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AN INTERPRETIVE TACIT KNOWLEDGE EXPLORATION OF MALAYSIAN

ACADEMICIANS

HARYANI BINTI HARON

UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MALAYSIA

"I hereby declare that I have read this

sufficient in terms of scope and quality

Philosophy (Computer Science)."

thesis and in my opinion this thesis is

for the award of the desree Doctor of

' lt lpt

Signature

Name of Supervisor

Date

BAHAGIAN A – Pengesahan Kerjasama*

Adalah disahkan bahawa projek penyelidikan tesis ini telah dilaksanakan melalui kerjasama antara

_______________________ dengan _______________________

Disahkan oleh:

Tandatangan : Tarikh :

Nama :

Jawatan :(Cop rasmi)

* Jika penyediaan tesis/projek melibatkan kerjasama.

BAHAGIAN B – Untuk Kegunaan Pejabat Sekolah Pengajian Siswazah

Tesis ini telah diperiksa dan diakui oleh:

Nama dan AlamatPemeriksa Luar : Prof. Dr. Han Chun Kwong

Fakulti Ekonomi & Pengurusan,Universiti Putra Malaysia,43400 UPM Serdang, Selangor.

Nama dan AlamatPemeriksa Dalam I :

Pemeriksa Dalam II :

Prof. Dr. Ahmad Zaki bin Abu BakarFakulti Sains Komputer dan Sistem Maklumat,UTM, Skudai

Nama Penyelia lain :(jika ada)

Disahkan oleh Timbalan Pendaftar di Sekolah Pengajian Siswazah:

Tandatangan : Tarikh :

Nama : KHