preliminary Treatment Calculations.......................................................................................................144

5.7.1.1 Screening...............................................................................................................................1445.7.1.2 Grit Removal .........................................................................................................................145

5.7.2 Primary Treatment Calculations.............................................................................................................1475.7.2.1 Process Control Calculations ................................................................................................1475.7.2.2 Surface Loading Rate (Surface Settling Rate/Surface Overflow Rate) ...............................1475.7.2.3 Weir Overflow Rate (Weir Loading Rate)............................................................................1485.7.2.4 BOD and Suspended Solids Removed (lb/day) ...................................................................148

5.7.3 Trickling Filters ......................................................................................................................................1485.7.3.1 Trickling Filter Process Calculations ...................................................................................1495.7.3.2 Hydraulic Loading ................................................................................................................1495.7.3.3 Organic Loading Rate ...........................................................................................................1495.7.3.4 BOD and Suspended Solids Removed .................................................................................1505.7.3.5 Recirculation Flow................................................................................................................150

5.7.4 Rotating Biological Contactors..............................................................................................................1505.7.4.1 RBC Process Control Calculations.......................................................................................1515.7.4.2 Hydraulic Loading Rate........................................................................................................1515.7.4.3 Soluble BOD.........................................................................................................................1515.7.4.4 Organic Loading Rate ...........................................................................................................1525.7.4.5 Total Media Area ..................................................................................................................152

5.7.5 Activated Biosolids ................................................................................................................................1525.7.5.1 Activated Biosolids Process Control Calculations ...............................................................1535.7.5.2 Moving Averages ..................................................................................................................1535.7.5.3 BOD or COD Loading..........................................................................................................1535.7.5.4 Solids Inventory ....................................................................................................................1535.7.5.5 Food-to-Microorganism Ratio ..............................................................................................1545.7.5.6 Gould Biosolids Age.............................................................................................................1555.7.5.7 Mean Cell Residence Time...................................................................................................1555.7.5.8 Estimating Return Rates from SSV

60

...................................................................................1565.7.5.9 Sludge Volume Index ............................................................................................................1575.7.5.10 Mass Balance: Settling Tank Suspended Solids...................................................................1575.7.5.11 Biosolids Waste Based on Mass Balance.............................................................................1585.7.5.12 Oxidation Ditch Detention Time ..........................................................................................158

5.7.6 Treatment Ponds.....................................................................................................................................1595.7.6.1 Treatment Pond Parameters ..................................................................................................1595.7.6.2 Treatment Pond Process Control Calculations .....................................................................1595.7.6.3 Hydraulic Detention Time (Days) ........................................................................................159


x


5.7.6.4 BOD Loading........................................................................................................................1605.7.6.5 Organic Loading Rate ...........................................................................................................1605.7.6.6 BOD Removal Efficiency .....................................................................................................1605.7.6.7 Population Loading ...............................................................................................................1605.7.6.8 Hydraulic Loading Rate (In./Day) (Hydraulic Overflow Rate) ...........................................160

5.7.7 Chemical Dosing ....................................................................................................................................1605.7.7.1 Chemical Feed Rate ..............................................................................................................1615.7.7.2 Chlorine Dose, Demand, and Residual ................................................................................1625.7.7.3 Hypochlorite Dosage.............................................................................................................162

5.7.8 Chemical Solutions ................................................................................................................................1635.7.8.1 Chemical Solution Feeder Setting (gpd) ..............................................................................1645.7.8.2 Chemical Feed Pump: Percent Stroke Setting .....................................................................1645.7.8.3 Chemical Solution Feeder Setting (mL/min) .......................................................................1655.7.8.4 Chemical Feed Calibration ...................................................................................................1655.7.8.5 Average Use Calculations .....................................................................................................1665.7.8.6 Process Residuals: Biosolids Production and Pumping Calculations..................................1675.7.8.7 Primary and Secondary Solids Production Calculations......................................................1675.7.8.8 Primary Clarifier Solids Production Calculations ................................................................1675.7.8.9 Secondary Clarifier Solids Production Calculations ............................................................1675.7.8.10 Percent Solids........................................................................................................................1685.7.8.11 Biosolids Pumping ................................................................................................................1685.7.8.12 Estimating Daily Biosolids Production ................................................................................1685.7.8.13 Biosolids Production in Pounds per Million Gallons ..........................................................1685.7.8.14 Biosolids Production in Wet Tons/Year................................................................................1695.7.8.15 Biosolids Pumping Time.......................................................................................................1695.7.8.16 Biosolids Pumped per Day in Gallons .................................................................................1695.7.8.17 Biosolids Pumped per Day in Pounds..................................................................................1695.7.8.18 Solids Pumped per Day in Pounds.......................................................................................1695.7.8.19 Volatile Matter Pumped per Day in Pounds.........................................................................1695.7.8.20 Biosolids Thickening ............................................................................................................1705.7.8.21 Gravity/Dissolved Air Flotation Thickener Calculations .....................................................1705.7.8.22 Centrifuge Thickening Calculations .....................................................................................1715.7.8.23 Biosolids Digestion or Stabilization.....................................................................................1725.7.8.24 Aerobic Digestion Process Control Calculations .................................................................1725.7.8.25 Volatile Solids Loading (lb/ft

3

/day) ......................................................................................1725.7.8.26 Digestion Time, Days ...........................................................................................................1725.7.8.27 pH Adjustment ......................................................................................................................1725.7.8.28 Anaerobic Digestion Process Control Calculations .............................................................1735.7.8.29 Required Seed Volume in Gallons........................................................................................1735.7.8.30 Volatile Acids/Alkalinity Ratio.............................................................................................1735.7.8.31 Biosolids Retention Time .....................................................................................................1735.7.8.32 Estimated Gas Production in Cubic Feet/Day......................................................................1735.7.8.33 Percent Volatile Matter Reduction........................................................................................1745.7.8.34 Percent Moisture Reduction in Digested Biosolids .............................................................174

5.7.9 Biosolids Dewatering .............................................................................................................................1745.7.9.1 Pressure Filtration .................................................................................................................1745.7.9.2 Plate and Frame Press Calculations .....................................................................................1745.7.9.3 Belt Filter Press Calculations ...............................................................................................1755.7.9.4 Rotary Vacuum Filter Dewatering Calculations...................................................................1775.7.9.5 Sand Drying Beds .................................................................................................................178

5.7.10 Biosolids Disposal..................................................................................................................................1795.7.10.1 Land Application Calculations .............................................................................................1795.7.10.2 Biosolids to Compost............................................................................................................1815.7.10.3 Composting Calculations ......................................................................................................181


Contents

xi

5.8 Water/Wastewater Laboratory Calculations........................................................................................................1825.8.1 Faucet Flow Estimation..........................................................................................................................1825.8.2 Service Line Flushing Time...................................................................................................................1825.8.3 Composite Sampling ..............................................................................................................................1835.8.4 Biochemical Oxygen Demand Calculations ..........................................................................................184

5.8.4.1 BOD

5

Unseeded ....................................................................................................................1845.8.4.2 BOD

5

Seeded ........................................................................................................................1845.8.4.3 BOD 7-Day Moving Average ...............................................................................................184

5.8.5 Moles and Molarity................................................................................................................................1845.8.5.1 Moles.....................................................................................................................................1855.8.5.2 Normality ..............................................................................................................................185

5.8.6 Settleability (Activated Biosolids) .........................................................................................................1865.8.7 Settleable Solids .....................................................................................................................................1865.8.8 Biosolids Total Solids, Fixed Solids, and Volatile Solids .....................................................................1875.8.9 Wastewater Suspended Solids and Volatile Suspended Solids..............................................................1875.8.10 Biosolids Volume Index and Biosolids Density Index ..........................................................................188

Chapter Review Questions ..............................................................................................................................................189General Wastewater Treatment Problems ...........................................................................................................189General Water Treatment Problems ....................................................................................................................196

References and Suggested Reading ................................................................................................................................197

Chapter 6. Blueprint Reading .....................................................................................................................................199

6.1 Blueprints: The Universal Language ..................................................................................................................1996.1.1 Blueprint Standards ................................................................................................................................200

6.1.1.1 Standards-Setting Organizations...........................................................................................2016.1.1.2 ANSI Standards for Blueprint Sheets...................................................................................201

6.1.2 Finding Information ...............................................................................................................................2016.1.2.1 Detail Drawings ....................................................................................................................2016.1.2.2 Assembly Drawings ..............................................................................................................2016.1.2.3 Title Block.............................................................................................................................2016.1.2.4 Drawing Notes ......................................................................................................................204

6.2 Units of Measurement.........................................................................................................................................2076.2.1 Fractions and Decimal Fractions ...........................................................................................................207

6.3 Alphabet of Lines................................................................................................................................................2086.3.1 Just a Bunch of Drawn Lines?...............................................................................................................2086.3.2 Visible Lines...........................................................................................................................................2086.3.3 Hidden Lines ..........................................................................................................................................2096.3.4 Section Lines ..........................................................................................................................................2096.3.5 Center Lines ...........................................................................................................................................2106.3.6 Dimension and Extension Lines ............................................................................................................2106.3.7 Leaders ...................................................................................................................................................2106.3.8 Cutting Plane or Viewing Plane Lines...................................................................................................2106.3.9 Break Lines ............................................................................................................................................2106.3.10 Phantom Lines........................................................................................................................................2116.3.11 Line Gauge .............................................................................................................................................2116.3.12 Views ......................................................................................................................................................211

6.3.12.1 Orthographic Projections ......................................................................................................2126.3.12.2 One-View Drawings..............................................................................................................2146.3.12.3 Two-View Drawings .............................................................................................................2146.3.12.4 Three-View Drawings ...........................................................................................................2146.3.12.5 Auxiliary Views.....................................................................................................................216

6.4 Dimensions and Shop Notes ...............................................................................................................................2176.4.1 Dimensioning .........................................................................................................................................2176.4.2 Decimal and Size Dimensions ...............................................................................................................218


xii


6.4.3 Definition of Dimensioning Terms ........................................................................................................2186.4.3.1 Nominal Size.........................................................................................................................2186.4.3.2 Basic Size..............................................................................................................................2186.4.3.3 Allowance..............................................................................................................................2186.4.3.4 Design Size ...........................................................................................................................2196.4.3.5 Limits ....................................................................................................................................2196.4.3.6 Tolerance ...............................................................................................................................2196.4.3.7 Datum....................................................................................................................................220

6.4.4 Types of Dimensions..............................................................................................................................2206.4.4.1 Linear Dimensions ................................................................................................................2206.4.4.2 Angular Dimensions .............................................................................................................2206.4.4.3 Reference Dimensions ..........................................................................................................2216.4.4.4 Tabular Dimensions ..............................................................................................................2216.4.4.5 Arrowless Dimensions ..........................................................................................................221

6.4.5 Shop Notes .............................................................................................................................................2216.5 Machine Drawings ..............................................................................................................................................221

6.5.1 The Centrifugal Pump Drawing (Simplified) ........................................................................................2226.5.1.1 The Centrifugal Pump...........................................................................................................2226.5.1.2 Centrifugal Pump: Description .............................................................................................2226.5.1.3 Centrifugal Pump: Components ...........................................................................................223

6.5.2 Packing Gland Drawing .........................................................................................................................2236.5.3 Submersible Pump Drawing (Simplified)..............................................................................................2236.5.4 Turbine Pump Drawing (Simplified) .....................................................................................................223

6.6 Sheet Metal Drawings.........................................................................................................................................2246.6.1 Sheet Metal.............................................................................................................................................2246.6.2 Dimension Calculations .........................................................................................................................224

6.6.2.1 Calculations for Allowances in Bend ...................................................................................2246.6.2.2 Set-Back Table ......................................................................................................................2256.6.2.3 Formulae Used to Determine Developed Length.................................................................225

6.6.3 Hems and Joints .....................................................................................................................................2266.7 Hydraulic and Pneumatic Drawings ...................................................................................................................226

6.7.1 Standard Hydraulic System....................................................................................................................2266.7.2 Standard Pneumatic System...................................................................................................................2276.7.3 Hydraulic and Pneumatic Systems: Similarities and Differences.........................................................2276.7.4 Types of Hydraulic and Pneumatic Drawings .......................................................................................2276.7.5 Graphic Symbols for Fluid Power Systems ..........................................................................................227

6.7.5.1 Symbols for Methods of Operation (Controls) ....................................................................2286.7.5.2 Symbols for Rotary Devices.................................................................................................2286.7.5.3 Symbols for Lines.................................................................................................................2296.7.5.4 Symbols for Valves ...............................................................................................................2296.7.5.5 Symbols for Miscellaneous Units.........................................................................................229

6.7.6 Supplementary Information Accompanying Graphic Drawings ...........................................................2296.7.6.1 Sequence of Operations ........................................................................................................2296.7.6.2 Solenoid Chart.......................................................................................................................2296.7.6.3 Bill of Materials ....................................................................................................................230

6.8 Welding Blueprints and Symbols .......................................................................................................................2316.8.1 Welding Processes..................................................................................................................................2316.8.2 Types of Welded Joints ..........................................................................................................................231

6.8.2.1 Butt Joints .............................................................................................................................2326.8.2.2 Lap Joints ..............................................................................................................................2326.8.2.3 Tee Joints...............................................................................................................................2326.8.2.4 Edge Joints ............................................................................................................................2326.8.2.5 Corner Joints .........................................................................................................................232

6.8.3 Basic Weld Symbols...............................................................................................................................232


Contents

xiii

6.8.3.1 Symbols for Arc and Gas Welds ..........................................................................................2326.8.3.2 Symbols for Resistance Welds..............................................................................................2326.8.3.3 Symbols for Supplementary Welds ......................................................................................233

6.8.4 The Welding Symbol..............................................................................................................................2336.8.4.1 Reference Line ......................................................................................................................2336.8.4.2 Arrowhead .............................................................................................................................2346.8.4.3 Weld Symbol.........................................................................................................................2346.8.4.4 Dimensions............................................................................................................................2346.8.4.5 Special Symbols....................................................................................................................2346.8.4.6 Contour Symbol ....................................................................................................................2346.8.4.7 Groove Angle ........................................................................................................................2346.8.4.8 Spot Welds ............................................................................................................................2356.8.4.9 Weld-All-Around...................................................................................................................2356.8.4.10 Field Weld .............................................................................................................................2356.8.4.11 Melt-Thru Welds ...................................................................................................................2356.8.4.12 Finish Symbols......................................................................................................................2356.8.4.13 Tail.........................................................................................................................................235

6.9 Electrical Drawings .............................................................................................................................................2366.9.1 Troubleshooting and Electrical Drawings..............................................................................................2366.9.2 Electrical Symbols..................................................................................................................................236

6.9.2.1 Electrical Voltage and Power ................................................................................................2366.9.2.2 What Is Voltage? ...................................................................................................................2366.9.2.3 How Is Voltage Produced?....................................................................................................2366.9.2.4 How Is Electricity Delivered to the Plant?...........................................................................2366.9.2.5 Electric Power .......................................................................................................................2366.9.2.6 Electrical Drawings...............................................................................................................2376.9.2.7 Types of Architectural Drawings ..........................................................................................2376.9.2.8 Circuit Drawings ...................................................................................................................2386.9.2.9 Ladder Drawing ....................................................................................................................239

6.10 AC&R Drawings .................................................................................................................................................2406.10.1 Refrigeration...........................................................................................................................................240

6.10.1.1 Basic Principles of Refrigeration..........................................................................................2406.10.1.2 Refrigeration System Components .......................................................................................2406.10.1.3 Refrigeration System Operation ...........................................................................................2416.10.1.4 Using Refrigeration Drawings in Troubleshooting ..............................................................2416.10.1.5 Refrigeration Component Drawings.....................................................................................242

6.10.2 Air Conditioning ....................................................................................................................................2436.10.2.1 Operation of a Simple Air Conditioning System.................................................................2436.10.2.2 Design of Air Conditioning Systems....................................................................................2436.10.2.3 Air Conditioning Drawings ..................................................................................................243

6.11 Schematics and Symbols.....................................................................................................................................2446.11.1 How to Use Schematic Diagrams..........................................................................................................2446.11.2 Schematic Circuit Layout.......................................................................................................................2456.11.3 Schematic Symbols ................................................................................................................................245

6.11.3.1 Lines on a Schematic............................................................................................................2456.11.3.2 Lines Connect Symbols ........................................................................................................246

6.11.4 Schematic Diagram: An Example..........................................................................................................2466.11.4.1 A Schematic by Any Other Name Is a Line Diagram.........................................................247

6.11.5 Schematics and Troubleshooting ...........................................................................................................2486.12 Electrical Schematics ..........................................................................................................................................248

6.12.1 Electrical Symbols..................................................................................................................................2486.12.1.1 Schematic Lines ....................................................................................................................2496.12.1.2 Power Supplies: Electrical Systems .....................................................................................2496.12.1.3 Power Supplies: Electronics .................................................................................................250


xiv


6.12.1.4 Electrical Loads.....................................................................................................................2516.12.1.5 Switches ................................................................................................................................2516.12.1.6 Inductors (Coils) ...................................................................................................................2516.12.1.7 Transformers .........................................................................................................................2526.12.1.8 Fuses......................................................................................................................................2526.12.1.9 Circuit Breakers ....................................................................................................................2526.12.1.10 Electrical Contacts ................................................................................................................2536.12.1.11 Resistors ................................................................................................................................253

6.12.2 Reading Plant Schematics......................................................................................................................2536.13 General Piping Systems and System Schematics...............................................................................................255

6.13.1 Piping Systems .......................................................................................................................................2556.13.2 Piping Symbols: General .......................................................................................................................2566.13.3 Piping Joints ...........................................................................................................................................256

6.13.3.1 Screwed Joints.......................................................................................................................2566.13.3.2 Welded Joints ........................................................................................................................2566.13.3.3 Flanged Joints .......................................................................................................................2566.13.3.4 Bell-and-Spigot Joints...........................................................................................................2566.13.3.5 Soldered Joints ......................................................................................................................2566.13.3.6 Symbols for Joints and Fittings............................................................................................257

6.13.4 Valves......................................................................................................................................................2576.13.4.1 Valves: Definition and Function ...........................................................................................2576.13.4.2 Valve Construction................................................................................................................2586.13.4.3 Types of Valves .....................................................................................................................258

6.14 Hydraulic and Pneumatic System Schematic Symbols......................................................................................2606.14.1 Fluid Power Systems..............................................................................................................................2616.14.2 Symbols Used for Hydraulic and Pneumatic Components ...................................................................2616.14.3 AC&R System Schematic Symbols.......................................................................................................2626.14.4 Schematic Symbols Used in Refrigeration Systems .............................................................................262

6.14.4.1 Refrigeration Piping Symbols...............................................................................................2626.14.4.2 Refrigeration Fittings Symbols.............................................................................................2626.14.4.3 Refrigeration Valve Symbols ................................................................................................2636.14.4.4 Refrigeration Accessory Symbols.........................................................................................2636.14.4.5 Refrigeration Component Symbols ......................................................................................2636.14.4.6 Schematic Symbols Used in AC&R Air Distribution System .............................................264

Chapter Review Questions ..............................................................................................................................................264References and Suggested Reading ................................................................................................................................265

Chapter 7. Water Hydraulics.......................................................................................................................................267

7.1 What Is Water Hydraulics? .................................................................................................................................2677.2 Basic Concepts ....................................................................................................................................................267

7.2.1 Stevin’s Law ...........................................................................................................................................2687.3 Density and Specific Gravity ..............................................................................................................................2687.4 Force and Pressure ..............................................................................................................................................270

7.4.1 Hydrostatic Pressure...............................................................................................................................2707.4.2 Effects of Water under Pressure.............................................................................................................271

7.5 Head.....................................................................................................................................................................2727.5.1 Static Head .............................................................................................................................................2727.5.2 Friction Head..........................................................................................................................................2727.5.3 Velocity Head .........................................................................................................................................2727.5.4 Total Dynamic Head (Total System Head)............................................................................................2727.5.5 Pressure and Head..................................................................................................................................2727.5.6 Head and Pressure..................................................................................................................................272

7.6 Flow and Discharge Rates: Water in Motion .....................................................................................................2727.6.1 Area and Velocity ...................................................................................................................................2737.6.2 Pressure and Velocity .............................................................................................................................274


Contents

xv

7.7 Piezometric Surface and Bernoulli’s Theorem...................................................................................................2747.7.1 Conservation of Energy..........................................................................................................................2747.7.2 Energy Head ...........................................................................................................................................2747.7.3 Piezometric Surface................................................................................................................................2747.7.4 Head Loss...............................................................................................................................................2757.7.5 Hydraulic Grade Line (HGL) ................................................................................................................2767.7.6 Bernoulli’s Theorem...............................................................................................................................2767.7.7 Bernoulli’s Equation...............................................................................................................................276

7.8 Well and Wet-Well Hydraulics............................................................................................................................2777.8.1 Well Hydraulics ......................................................................................................................................2777.8.2 Wet-Well Hydraulics ..............................................................................................................................278

7.9 Friction Head Loss ..............................................................................................................................................2797.9.1 Flow in Pipelines....................................................................................................................................2797.9.2 Major Head Loss....................................................................................................................................2807.9.3 Calculating Major Head Loss ................................................................................................................2807.9.4 C Factor ..................................................................................................................................................2817.9.5 Slope .......................................................................................................................................................2817.9.6 Minor Head Loss....................................................................................................................................281

7.10 Basic Piping Hydraulics......................................................................................................................................2827.10.1 Piping Networks .....................................................................................................................................282

7.11 Open-Channel Flow ............................................................................................................................................2837.11.1 Characteristics of Open-Channel Flow..................................................................................................283

7.11.1.1 Laminar and Turbulent Flow ................................................................................................2837.11.1.2 Uniform and Varied Flow .....................................................................................................2837.11.1.3 Critical Flow .........................................................................................................................284

7.11.2 Parameters Used in Open Channel Flow...............................................................................................2847.11.2.1 Hydraulic Radius...................................................................................................................2847.11.2.2 Hydraulic Depth....................................................................................................................2847.11.2.3 Slope (

S

) ................................................................................................................................2847.11.3 Open-Channel Flow Calculations ..........................................................................................................285

7.12 Flow Measurement ..............................................................................................................................................2867.12.1 Flow Measurement: The Old-Fashioned Way .......................................................................................2877.12.2 Basis of Traditional Flow Measurement................................................................................................2877.12.3 Flow Measuring Devices........................................................................................................................287

7.12.3.1 Differential Pressure Flowmeters .........................................................................................2887.12.3.2 Types of Differential Pressure Flowmeters ..........................................................................2887.12.3.3 Magnetic Flowmeters............................................................................................................2907.12.3.4 Ultrasonic Flowmeters ..........................................................................................................2917.12.3.5 Velocity Flowmeters .............................................................................................................2927.12.3.6 Positive-Displacement Flowmeters.......................................................................................292

7.12.4 Open-Channel Flow Measurement ........................................................................................................2937.12.4.1 Weirs......................................................................................................................................2937.12.4.2 Flumes ...................................................................................................................................294


Chapter 8. Fundamentals of Electricity .....................................................................................................................297

8.1 Nature of Electricity............................................................................................................................................2988.2 The Structure of Matter ......................................................................................................................................2988.3 Conductors, Semiconductors, and Insulators......................................................................................................3008.4 Static Electricity ..................................................................................................................................................301

8.4.1 Charged Bodies ......................................................................................................................................3018.4.2 Coulomb’s Law ......................................................................................................................................3018.4.3 Electrostatic Fields .................................................................................................................................302


xvi


8.5 Magnetism ...........................................................................................................................................................3028.5.1 Magnetic Materials.................................................................................................................................3038.5.2 Magnetic Earth .......................................................................................................................................303

8.6 Difference in Potential ........................................................................................................................................3048.6.1 The Water Analogy.................................................................................................................................3048.6.2 Principal Methods for Producing a Voltage...........................................................................................304

8.7 Current .................................................................................................................................................................3058.8 Resistance ............................................................................................................................................................3058.9 Battery-Supplied Electricity................................................................................................................................306

8.9.1 The Voltaic Cell......................................................................................................................................3068.9.2 Primary and Secondary Cells.................................................................................................................3078.9.3 Battery ....................................................................................................................................................3078.9.4 Battery Operation ...................................................................................................................................3078.9.5 Combining Cells.....................................................................................................................................3078.9.6 Types of Batteries...................................................................................................................................308

8.9.6.1 Dry Cell.................................................................................................................................3088.9.6.2 Lead–Acid Battery ................................................................................................................3088.9.6.3 Alkaline Cell .........................................................................................................................3098.9.6.4 Nickel–Cadmium Cell...........................................................................................................3098.9.6.5 Mercury Cell .........................................................................................................................309

8.9.7 Battery Characteristics ...........................................................................................................................3098.10 Simple Electrical Circuit.....................................................................................................................................310

8.10.1 Schematic Representations ....................................................................................................................3118.11 Ohm’s Law ..........................................................................................................................................................3118.12 Electrical Power ..................................................................................................................................................313

8.12.1 Electrical Power Calculations ................................................................................................................3138.13 Electrical Energy (Kilowatt-Hours) ....................................................................................................................3148.14 Series DC Circuit Characteristics .......................................................................................................................314

8.14.1 Series Circuit Resistance .......................................................................................................................3148.14.2 Series Circuit Current ............................................................................................................................3158.14.3 Series Circuit Voltage.............................................................................................................................3158.14.4 Series Circuit Power ..............................................................................................................................3178.14.5 Summary of the Rules for Series DC Circuits......................................................................................3178.14.6 General Series Circuit Analysis.............................................................................................................3188.14.7 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law........................................................................................................................3188.14.8 Polarity of Voltage Drops ......................................................................................................................3198.14.9 Series Aiding and Opposing Sources ....................................................................................................3198.14.10 Kirchhoff’s Law and Multiple-Source Solutions ..................................................................................320

8.15 Ground.................................................................................................................................................................3208.16 Open and Short Circuits......................................................................................................................................3218.17 Parallel DC Circuits ............................................................................................................................................321

8.17.1 Parallel Circuit Characteristics ..............................................................................................................3218.17.2 Voltage in Parallel Circuits ....................................................................................................................3218.17.3 Current in Parallel Circuits ....................................................................................................................3228.17.4 Parallel Circuits and Kirchhoff’s Current Law .....................................................................................3238.17.5 Parallel Circuit Resistance .....................................................................................................................3248.17.6 Reciprocal Method.................................................................................................................................3258.17.7 Product over the Sum Method...............................................................................................................3268.17.8 Reduction to an Equivalent Circuit .......................................................................................................3268.17.9 Power in Parallel Circuits ......................................................................................................................3268.17.10 Rules for Solving Parallel DC Circuits .................................................................................................326

8.18 Series–Parallel Circuits .......................................................................................................................................3278.18.1 Solving a Series–Parallel Circuit ...........................................................................................................327

8.19 Conductors...........................................................................................................................................................3278.19.1 Unit Size of Conductors ........................................................................................................................327


Contents

xvii

8.19.2 Square Mil..............................................................................................................................................3278.19.3 Circular Mil............................................................................................................................................3288.19.4 Circular-Mil-Foot ...................................................................................................................................3298.19.5 Resistivity...............................................................................................................................................3298.19.6 Wire Measurement .................................................................................................................................3308.19.7 Factors Governing the Selection of Wire Size ......................................................................................3308.19.8 Copper vs. Other Metal Conductors......................................................................................................3318.19.9 Temperature Coefficient.........................................................................................................................3318.19.10 Conductor Insulation..............................................................................................................................3328.19.11 Conductors, Splices, and Terminal Connections...................................................................................3328.19.12 Soldering Operations..............................................................................................................................3328.19.13 Solderless Connections ..........................................................................................................................3328.19.14 Insulation Tape .......................................................................................................................................332

8.20 Electromagnetism ................................................................................................................................................3338.20.1 Magnetic Field around a Single Conductor ..........................................................................................3338.20.2 Polarity of a Single Conductor ..............................................................................................................3338.20.3 Field around Two Parallel Conductors ..................................................................................................3348.20.4 Magnetic Field of a Coil........................................................................................................................3348.20.5 Polarity of an Electromagnetic Coil ......................................................................................................3348.20.6 Strength of an Electromagnetic Field....................................................................................................3358.20.7 Magnetic Units .......................................................................................................................................3358.20.8 Properties of Magnetic Materials ..........................................................................................................335

8.20.8.1 Permeability ..........................................................................................................................3358.20.8.2 Hysteresis ..............................................................................................................................335

8.20.9 Electromagnets .......................................................................................................................................3368.21 AC Theory ...........................................................................................................................................................336

8.21.1 Basic AC Generator ...............................................................................................................................3378.21.2 Cycle.......................................................................................................................................................3378.21.3 Frequency, Period, and Wavelength.......................................................................................................3388.21.4 Characteristic Values of AC Voltage and Current .................................................................................3388.21.5 Peak Amplitude ......................................................................................................................................3388.21.6 Peak-to-Peak Amplitude ........................................................................................................................3398.21.7 Instantaneous Amplitude........................................................................................................................3398.21.8 Effective or RMS Value .........................................................................................................................3398.21.9 Average Value.........................................................................................................................................3408.21.10 Resistance in AC Circuits ......................................................................................................................3408.21.11 Phase Relationships................................................................................................................................341

8.22 Inductance............................................................................................................................................................3428.22.1 Self-Inductance.......................................................................................................................................3438.22.2 Mutual Inductance..................................................................................................................................3448.22.3 Calculation of Total Inductance.............................................................................................................345

8.23 Practical Electrical Applications .........................................................................................................................3458.23.1 Electrical Power Generation ..................................................................................................................345

8.23.1.1 DC Generators......................................................................................................................3468.23.1.2 AC Generators......................................................................................................................3478.23.1.3 Motors ..................................................................................................................................3478.23.1.4 DC Motors............................................................................................................................3488.23.1.5 AC Motors............................................................................................................................349

8.23.2 Transformers ..........................................................................................................................................3518.23.3 Power Distribution System Protection...................................................................................................352

8.23.3.1 Fuses.....................................................................................................................................3528.23.3.2 Circuit Breakers ...................................................................................................................3538.23.3.3 Control Devices....................................................................................................................353



xviii


Chapter 9. Hydraulic Machines: Pumps ....................................................................................................................357

9.1 Introduction .........................................................................................................................................................3579.2 Basic Pumping Calculations ...............................................................................................................................358

9.2.1 Velocity of a Fluid through a Pipeline ..................................................................................................3589.2.2 Pressure–Velocity Relationship..............................................................................................................3589.2.3 Static Head .............................................................................................................................................359

9.2.3.1 Static Suction Head...............................................................................................................3599.2.3.2 Static Suction Lift .................................................................................................................3599.2.3.3 Static Discharge Head...........................................................................................................359

9.2.4 Friction Head..........................................................................................................................................3609.2.5 Velocity Head.........................................................................................................................................3609.2.6 Total Head ..............................................................................................................................................3619.2.7 Conversion of Pressure Head.................................................................................................................3619.2.8 Horsepower ............................................................................................................................................361

9.2.8.1 Hydraulic (Water) Horsepower (WHP) ................................................................................3619.2.8.2 Brake Horsepower (BHP) .....................................................................................................361

9.2.9 Specific Speed ........................................................................................................................................3619.2.9.1 Suction Specific Speed .........................................................................................................362

9.2.10 Affinity Laws—Centrifugal Pumps .......................................................................................................3629.2.11 Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH) .......................................................................................................362

9.2.11.1 Calculating NPSHA ..............................................................................................................3639.2.12 Pumps in Series and Parallel .................................................................................................................364

9.3 Centrifugal Pumps...............................................................................................................................................3649.3.1 Description .............................................................................................................................................3649.3.2 Terminology............................................................................................................................................3659.3.3 Pump Theory ..........................................................................................................................................3669.3.4 Pump Characteristics..............................................................................................................................367

9.3.4.1 Head (Capacity) ....................................................................................................................3679.3.4.2 Efficiency...............................................................................................................................3679.3.4.3 Brake Horsepower Requirements .........................................................................................367

9.3.5 Advantages and Disadvantages of the Centrifugal Pump .....................................................................3679.3.6 Centrifugal Pump Applications..............................................................................................................3699.3.7 Pump Control Systems...........................................................................................................................369

9.3.7.1 Float Control .........................................................................................................................3699.3.7.2 Pneumatic Controls ...............................................................................................................3709.3.7.3 Electrode Control Systems ...................................................................................................3719.3.7.4 Other Control Systems..........................................................................................................371

9.3.8 Electronic Control Systems....................................................................................................................3719.3.8.1 Flow Equalization System ....................................................................................................3719.3.8.2 Sonar or Other Transmission Types of Controllers..............................................................3719.3.8.3 Motor Controllers..................................................................................................................3729.3.8.4 Protective Instrumentation ....................................................................................................3729.3.8.5 Temperature Detectors ..........................................................................................................3729.3.8.6 Vibration Monitors................................................................................................................3729.3.8.7 Supervisory Instrumentation .................................................................................................372

9.3.9 Centrifugal Pump Modifications............................................................................................................3739.3.9.1 Submersible Pumps...............................................................................................................3739.3.9.2 Recessed Impeller or Vortex Pumps.....................................................................................3749.3.9.3 Turbine Pumps ......................................................................................................................374

9.4 Positive-Displacement Pumps.............................................................................................................................3759.4.1 Piston Pump or Reciprocating Pump.....................................................................................................3759.4.2 Diaphragm Pump....................................................................................................................................3759.4.3 Peristaltic Pumps ....................................................................................................................................375



Contents

xix

Chapter 10. Water/Wastewater Conveyance..............................................................................................................377

10.1 Delivering the Lifeblood of Civilization ............................................................................................................37710.2 Conveyance Systems ...........................................................................................................................................37710.3 Definitions ...........................................................................................................................................................37910.4 Fluids vs. Liquids................................................................................................................................................38010.5 Maintaining Fluid Flow in Piping Systems........................................................................................................380

10.5.1 Scaling...................................................................................................................................................38010.5.2 Piping System Maintenance .................................................................................................................381

10.6 Piping System Accessories .................................................................................................................................38210.7 Piping Systems: Temperature Effects and Insulation.........................................................................................38210.8 Metallic Piping ....................................................................................................................................................383

10.8.1 Piping Materials ....................................................................................................................................38310.8.2 Piping: The Basics ................................................................................................................................38310.8.3 Pipe Sizes ..............................................................................................................................................383

10.8.3.1 Pipe Wall Thickness ..........................................................................................................38410.8.3.2 Piping Classification ..........................................................................................................384

10.8.4 Types of Piping Systems ......................................................................................................................38510.8.4.1 Code for Identification of Pipelines ..................................................................................385

10.8.5 Metallic Piping Materials .....................................................................................................................38510.8.6 Characteristics of Metallic Materials ...................................................................................................385

10.8.6.1 Cast-Iron Pipe ....................................................................................................................38610.8.6.2 Ductile-Iron Pipe ...............................................................................................................38610.8.6.3 Steel Pipe ...........................................................................................................................387

10.8.7 Maintenance Characteristics of Metallic Piping ..................................................................................38710.8.7.1 Expansion and Flexibility..................................................................................................38710.8.7.2 Pipe Support Systems........................................................................................................38710.8.7.3 Valve Selection ..................................................................................................................38710.8.7.4 Isolation..............................................................................................................................38710.8.7.5 Preventing Backflow..........................................................................................................38710.8.7.6 Water Hammer...................................................................................................................38710.8.7.7 Air Binding ........................................................................................................................38810.8.7.8 Corrosion Effects ...............................................................................................................388

10.8.8 Joining Metallic Pipe ............................................................................................................................38810.8.8.1 Bell-and-Spigot Joints .......................................................................................................38910.8.8.2 Screwed or Threaded Joints ..............................................................................................38910.8.8.3 Flanged Joints ....................................................................................................................38910.8.8.4 Welded Joints.....................................................................................................................39010.8.8.5 Soldered and Brazed Joints ...............................................................................................390

10.9 Nonmetallic Piping..............................................................................................................................................39010.9.1 Nonmetallic Piping Materials ...............................................................................................................390

10.9.1.1 Clay Pipe............................................................................................................................39110.9.1.2 Concrete Pipe.....................................................................................................................39110.9.1.3 Plastic Pipe ........................................................................................................................393

10.10 Tubing..................................................................................................................................................................39410.10.1 Tubing vs. Piping: The Difference .......................................................................................................39410.10.2 Advantages of Tubing...........................................................................................................................396

10.10.2.1 Mechanical Advantages of Tubing....................................................................................39610.10.2.2 Chemical Advantages of Tubing .......................................................................................396

10.10.3 Connecting Tubing................................................................................................................................39710.10.3.1 Cutting Tubing ...................................................................................................................39710.10.3.2 Soldering Tubing ...............................................................................................................39710.10.3.3 Connecting Flared/Nonflared Joints ..................................................................................398

10.10.4 Bending Tubing.....................................................................................................................................39810.10.5 Types of Tubing ....................................................................................................................................39810.10.6 Typical Tubing Applications.................................................................................................................399


xx


10.11 Industrial Hoses...................................................................................................................................................39910.11.1 Hose Nomenclature...............................................................................................................................40010.11.2 Factors Governing Hose Selection .......................................................................................................40110.11.3 Standards, Codes, and Sizes .................................................................................................................401

10.11.3.1 Hose Size ...........................................................................................................................40110.11.3.2 Hose Classifications...........................................................................................................40210.11.3.3 Nonmetallic Hose ..............................................................................................................40210.11.3.4 Metallic Hose.....................................................................................................................403

10.11.4 Hose Couplings.....................................................................................................................................40310.11.5 Hose Maintenance.................................................................................................................................404

10.12 Pipe and Tube Fittings ........................................................................................................................................40410.12.1 Fittings ..................................................................................................................................................40410.12.2 Functions of Fittings.............................................................................................................................405

10.12.2.1 Changing the Direction of Flow........................................................................................40510.12.2.2 Providing Branch Connections..........................................................................................40510.12.2.3 Changing the Sizes of Lines .............................................................................................40510.12.2.4 Sealing Lines .....................................................................................................................40610.12.2.5 Connecting Lines ...............................................................................................................406

10.12.3 Types of Connections ...........................................................................................................................40610.12.3.1 Screwed Fittings ................................................................................................................40610.12.3.2 Flanged Connections .........................................................................................................40610.12.3.3 Welded Connections ..........................................................................................................407

10.12.4 Tubing Fittings and Connections..........................................................................................................40710.13 Valves ..................................................................................................................................................................407

10.13.1 Valve Construction................................................................................................................................40810.13.2 Types of Valves .....................................................................................................................................408

10.13.2.1 Ball Valves .........................................................................................................................40910.13.2.2 Gate Valves ........................................................................................................................40910.13.2.3 Globe Valves ......................................................................................................................41010.13.2.4 Needle Valves.....................................................................................................................41010.13.2.5 Butterfly Valves..................................................................................................................41010.13.2.6 Plug Valves.........................................................................................................................41110.13.2.7 Check Valves......................................................................................................................41110.13.2.8 Quick-Opening Valves .......................................................................................................41110.13.2.9 Diaphragm Valves..............................................................................................................41110.13.2.10 Regulating Valves ..............................................................................................................41110.13.2.11 Relief Valves ......................................................................................................................41210.13.2.12 Reducing Valves.................................................................................................................412

10.13.3 Valve Operators.....................................................................................................................................41210.13.3.1 Pneumatic and Hydraulic Valve Operators .......................................................................41310.13.3.2 Magnetic Valve Operators .................................................................................................413

10.13.4 Valve Maintenance................................................................................................................................41310.14 Piping Systems: Protective Devices....................................................................................................................413

10.14.1 Applications ..........................................................................................................................................41310.14.2 Strainers ................................................................................................................................................41310.14.3 Filters ....................................................................................................................................................41410.14.4 Traps......................................................................................................................................................414

10.14.4.1 Trap Maintenance and Testing ..........................................................................................41510.15 Piping Ancillaries ................................................................................................................................................415

10.15.1 Gauges...................................................................................................................................................41610.15.2 Pressure Gauges ....................................................................................................................................416

10.15.2.1 Spring-Operated Pressure Gauges.....................................................................................41610.15.2.2 Bourdon-Tube Gauges.......................................................................................................41710.15.2.3 Bellows Gauge...................................................................................................................41710.15.2.4 Plunger Gauge ...................................................................................................................417


Contents

xxi

10.15.3 Temperature Gauges .............................................................................................................................41810.15.4 Vacuum Breakers ..................................................................................................................................41910.15.5 Accumulators ........................................................................................................................................41910.15.6 Air Receivers.........................................................................................................................................41910.15.7 Heat Exchangers ...................................................................................................................................420


Part III. Characteristics of Water ...............................................................................................................................423

Chapter 11. Basic Water Chemistry ...........................................................................................................................425

11.1 Chemistry Concepts and Definitions ..................................................................................................................42511.1.1 Concepts .................................................................................................................................................425

11.1.1.1 Miscible and Solubility.........................................................................................................42511.1.1.2 Suspension, Sediment, Particles, and Solids ........................................................................42511.1.1.3 Emulsion................................................................................................................................42611.1.1.4 Ion..........................................................................................................................................42611.1.1.5 Mass Concentration...............................................................................................................426

11.1.2 Definitions ..............................................................................................................................................42611.2 Chemistry Fundamentals.....................................................................................................................................427

11.2.1 Matter .....................................................................................................................................................42711.2.2 The Content of Matter: The Elements...................................................................................................42811.2.3 Compound Substances ...........................................................................................................................429

11.3 Water Solutions ...................................................................................................................................................43011.4 Water Constituents ..............................................................................................................................................431

11.4.1 Solids ......................................................................................................................................................43111.4.2 Turbidity .................................................................................................................................................43111.4.3 Color .......................................................................................................................................................43211.4.4 Dissolved Oxygen ..................................................................................................................................43211.4.5 Metals .....................................................................................................................................................43211.4.6 Organic Matter .......................................................................................................................................43211.4.7 Inorganic Matter .....................................................................................................................................43311.4.8 Acids.......................................................................................................................................................43311.4.9 Bases.......................................................................................................................................................43311.4.10 Salts ........................................................................................................................................................43311.4.11 pH ...........................................................................................................................................................433

11.5 Common Water Measurements ...........................................................................................................................43411.5.1 Alkalinity ................................................................................................................................................43411.5.2 Water Temperature .................................................................................................................................43511.5.3 Specific Conductance .............................................................................................................................43511.5.4 Hardness .................................................................................................................................................43511.5.5 Odor Control (Wastewater Treatment)...................................................................................................435

11.6 Water Treatment Chemicals ................................................................................................................................43611.6.1 Disinfection ............................................................................................................................................43611.6.2 Coagulation.............................................................................................................................................43611.6.3 Taste and Odor Removal........................................................................................................................43611.6.4 Water Softening......................................................................................................................................437

11.6.4.1 Chemical Precipitation..........................................................................................................43711.6.4.2 Ion Exchange Softening........................................................................................................437

11.6.5 Recarbonation.........................................................................................................................................43711.6.6 Scale and Corrosion Control..................................................................................................................437

11.7 Drinking Water Parameters: Chemical ...............................................................................................................43811.7.1 Organics..................................................................................................................................................43811.7.2 Synthetic Organic Compounds ..............................................................................................................43911.7.3 Volatile Organic Compounds .................................................................................................................439


xxii


11.7.4 Total Dissolved Solids............................................................................................................................43911.7.5 Fluorides .................................................................................................................................................43911.7.6 Heavy Metals..........................................................................................................................................44011.7.7 Nutrients .................................................................................................................................................440


Chapter 12. Water Microbiology.................................................................................................................................443

12.1 Introduction .........................................................................................................................................................44312.2 Microbiology: What Is It?...................................................................................................................................44312.3 Water/Wastewater Microorganisms.....................................................................................................................44412.4 Key Terms ...........................................................................................................................................................44412.5 Microorganism Classification and Differentiation..............................................................................................445

12.5.1 Classification.......................................................................................................................................44512.5.2 Differentiation.....................................................................................................................................446

12.6 The Cell ...............................................................................................................................................................44612.6.1 Structure of the Bacterial Cell ...........................................................................................................446

12.6.1.1 Capsules .............................................................................................................................44612.6.1.2 Flagella...............................................................................................................................44712.6.1.3 Cell Wall ............................................................................................................................44712.6.1.4 Plasma Membrane (Cytoplasmic Membrane)...................................................................44712.6.1.5 Cytoplasm ..........................................................................................................................44712.6.1.6 Mesosome ..........................................................................................................................44712.6.1.7 Nucleoid (Nuclear Body or Region) .................................................................................44712.6.1.8 Ribosomes..........................................................................................................................44812.6.1.9 Inclusions ...........................................................................................................................448

12.7 Bacteria................................................................................................................................................................44812.7.1 Bacterial Growth Factors....................................................................................................................44812.7.2 Destruction of Bacteria ......................................................................................................................44912.7.3 Waterborne Bacteria ...........................................................................................................................449

12.8 Protozoa...............................................................................................................................................................44912.9 Microscopic Crustaceans.....................................................................................................................................45112.10 Viruses .................................................................................................................................................................45112.11 Algae....................................................................................................................................................................45212.12 Fungi....................................................................................................................................................................45212.13 Nematodes and Flatworms..................................................................................................................................45212.14 Water Treatment and Microbiological Processes ...............................................................................................453

12.14.1 Pathogenic Protozoa ...........................................................................................................................45412.14.2

Giardia

................................................................................................................................................45412.14.2.1 Giardiasis ...........................................................................................................................454

12.14.3

Cryptosporidium

.................................................................................................................................45812.14.3.1 The Basics of

Cryptosporidium

........................................................................................46012.14.3.2 Cryptosporidiosis ...............................................................................................................461

12.14.4

Cyclospora

..........................................................................................................................................46112.14.5 Helminths............................................................................................................................................462

12.15 Wastewater Treatment and Biological Processes ...............................................................................................46212.15.1 Aerobic Process ..................................................................................................................................46212.15.2 Anaerobic Process ..............................................................................................................................46212.15.3 Anoxic Process ...................................................................................................................................46312.15.4 Photosynthesis ....................................................................................................................................46312.15.5 Growth Cycles ....................................................................................................................................46312.15.6 Biogeochemical Cycles ......................................................................................................................46312.15.7 Carbon Cycle ......................................................................................................................................46412.15.8 Nitrogen Cycle....................................................................................................................................464


Contents

xxiii

12.15.9 Sulfur Cycle........................................................................................................................................46512.15.10 Phosphorus Cycle ...............................................................................................................................465


Chapter 13. Water Ecology ..........................................................................................................................................469

13.1 Introduction .........................................................................................................................................................46913.2 What Is Ecology? ................................................................................................................................................46913.3 Why Is Ecology Important?................................................................................................................................47013.4 Why Study Ecology? ..........................................................................................................................................471

13.4.1 Leaf Processing in Streams................................................................................................................47213.5 History of Ecology..............................................................................................................................................473

13.5.1 Example Ecosystem: Agroecosystem Model.....................................................................................47413.5.1.2 Agroecosystem Characteristics .......................................................................................47513.5.1.3 Ecosystem Pattern and Process.......................................................................................475

13.6 Levels of Organization ........................................................................................................................................47513.7 Ecosystems ..........................................................................................................................................................47613.8 Energy Flow in the Ecosystem ...........................................................................................................................47613.9 Food Chain Efficiency.........................................................................................................................................47813.10 Ecological Pyramids............................................................................................................................................47813.11 Productivity .........................................................................................................................................................47913.12 Population Ecology .............................................................................................................................................48013.13 Stream Genesis and Structure .............................................................................................................................482

13.13.1 Water Flow in a Stream......................................................................................................................48413.13.2 Stream-Water Discharge.....................................................................................................................48413.13.3 Transport of Material..........................................................................................................................48513.13.4 Characteristics of Stream Channels ...................................................................................................48513.13.5 Stream Profiles....................................................................................................................................48513.13.6 Sinuosity .............................................................................................................................................48613.13.7 Bars, Riffles, and Pools ......................................................................................................................48613.13.8 The Floodplain ...................................................................................................................................48613.13.9 Adaptations to Stream Current...........................................................................................................48913.13.10 Types of Adaptive Changes................................................................................................................48913.13.11 Specific Adaptations ...........................................................................................................................490

13.14 Benthic Life.........................................................................................................................................................49013.15 Benthic Plants and Animals ................................................................................................................................49013.16 Benthic Macroinvertebrates.................................................................................................................................491

13.16.1 Identification of Benthic Macroinvertebrates.....................................................................................49213.16.2 Macroinvertebrates and the Food Web ..............................................................................................49313.16.3 Units of Organization .........................................................................................................................493

13.17 Typical Benthic Macroinvertebrates in Running Waters....................................................................................49313.17.1 Insect Macroinvertebrates...................................................................................................................493

13.17.1.1 Mayflies (Order: Ephemeroptera) ...................................................................................49313.17.1.2 Stoneflies (Order: Plecoptera).........................................................................................49413.17.1.3 Caddisflies (Order: Trichoptera) .....................................................................................49413.17.1.4 True Flies (Order: Diptera) .............................................................................................49513.17.1.5 Beetles (Order: Coleoptera) ............................................................................................49613.17.1.6 Water Strider (“Jesus Bugs”) (Order: Hemiptera)..........................................................49713.17.1.7 Alderflies and Dobsonflies (Order: Megaloptera) ..........................................................49713.17.1.8 Dragonflies and Damselflies (Order: Odonata) ..............................................................498

13.17.2 Non-Insect Macroinvertebrates ..........................................................................................................49913.17.2.1 Oligochaeta (Family: Tuificidae, Genus:

Tubifex

)..........................................................49913.17.2.2 Hirudinea (Leeches) ........................................................................................................49913.17.2.3 Gastropoda (Lung-Breathing Snail)................................................................................499


xxiv


Summary of Key Terms ..................................................................................................................................................500Chapter Review Questions ..............................................................................................................................................500References and Suggested Reading ................................................................................................................................500

Chapter 14. Water Quality...........................................................................................................................................503

14.1 Introduction .........................................................................................................................................................50314.2 The Water Cycle..................................................................................................................................................50414.3 Water Quality Standards .....................................................................................................................................505

14.3.1 Clean Water Act .....................................................................................................................................50614.3.2 Safe Drinking Water Act ........................................................................................................................506

14.4 Water Quality Characteristics of Water and Wastewater....................................................................................50614.4.1 Physical Characteristics of Water and Wastewater................................................................................507

14.4.1.1 Solids.....................................................................................................................................50714.4.1.2 Turbidity ................................................................................................................................50814.4.1.3 Color......................................................................................................................................50914.4.1.4 Taste and Odor ......................................................................................................................50914.4.1.5 Temperature...........................................................................................................................510

14.4.2 Chemical Characteristics of Water.........................................................................................................51114.4.2.1 Total Dissolved Solids ..........................................................................................................51114.4.2.2 Alkalinity...............................................................................................................................51114.4.2.3 Hardness ................................................................................................................................51214.4.2.4 Fluoride .................................................................................................................................51214.4.2.5 Metals ....................................................................................................................................51214.4.2.6 Organics.................................................................................................................................51314.4.2.7 Nutrients ................................................................................................................................514

14.4.3 Chemical Characteristics of Wastewater................................................................................................51414.4.3.1 Organic Substances ...............................................................................................................51414.4.3.2 Inorganic Substances.............................................................................................................515

14.4.4 Biological Characteristics of Water and Wastewater.............................................................................51614.4.4.1 Bacteria..................................................................................................................................51714.4.4.2 Viruses...................................................................................................................................51714.4.4.3 Protozoa.................................................................................................................................51714.4.4.4 Worms (Helminths)...............................................................................................................517


Chapter 15. Biomonitoring, Monitoring, Sampling, and Testing ............................................................................519

15.1 What Is Biomonitoring?......................................................................................................................................51915.1.1 Advantages of Using Periphytons..........................................................................................................51915.1.2 Advantages of Using Fish......................................................................................................................51915.1.3 Advantages of Using Macroinvertebrates..............................................................................................520

15.2 Periphyton Protocols ...........................................................................................................................................52015.3 Fish Protocols......................................................................................................................................................52115.4 Macroinvertebrate Protocols ...............................................................................................................................521

15.4.1 The Biotic Index.....................................................................................................................................52215.4.2 Metrics within the Benthic Macroinvertebrates.....................................................................................523

15.5 Biological Sampling in Streams .........................................................................................................................52315.5.1 Biological Sampling Planning ...............................................................................................................52315.5.2 Sampling Stations...................................................................................................................................52415.5.3 Sampling Frequency and Notes .............................................................................................................52515.5.4 Macroinvertebrate Sampling Equipment ...............................................................................................52615.5.5 Macroinvertebrate Sampling in Rocky-Bottom Streams.......................................................................527

15.5.5.1 Rocky-Bottom Habitat Assessment ......................................................................................52815.5.6 Macroinvertebrate Sampling in Muddy-Bottom Streams......................................................................531

15.5.6.1 Muddy-Bottom Stream Habitat Assessment ........................................................................533


Contents

xxv

15.5.7 Post-Sampling Routine.......................................................................................................................53415.5.8 Sampling Devices ...............................................................................................................................535

15.5.8.1 Dissolved Oxygen and Temperature Monitor.................................................................53515.5.8.2 Sampling Nets .................................................................................................................53515.5.8.3 Sediment Samplers (Dredges).........................................................................................53515.5.8.4 Plankton Sampler ............................................................................................................53615.5.8.5 Secchi Disk......................................................................................................................53615.5.8.6 Miscellaneous Sampling Equipment...............................................................................537

15.5.9 The Bottom Line on Biological Sampling.........................................................................................53715.6 Drinking Water Quality Monitoring ...................................................................................................................537

15.6.1 Is the Water Good or Bad?.................................................................................................................53815.6.2 State Water Quality Standards Programs...........................................................................................53915.6.3 Designing a Water Quality Monitoring Program...............................................................................539

15.7 General Preparation and Sampling Considerations ............................................................................................54015.7.1 Cleaning Procedures...........................................................................................................................540

15.7.1.1 Method A: General Preparation of Sampling Containers ..............................................54015.7.1.2 Method B: Acid Wash Procedures..................................................................................540

15.7.2 Sample Types......................................................................................................................................54015.7.3 Collecting Samples from a Stream ....................................................................................................541

15.7.3.1 Whirl-Pak

®

Bags .............................................................................................................54115.7.3.2 Screw-Cap Bottles...........................................................................................................541

15.7.4 Sample Preservation and Storage.......................................................................................................54215.7.5 Standardization of Methods ...............................................................................................................542

15.8 Test Methods for Drinking Water and Wastewater ............................................................................................54215.8.1 Titrimetric Methods............................................................................................................................54215.8.2 Colorimetric Methods.........................................................................................................................54215.8.3 Visual Methods...................................................................................................................................54215.8.4 Electronic Methods.............................................................................................................................54315.8.5 Dissolved Oxygen Testing..................................................................................................................543

15.8.5.1 Sampling and Equipment Considerations.......................................................................54415.8.5.2 Winkler Method (Azide Modification) ...........................................................................54515.8.5.3 Meter and Probe ..............................................................................................................546

15.8.6 Biochemical Oxygen Demand Testing ..............................................................................................54715.8.6.1 Sampling Considerations.................................................................................................54815.8.6.2 BOD Sampling, Analysis, and Testing ...........................................................................54815.8.6.3 BOD

5

Calculation............................................................................................................54915.8.7 Temperature Measurement .................................................................................................................549

15.8.7.1 Sampling and Equipment Considerations.......................................................................55015.8.8 Hardness Measurement ......................................................................................................................55015.8.9 pH Measurement ................................................................................................................................550

15.8.9.1 Analytical and Equipment Considerations .....................................................................55015.8.9.2 pH Meters........................................................................................................................55115.8.9.3 pH “Pocket Pals” and Color Comparators .....................................................................551

15.8.10 Turbidity Measurement ......................................................................................................................55115.8.10.1 Sampling and Equipment Considerations.......................................................................55115.8.10.2 Using a Secchi Disk........................................................................................................55215.8.10.3 Transparency Tube ..........................................................................................................552

15.8.11 Orthophosphate Measurement............................................................................................................55215.8.11.1 Forms of Phosphorus ......................................................................................................55315.8.11.2 The Phosphorus Cycle ....................................................................................................55315.8.11.3 Testing Phosphorus .........................................................................................................55315.8.11.4 Sampling and Equipment Considerations.......................................................................55415.8.11.5 Ascorbic Acid Method for Determining Orthophosphate ..............................................554

15.8.12 Nitrates Measurement.........................................................................................................................55415.8.12.1 Sampling and Equipment Considerations.......................................................................554


xxvi


15.8.12.2 Cadmium Reduction Method..........................................................................................55515.8.12.3 Nitrate Electrode Method................................................................................................555

15.8.13 Solids Measurement ...........................................................................................................................55615.8.13.1 Sampling and Equipment Considerations.......................................................................55615.8.13.2 Total Suspended Solids ...................................................................................................55715.8.13.3 Volatile Suspended Solids Testing ..................................................................................558

15.8.14 Conductivity Testing...........................................................................................................................55815.8.14.1 Sampling, Testing, and Equipment Considerations........................................................559

15.8.15 Total Alkalinity ...................................................................................................................................55915.8.15.1 Analytical and Equipment Considerations .....................................................................560

15.8.16 Fecal Coliform Bacteria Testing ........................................................................................................56015.8.16.1 USEPA’s Total Coliform Rule.........................................................................................56115.8.16.2 Sampling and Equipment Considerations.......................................................................56215.8.16.3 Fecal Coliform Testing....................................................................................................563

15.8.17 Apparent Color Testing/Analysis .......................................................................................................56815.8.18 Odor Analysis of Water ......................................................................................................................56915.8.19 Chlorine Residual Testing/Analysis ...................................................................................................569

15.8.19.1 DPD–Spectrophotometry ................................................................................................57015.8.19.2 DPD–FAS Titration .........................................................................................................57015.8.19.3 Titrimetric–Amperometric Direct Titration ....................................................................571

15.8.20 Fluorides .............................................................................................................................................571Chapter Review Questions ..............................................................................................................................................572References and Suggested Reading ................................................................................................................................572

Part IV. Water and Water Treatment .........................................................................................................................575

Chapter 16. Potable Water Source..............................................................................................................................577

16.1 Introduction .........................................................................................................................................................57716.1.1 Key Terms and Definitions ....................................................................................................................577

16.2 Hydrologic Cycle ................................................................................................................................................57816.3 Sources of Water .................................................................................................................................................57916.4 Surface Water ......................................................................................................................................................579

16.4.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of Surface Water .............................................................................57916.4.2 Surface Water Hydrology ...................................................................................................................58016.4.3 Raw Water Storage .............................................................................................................................58016.4.4 Surface Water Intakes.........................................................................................................................58016.4.5 Surface Water Screens........................................................................................................................58116.4.6 Surface Water Quality ........................................................................................................................582

16.5 Groundwater ........................................................................................................................................................58416.5.1 Groundwater Quality ..........................................................................................................................586

16.6 Groundwater under the Direct Influence of Surface Water ..............................................................................58616.7 Surface Water Quality and Treatment Requirements .........................................................................................586

16.7.1 Stage 1 D/DBP Rule ..........................................................................................................................58716.7.2 Interim Enhanced Surface Water Treatment (IESWT) Rule .............................................................58816.7.3 Regulatory Deadlines .........................................................................................................................588

16.8 Public Water System Quality Requirements.......................................................................................................58816.9 Well Systems .......................................................................................................................................................588

16.9.1 Well Site Requirements ......................................................................................................................58916.9.2 Type of Wells......................................................................................................................................589

16.9.2.1 Shallow Wells ..................................................................................................................58916.9.2.2 Deep Wells.......................................................................................................................590

16.9.3 Components of a Well ........................................................................................................................59016.9.3.1 Well Casing .....................................................................................................................59016.9.3.2 Grout................................................................................................................................59016.9.3.3 Well Pad ..........................................................................................................................590


Contents

xxvii

16.9.3.4 Sanitary Seal .........................................................................................................................59016.9.3.5 Well Screen ...........................................................................................................................59016.9.3.6 Casing Vent ...........................................................................................................................59016.9.3.7 Drop Pipe ..............................................................................................................................59016.9.3.8 Miscellaneous Well Components..........................................................................................591

16.9.4 Well Evaluation ......................................................................................................................................59116.9.5 Well Pumps.............................................................................................................................................59216.9.6 Routine Operation and Recordkeeping Requirements ..........................................................................59216.9.7 Well Maintenance...................................................................................................................................593

16.9.7.1 Troubleshooting Well Problems............................................................................................59316.9.8 Well Abandonment .................................................................................................................................593


Chapter 17. Watershed Protection ..............................................................................................................................595

17.1 Introduction .........................................................................................................................................................59517.2 Current Issues in Water Management.................................................................................................................59517.3 What Is a Watershed?..........................................................................................................................................596

17.3.1 Water Quality Impact .............................................................................................................................59617.4 Watershed Protection and Regulations ...............................................................................................................59617.5 A Watershed Protection Plan ..............................................................................................................................59717.6 Reservoir Management Practices........................................................................................................................59717.7 Watershed Management Practices.......................................................................................................................59717.8 Eight Tools of Watershed Protection ..................................................................................................................597

17.8.1 Tool 1—Land Use Planning ..................................................................................................................59817.8.2 Tool 2—Land Conservation ...................................................................................................................59817.8.3 Tool 3—Aquatic Buffers........................................................................................................................59917.8.4 Tool 4—Better Site Design....................................................................................................................59917.8.5 Tool 5—Erosion and Sediment Control ................................................................................................60017.8.6 Tool 6—Stormwater Management Practices .........................................................................................60017.8.7 Tool 7—Non-Stormwater Discharges....................................................................................................60017.8.8 Tool 8—Watershed Stewardship Programs ...........................................................................................601


Chapter 18. Water Treatment Operations..................................................................................................................603

18.1 Introduction .........................................................................................................................................................60318.2 Waterworks Operators .........................................................................................................................................60318.3 Purpose of Water Treatment................................................................................................................................60418.4 Stages of Water Treatment ..................................................................................................................................60418.5 Pretreatment.........................................................................................................................................................605

18.5.1 Aeration ..................................................................................................................................................60518.5.2 Screening ................................................................................................................................................60618.5.3 Chemical Addition..................................................................................................................................606

18.5.3.1 Chemical Solutions ...............................................................................................................60618.5.3.2 Chemical Feeders..................................................................................................................60818.5.3.3 Types of Chemical Feeders...................................................................................................60818.5.3.4 Chemical Feeder Calibration ................................................................................................60818.5.3.5 Calibration Procedures..........................................................................................................60818.5.3.6 Iron and Manganese Removal ..............................................................................................60918.5.3.7 Iron and Manganese Removal Techniques...........................................................................61018.5.3.8 Hardness Treatment...............................................................................................................61118.5.3.9 Corrosion...............................................................................................................................61218.5.3.10 Corrosion Control .................................................................................................................613

18.6 Coagulation..........................................................................................................................................................614


xxviii


18.7 Flocculation .........................................................................................................................................................61618.8 Sedimentation ......................................................................................................................................................61718.9 Filtration ..............................................................................................................................................................617

18.9.1 Types of Filter Technologies ..............................................................................................................61818.9.1.1 Slow Sand Filters ............................................................................................................61818.9.1.2 Rapid Sand Filters...........................................................................................................61918.9.1.3 Pressure Filter Systems ...................................................................................................61918.9.1.4 Diatomaceous Earth Filters.............................................................................................61918.9.1.5 Direct Filtration ...............................................................................................................62018.9.1.6 Alternative Filters............................................................................................................620

18.9.2 Common Filter Problems ...................................................................................................................62018.9.3 Filtration and Compliance with Turbidity Requirements (IESWTR) ...............................................621

18.9.3.1 IESWTR Regulatory Requirements................................................................................62118.9.3.2 Reporting and Recordkeeping.........................................................................................62218.9.3.3 Additional Compliance Issues ........................................................................................62418.9.3.4 Variances and Exemptions ..............................................................................................626

18.10 Disinfection .........................................................................................................................................................62618.10.1 Need for Disinfection in Water Treatment.........................................................................................62718.10.2 Pathogens of Primary Concern ..........................................................................................................62818.10.3 Recent Waterborne Outbreaks............................................................................................................629

18.10.3.1

Escherichia coli

...............................................................................................................62918.10.3.2

Giardia lamblia

...............................................................................................................63018.10.3.3

Cryptosporidium

..............................................................................................................63018.10.3.4

Legionella pneumophila

..................................................................................................63018.10.4 Mechanism of Pathogen Inactivation.................................................................................................63018.10.5 Other Uses of Disinfectants in Water Treatment...............................................................................631

18.10.5.1 Minimization of Disinfection Byproduct Formation......................................................63118.10.5.2 Control of Nuisance Asiatic Clams and Zebra Mussels ................................................63118.10.5.3 Oxidation of Iron and Manganese ..................................................................................63218.10.5.4 Prevention of Regrowth in the Distribution System

and Maintenance of Biological Stability .........................................................................63218.10.5.5 Removal of Taste and Odors through Chemical Oxidation ...........................................63318.10.5.6 Improvement of Coagulation and Filtration Efficiency..................................................63418.10.5.7 Prevention of Algal Growth in Sedimentation Basins and Filters .................................63418.10.5.8 Removal of Color............................................................................................................634

18.10.6 Types of Disinfection Byproducts and Disinfection Residuals.........................................................63418.10.7 Disinfection Byproduct Formation.....................................................................................................635

18.10.7.1 DBP Precursors ...............................................................................................................63518.10.7.2 Impacts of pH on DBP Formation..................................................................................63618.10.7.3 Organic Oxidation Byproducts .......................................................................................63618.10.7.4 Inorganic Byproducts and Disinfectants.........................................................................637

18.10.8 Disinfection Byproduct Control .........................................................................................................63718.10.8.1 Source Water Quality Control.........................................................................................63718.10.8.2 DBP Precursor Removal .................................................................................................637

18.10.9 Disinfection Strategy Selection..........................................................................................................63818.10.10 CT Factor............................................................................................................................................63818.10.11 Disinfectant Residual Regulatory Requirements ...............................................................................63918.10.12 Summary of Current National Disinfection Practices .......................................................................63918.10.13 Summary of Methods of Disinfection ...............................................................................................64018.10.14 Chlorination ........................................................................................................................................640

18.10.14.1 Chlorine Terminology .....................................................................................................64118.10.14.2 Chlorine Chemistry .........................................................................................................64218.10.14.3 Breakpoint Chlorination..................................................................................................64218.10.14.4 Breakpoint Chlorination Curve.......................................................................................64218.10.14.5 Gas Chlorination .............................................................................................................643


Contents

xxix

18.10.14.6 Hypochlorination ..........................................................................................................64418.10.14.7 Determining Chlorine Dosage ......................................................................................64418.10.14.8 Chlorine Generation......................................................................................................64618.10.14.9 Primary Uses and Points of Application of Chlorine ..................................................64718.10.14.10 Factors Affecting Chlorination .....................................................................................64818.10.14.11 Measuring Residual Chlorine .......................................................................................64818.10.14.12 Pathogen Inactivation and Disinfection Efficacy .........................................................64818.10.14.13 Disinfection Byproducts ...............................................................................................65018.10.14.14 Application Methods.....................................................................................................65118.10.14.15 Safety and Handling Considerations ............................................................................65118.10.14.16 Advantages and Disadvantages of Chlorine Use .........................................................65118.10.14.17 Chlorine Summary Table ..............................................................................................652

18.11 Arsenic Removal from Drinking Water..............................................................................................................65318.11.1 Arsenic Exposure................................................................................................................................65318.11.2 Arsenic Removal Technologies..........................................................................................................653

18.11.2.1 Prescriptive Processes ...................................................................................................65318.11.2.2 Adsorptive Processes ....................................................................................................65518.11.2.3 Membrane Processes.....................................................................................................65618.11.2.4 Alternative Technologies ..............................................................................................656

18.12 Who Is Ultimately Responsible for Drinking Water Quality?...........................................................................658Chapter Review Questions ..............................................................................................................................................659References and Suggested Reading ................................................................................................................................661

Part V. Wastewater and Wastewater Treatment ........................................................................................................665

Chapter 19. Wastewater Treatment Operations ........................................................................................................667

19.1 Wastewater Operators..........................................................................................................................................66719.1.1 The Wastewater Treatment Process: The Model ...............................................................................667

19.2 Wastewater Terminology and Definitions...........................................................................................................66719.3 Measuring Plant Performance.............................................................................................................................670

19.3.1 Plant Performance and Efficiency......................................................................................................67019.3.2 Unit Process Performance and Efficiency .........................................................................................67119.3.3 Percent Volatile Matter Reduction in Sludge.....................................................................................67119.3.4 Hydraulic Detention Time..................................................................................................................671

19.3.4.1 Detention Time in Days................................................................................................67119.3.4.2 Detention Time in Hours ..............................................................................................67119.3.4.3 Detention Time in Minutes...........................................................................................671

19.4 Wastewater Sources and Characteristics.............................................................................................................67219.4.1 Wastewater Sources ............................................................................................................................672

19.4.1.1 Generation of Wastewater.............................................................................................67219.4.1.2 Classification of Wastewater.........................................................................................673

19.4.2 Wastewater Characteristics.................................................................................................................67319.4.2.1 Physical Characteristics ................................................................................................67319.4.2.2 Chemical Characteristics ..............................................................................................67319.4.2.3 Biological Characteristics and Processes .....................................................................674

19.5 Wastewater Collection Systems ..........................................................................................................................67519.5.1 Gravity Collection System .................................................................................................................67519.5.2 Force Main Collection System...........................................................................................................67519.5.3 Vacuum System ..................................................................................................................................67519.5.4 Pumping Stations................................................................................................................................675

19.5.4.1 Wet-Well/Dry-Well Pumping Stations..........................................................................67519.5.4.2 Wet-Well Pumping Stations..........................................................................................67519.5.4.3 Pneumatic Pumping Stations ........................................................................................676

19.5.5 Wet-Well Pumping Station Calculations............................................................................................676


xxx


19.6 Preliminary Treatment.........................................................................................................................................67719.6.1 Screening...............................................................................................................................................677

19.6.1.1 Manually Cleaned Screens ...................................................................................................67719.6.1.2 Mechanically Cleaned Screens .............................................................................................67819.6.1.3 Screening Safety ...................................................................................................................67819.6.1.4 Screenings Removal Computations ......................................................................................678

19.6.2 Shredding ..............................................................................................................................................67819.6.2.1 Comminution.........................................................................................................................67919.6.2.2 Barminution...........................................................................................................................679

19.6.3 Grit Removal.........................................................................................................................................67919.6.3.1 Gravity/Velocity-Controlled Grit Removal...........................................................................67919.6.3.2 Aeration.................................................................................................................................68019.6.3.3 Centrifugal Force ..................................................................................................................68019.6.3.4 Grit Removal Calculations....................................................................................................681

19.6.4 Preaeration ............................................................................................................................................68119.6.4.1 Operational Observations, Problems, and Troubleshooting.................................................682

19.6.5 Chemical Addition ................................................................................................................................68219.6.5.1 Operational Observations, Problems, and Troubleshooting.................................................682

19.6.6 Equalization ..........................................................................................................................................68219.6.6.1 Operational Observations, Problems, and Troubleshooting.................................................682

19.6.7 Aerated Systems ...................................................................................................................................68219.6.8 Cyclone Degritter..................................................................................................................................68219.6.9 Preliminary Treatment Sampling and Testing......................................................................................68219.6.10 Other Preliminary Treatment Process Control Calculations................................................................682

19.7 Primary Treatment (Sedimentation)....................................................................................................................68419.7.1 Process Description ................................................................................................................................68419.7.2 Overview of Primary Treatment ............................................................................................................68419.7.3 Types of Sedimentation Tanks ...............................................................................................................685

19.7.3.1 Septic Tanks ..........................................................................................................................68519.7.3.2 Two-Story (Imhoff) Tank......................................................................................................68519.7.3.3 Plain Settling Tanks (Clarifiers)............................................................................................685

19.7.4 Operator Observations, Problems, and Troubleshooting.......................................................................68519.7.4.1 Primary Clarification: Normal Operation.............................................................................68519.7.4.2 Primary Clarification: Operational Parameters (Normal Observations) ..............................686

19.7.5 Process Control Calculations .................................................................................................................68619.7.5.1 Percent Removal ...................................................................................................................68619.7.5.2 Detention Time......................................................................................................................68619.7.5.3 Surface Overflow Rate (Surface Settling Rate, Surface Loading Rate) ..............................68619.7.5.4 Weir Overflow Rate (Weir Loading Rate)............................................................................68719.7.5.5 Sludge Pumping ....................................................................................................................68719.7.5.6 Percent Total Solids (%TS) ..................................................................................................68719.7.5.7 BOD and SS Removal ..........................................................................................................687

19.7.6 Problem Analysis....................................................................................................................................68819.7.6.1 Causal Factors for Poor Suspended Solids Removal (Primary Clarifier)............................68819.7.6.2 Causal Factors for Floating Sludge ......................................................................................68819.7.6.3 Causal Factors for Septic Wastewater or Sludge .................................................................68819.7.6.4 Causal Factors for Too Low Primary Sludge Solids Concentrations ..................................68819.7.6.5 Causal Factors for Too High Primary Sludge Solids Concentrations .................................688

19.7.7 Effluent from Settling Tanks ..................................................................................................................68819.8 Secondary Treatment...........................................................................................................................................689

19.8.1 Treatment Ponds.....................................................................................................................................68919.8.1.1 Types of Ponds......................................................................................................................68919.8.1.2 Ponds Based on Location and Types of Wastes They Receive ...........................................68919.8.1.3 Ponds Based on the Type of Processes Occurring Within...................................................69119.8.1.4 Process Control Calculations for Stabilization Ponds..........................................................691


Contents

xxxi

19.8.2 Trickling Filters ......................................................................................................................................69219.8.2.1 Trickling Filter Definitions ...................................................................................................69219.8.2.2 Trickling Filter Equipment ...................................................................................................69419.8.2.3 Filter Classifications..............................................................................................................69419.8.2.4 Standard Operating Procedures ............................................................................................69519.8.2.5 General Process Description.................................................................................................69519.8.2.6 Overview and Brief Summary of Trickling Filter Process ..................................................69619.8.2.7 Operator Observations ..........................................................................................................69619.8.2.8 Process Control Sampling and Testing.................................................................................69719.8.2.9 Troubleshooting Operational Problems ................................................................................69719.8.2.10 Process Calculations .............................................................................................................699

19.8.3 Rotating Biological Contactors..............................................................................................................70019.8.3.1 RBC Equipment ....................................................................................................................70119.8.3.2 RBC Operation......................................................................................................................70119.8.3.3 RBC Expected Performance .................................................................................................70219.8.3.4 Operator Observations ..........................................................................................................70219.8.3.5 RBC Process Control Sampling and Testing .......................................................................70219.8.3.6 Troubleshooting Operational Problems ................................................................................70219.8.3.7 RBC Process Control Calculations.......................................................................................702

19.9 Activated Sludge...................................................................................................................................................70419.9.1 Activated Sludge Terminology...............................................................................................................70419.9.2 Activated Sludge Process Equipment ....................................................................................................706

19.9.2.1 Aeration Tank........................................................................................................................70619.9.2.2 Aeration.................................................................................................................................70619.9.2.3 Settling Tank .........................................................................................................................70619.9.2.4 Return Sludge........................................................................................................................70619.9.2.5 Waste Sludge.........................................................................................................................707

19.9.3 Overview of Activated Sludge Process..................................................................................................70719.9.4 Factors Affecting Operation of the Activated Sludge Process ..............................................................70719.9.5 Growth Curve .........................................................................................................................................70719.9.6 Activated Sludge Formation...................................................................................................................70719.9.7 Activated Sludge Performance-Controlling Factors ..............................................................................708

19.9.7.1 Aeration.................................................................................................................................70819.9.7.2 Alkalinity...............................................................................................................................70819.9.7.3 Nutrients ................................................................................................................................70819.9.7.4 pH..........................................................................................................................................70819.9.7.5 Temperature...........................................................................................................................70819.9.7.6 Toxicity..................................................................................................................................70819.9.7.7 Hydraulic Loading ................................................................................................................70819.9.7.8 Organic Loading ...................................................................................................................709

19.9.8 Activated Sludge Modifications .............................................................................................................70919.9.9 Activated Sludge Process Control Parameters.......................................................................................710

19.9.9.1 Alkalinity...............................................................................................................................71019.9.9.2 Dissolved Oxygen (DO) .......................................................................................................71019.9.9.3 pH..........................................................................................................................................71019.9.9.4 Mixed Liquor Suspended Solids, Mixed Liquor Volatile Suspended

Solids, and Mixed Liquor Total Suspended Solids ..............................................................71019.9.9.5 Return Activated Sludge Rate and Concentration................................................................71119.9.9.6 Waste Activated Sludge Flow Rate ......................................................................................71119.9.9.7 Temperature...........................................................................................................................71119.9.9.8 Sludge Blanket Depth ...........................................................................................................711

19.9.10 Activated Sludge Operational Control Levels .......................................................................................71119.9.10.1 Influent Characteristics .........................................................................................................71119.9.10.2 Industrial Contributions .......................................................................................................71119.9.10.3 Process Sidestreams .............................................................................................................712


xxxii


19.9.10.4 Seasonal Variations ............................................................................................................71219.9.10.5 Control Levels at Startup...................................................................................................712

19.9.11 Visual Indicators for Influent or Aeration Tanks .................................................................................71219.9.11.1 Turbulence..........................................................................................................................71219.9.11.2 Surface Foam and Scum....................................................................................................71219.9.11.3 Sludge Color and Odor......................................................................................................71219.9.11.4 Mixed Liquor Color...........................................................................................................713

19.9.12 Final Settling Tank (Clarifier) Observations ........................................................................................71319.9.13 Process Control Sampling and Testing.................................................................................................713

19.9.13.1 Aeration Influent and Effluent Sampling ..........................................................................71319.9.13.2 Aeration Tank ....................................................................................................................71419.9.13.3 Interpretation......................................................................................................................71419.9.13.4 Settling Tank Influent ........................................................................................................71619.9.13.5 Settling Tank ......................................................................................................................71719.9.13.6 Settling Tank Effluent ........................................................................................................71719.9.13.7 Return Activated Sludge and Waste Activated Sludge .....................................................71819.9.13.8 Process Control Adjustments.............................................................................................71819.9.13.9 Troubleshooting Operational Problems.............................................................................71819.9.13.10 Process Control Calculations.............................................................................................718

19.9.14 Solids Concentration: Secondary Clarifier ...........................................................................................72619.9.15 Activated Sludge Process Recordkeeping Requirements.....................................................................726

19.10 Disinfection of Wastewater .................................................................................................................................72619.10.1 Chlorine Disinfection............................................................................................................................727

19.10.1.1 Chlorination Terminology .................................................................................................72719.10.1.2 Wastewater Chlorination Facts ..........................................................................................72719.10.1.3 Water Chlorination Process Description ...........................................................................72819.10.1.4 Chlorination Equipment ....................................................................................................72819.10.1.5 Chlorination Operation ......................................................................................................72819.10.1.6 Troubleshooting Operation Problems................................................................................72819.10.1.7 Chlorination Environmental Hazards and Safety..............................................................72919.10.1.8 Chlorination Process Calculations.....................................................................................732

19.10.2 Ultraviolet Irradiation ...........................................................................................................................73419.10.3 Ozonation ..............................................................................................................................................73519.10.4 Bromine Chloride .................................................................................................................................73519.10.5 No Disinfection.....................................................................................................................................735

19.11 Advanced Wastewater Treatment ........................................................................................................................73519.11.1 Chemical Treatment ..............................................................................................................................736

19.11.1.1 Operational Observations, Problems, and Troubleshooting..............................................73619.11.2 Microscreening......................................................................................................................................736

19.11.2.1 Operational Observations, Problems, and Troubleshooting..............................................73719.11.3 Filtration................................................................................................................................................737

19.11.3.1 Filtration Process Description ...........................................................................................73819.11.3.2 Operational Observations, Problems, and Troubleshooting..............................................738

19.11.4 Biological Nitrification .........................................................................................................................73919.11.4.1 Operational Observations, Problems, and Troubleshooting..............................................739

19.11.5 Biological Denitrification .....................................................................................................................73919.11.5.1 Operational Observations, Problems, and Troubleshooting..............................................740

19.11.6 Carbon Adsorption................................................................................................................................74019.11.6.1 Operational Observations, Problems, and Troubleshooting..............................................740

19.11.7 Land Application...................................................................................................................................74019.11.7.1 Types and Modes of Land Application.............................................................................74119.11.7.2 Operational Observations, Problems, and Troubleshooting..............................................742

19.11.8 Biological Nutrient Removal ................................................................................................................742


Contents

xxxiii

19.11.9 Enhanced Biological Nutrient Removal.............................................................................................74219.11.9.1 0.5-MGD Capacity Plant ................................................................................................74219.11.9.2 1.5-MGD Capacity Plant ................................................................................................74219.11.9.3 1.55-MGD Capacity Plant ..............................................................................................74419.11.9.4 2-MGD Capacity Plant ...................................................................................................74419.11.9.5 2.6-MGD Capacity Plant ................................................................................................74419.11.9.6 3-MGD Capacity Plant ...................................................................................................74419.11.9.7 4.8-MGD Capacity Plant ................................................................................................74419.11.9.8 5-MGD Capacity Plant ...................................................................................................74519.11.9.9 24-MGD Capacity Plant .................................................................................................74519.11.9.10 39-MGD Capacity Plant .................................................................................................74519.11.9.11 42-MGD Capacity Plant .................................................................................................74519.11.9.12 54-MGD Capacity Plant .................................................................................................74519.11.9.13 67-MGD Capacity Plant .................................................................................................745

19.12 Solids (Sludge/Biosolids) Handling....................................................................................................................74619.12.1 Sludge: Background Information.......................................................................................................74619.12.2 Sources of Sludge...............................................................................................................................74619.12.3 Sludge Characteristics ........................................................................................................................74719.12.4 Sludge Pumping Calculations ............................................................................................................748

19.12.4.1 Estimating Daily Sludge Production ..............................................................................74819.12.4.2 Sludge Pumping Time.....................................................................................................74819.12.4.3 Gallons Sludge Pumped per Day....................................................................................74819.12.4.4 Pounds Sludge Pumped per Day ....................................................................................74819.12.4.5 Pounds Solids Pumped per Day .....................................................................................74819.12.4.6 Pounds Volatile Matter (VM) Pumped per Day .............................................................74919.12.4.7 Sludge Production in Pounds per Million Gallons ........................................................74919.12.4.8 Sludge Production in Wet Tons per Year........................................................................749

19.12.5 Sludge Thickening..............................................................................................................................75019.12.5.1 Gravity Thickening..........................................................................................................75019.12.5.2 Flotation Thickening .......................................................................................................75019.12.5.3 Solids Concentrators .......................................................................................................75119.12.5.4 Operational Observations, Problems, and Troubleshooting ...........................................75119.12.5.5 Process Calculations (Gravity and Dissolved Air Flotation) .........................................751

19.12.6 Sludge Stabilization............................................................................................................................75319.12.6.1 Aerobic Digestion ...........................................................................................................75319.12.6.2 Process Control Calculations for the Aerobic Digester .................................................75319.12.6.3 Anaerobic Digestion........................................................................................................75419.12.6.4 Process Control Monitoring, Testing, and Troubleshooting...........................................75619.12.6.5 Process Control Calculations for the Anaerobic Digester..............................................75619.12.6.6 Other Sludge Stabilization Processes .............................................................................75819.12.6.7 Stabilization Operation....................................................................................................75819.12.6.8 Stabilization Performance Factors ..................................................................................75819.12.6.9 Operational Observations, Problems, and Troubleshooting ...........................................759

19.12.7 Rotary Vacuum Filtration ...................................................................................................................75919.12.7.1 Types of Rotary Vacuum Filters .....................................................................................75919.12.7.2 Operational Observations, Problems, and Troubleshooting ...........................................76019.12.7.3 Process Control Calculations ..........................................................................................760

19.12.8 Pressure Filtration...............................................................................................................................76119.12.8.1 Operational Observations, Problems, and Troubleshooting ...........................................76219.12.8.2 Filter Press Process Control Calculations.......................................................................763

19.12.9 Centrifugation .....................................................................................................................................76319.12.9.1 Operational Observations, Problems, and Troubleshooting ...........................................763

19.12.10 Sludge Incineration.............................................................................................................................764


xxxiv


19.12.10.1 Process Description.......................................................................................................76419.12.10.2 Incineration Processes...................................................................................................76419.12.10.3 Operational Observations, Problems, and Troubleshooting.........................................764

19.12.11 Land Application of Biosolids ...........................................................................................................76519.12.11.1 Process Control: Sampling and Testing .......................................................................76719.12.11.2 Process Control Calculations........................................................................................767

19.13 Permits, Records, and Reports............................................................................................................................76819.13.1 Definitions...........................................................................................................................................76819.13.2 NPDES Permits ..................................................................................................................................769

19.13.2.1 Monitoring ....................................................................................................................76919.13.2.2 Reporting.......................................................................................................................769

19.13.3 Sampling and Testing .........................................................................................................................77019.13.3.1 Effluent Limitations ......................................................................................................77019.13.3.2 Compliance Schedules ..................................................................................................77019.13.3.3 Special Conditions ........................................................................................................77019.13.3.4 Licensed Operator Requirements .................................................................................77019.13.3.5 Chlorination/Dechlorination Reporting ........................................................................770

19.13.4 Reporting Calculations .......................................................................................................................77019.13.4.1 Average Monthly Concentration...................................................................................77019.13.4.2 Average Weekly Concentration ....................................................................................77019.13.4.3 Average Hourly Concentration .....................................................................................77119.13.4.4 Daily Quantity (kg/day)................................................................................................77119.13.4.5 Average Monthly Quantity ...........................................................................................77119.13.4.6 Average Weekly Quantity .............................................................................................77119.13.4.7 Minimum Concentration...............................................................................................77119.13.4.8 Maximum Concentration ..............................................................................................77119.13.4.9 Bacteriological Reporting .............................................................................................771


Appendix A. Answers to Chapter Review Questions ................................................................................................777

Appendix B. Formulae..................................................................................................................................................791


xxxv

Preface

Water is the new oil.

Water is a carrier of things it picks up as it passesthrough—it carries the good and the bad.

When I wrote the first edition to this text and it waspublished, I had no idea it would be so well received andbecome an instant bestseller. Hailed on its first publicationas a real-world practical handbook for general readers,students, and water/wastewater practitioners, the

Hand-book of Water and Wastewater Treatment Plant Opera-tions

continues to make the same basic point in its secondedition: Water and wastewater operators must be Jacks orJills of many trades; that is, they must have basic skillsets best described as being all encompassing in nature.In light of the need for practitioners in the field who arewell rounded in the sciences, cyber operations, math,mechanics, and technical aspects of water treatment, thesecond edition picks up where the original left off.

Based on constructive criticism of the first edition, thesecond edition has been upgraded and expanded frombeginning to end. Many reviewers appreciated the candidportrayal of regulatory, privatization, management, andother ongoing current issues within the water/wastewaterindustry. With regard to privatization, this book recognizesthat critics of privatization insist that water/wastewateroperations are too important to be left to the mercies ofprivate enterprise. It is my premise, however, thatwater/wastewater operations are too important

not

to besubject to market forces. In my opinion, the debate shouldnot be about taking the supply, treatment, reuse, and dis-tribution of water/wastewater away from perhaps dysfunc-tional public service agencies and implementing pricing,property rights, and private, competent enterprise instead,but over how best to do so. Based on actual personalexperience in water/wastewater public sector operations,one thing seems certain to me: I have found that engineers,biologist, chemists, environmental scientists, hydrologists,and other public-service technical officials generally knowlittle, and usually care even less, about markets and rate-payers. In a nutshell, even though the original edition tooka hard-line, no-nonsense look at problems engendered bycurrent management and various dysfunctional manage-ment styles unique to the industry, the second edition takesan even more penetrating look at these problems. This isespecially the case with regard to management problemswithin the public sector entities involved in water andwastewater operations. Simply, it is the author’s view,

based on personal experience, that, when it comes to waterand wastewater public service managers, relevance andcommon sense are rare commodities.

In addition to a no-holds-barred look at current man-agement issues, the second edition includes the latest secu-rity information pertinent to protecting public assets fromthe indiscriminate and destructive hand of terrorism. As aresult of the events of September 11, 2001, things havechanged for all freedom-loving people everywhere. Howmany of us thought security was a big deal prior to 9/11?Some of us did, but some of us didn’t give it any thoughtat all. Today, we must adjust or fall behind. In the currentclimate, falling behind on keeping our potable water sup-plies secure is not an option. We must aggressively protectour precious water sources and those ancillaries that arecritical to maintaining and protecting water quality.Because water and wastewater operations are listed by theDepartment of Homeland Security as one of this nation’s13 critical infrastructures, water and wastewater practitio-ners must realize and understand that the threat of terror-ism is real. Accordingly, extensive coverage of securityneeds is provided in this edition.

In addition to more in-depth coverage of managementaspects and security, the second edition includes a newchapter covering the basics of blueprint reading. This isa critical area of expertise that is important for mainte-nance operators and others. Also, the chapter on waterand wastewater mathematics has been tripled in size andnow contains an additional 200 example problems and350 math system operational problems with solutions.These examples and operational math problems are typ-ical of those seen on water and wastewater licensureexaminations used throughout the United States. Everychapter has been upgraded to include emerging technol-ogies pertinent to the content presented. Practical hands-on information necessary for proper plant operation isprovided that will also help readers obtain passing scoreson licensure examinations.

The text follows a pattern that is nontraditional; thatis, the paradigm (i.e., model or prototype) used here isbased on real-world experience and proven parameters—not on theoretical gobbledygook. Clearly written and userfriendly, this timely revision of the handbook builds onthe remarkable success of the first edition. Still intendedto serve as an information source, this text is not limitedin its potential for other uses. This work can be utilizedby water/wastewater practitioners to gain valuable insightinto the substance they work so hard to collect, treat,


xxxvi


supply, reuse, or discharge for its intended purpose, but itcan just as easily provide important information for poli-cymakers who may be tasked with making decisions con-cerning water or wastewater resource utilization. Conse-quently, this book serves a varied audience: students, laypersonnel, regulators, technical experts, attorneys, busi-ness leaders, and concerned citizens.

This text is not about the planning, designing, or con-struction of water and wastewater treatment facilities.Although these tasks are of paramount importance duringthe conception and construction of facilities and infra-structures, many excellent texts are already available thataddress these topics. This text is not about engineering atall. Instead, this handbook is about operations and isdesigned for the plant manager and plant operator. Weoften forget the old axiom: “Someone must build it, butonce built, someone must operate it.” It is the operationof

it

that concerns us here.With regard to plant managers and operators, most texts

ignore, avoid, or pay cursory attention to such importantareas as the multiple-barrier concept, maintaining infra-structure, benchmarking, plant security, operator roles,water hydraulics, microbiology, water ecology, math oper-ations, basic electrical principles, pumping, conveyance,flow measurement, basic water chemistry, water qualityissues, biomonitoring, sampling and testing, water sources,

and watershed protection. All of these important topics arethoroughly discussed in the second edition of the

Handbookof Water and Wastewater Treatment Plant Operations

.To maximize the usefulness of the material contained

in the text, it has been presented in plain English in asimplified and concise format. Many tables have beendeveloped, using a variety of sources. Moreover, to ensureits relevance to modern practice and design, illustrativeproblems are presented in terms of commonly used oper-ational parameters.

Each chapter ends with chapter review questions tohelp evaluate the reader’s mastery of the concepts pre-sented. Before going on to the next chapter, work throughthe questions, compare your answers to the key providedin Appendix A, and review the pertinent information forany problems you missed. If you miss many items, reviewthe entire chapter.

This text is accessible to those who have no experiencewith water or wastewater operations. If you work throughthe text systematically, an understanding of and skill inwater/wastewater operations can be acquired—adding acritical component to your professional knowledge.

Frank R. Spellman

Old Dominion UniversityNorfolk, VA


xxxvii

To the Reader

While reading this text, you are going to spend sometime following water on its travels.

Even after being held in bondage, sometimes for eons,eventually water moves.

Do you have any idea where this water has been? Where this water is going?What changes it has undergone, during all the long

ages that the water has lain on and under the face of theEarth?

Sometimes we can look at this water … analyze thiswater … test this water to find out where it has been.

Water, because it is the universal solvent, has a ten-dency to pick up materials through which it flows.

When this happens, we must sometimes treat the waterbefore we consume it.

Whether this is the case or not, water continues itsendless cycle.

And for us this is the best of news.So, again, do you have any idea where water has been?More importantly, where is the water going?

If we could first know where we are and wither we aretending, we could better judge what we do and how to do it.

—Abraham Lincoln


xxxix

Author

Frank R. Spellman

, Ph.D., is assistant professor of Envi-ronmental Health at Old Dominion University, Norfolk,VA, and the author of 55 books. Dr. Spellman’s booktopics range from concentrated animal feeding operations(CAFOs) to all areas of environmental science and occu-pational health. Many of Dr. Spellman’s texts are listedon Amazon.com and Barnes and Noble. Several of histexts have been adopted for classroom use at major uni-versities throughout the United States, Canada, Europe,and Russia; two of them are currently being translated intoSpanish for South American markets.

Dr. Spellman has been cited in more than 400 publi-cations. He serves as a professional expert witness for threelaw groups and as an accident investigator for a northernVirginia law firm. He also consults on homeland security

vulnerability assessments (VAs) for critical infrastructure,including water/wastewater facilities nationwide. Dr.Spellman has joined many well-recognized experts in con-tributing to texts in several scientific fields; for example,he is a contributor to the second edition of the prestigioustext

The Engineering Handbook

(CRC Press).Dr. Spellman lectures on sewage treatment, water

treatment, homeland security, and health and safety top-ics throughout the country and teaches water/wastewateroperator short courses at Virginia Tech (Blacksburg, VA).He has earned a bachelor of arts in Public Administra-tion, bachelor of science in Business Management, mas-ter of business administration, master of science in Envi-ronmental Engineering, and doctorate in EnvironmentalEngineering.


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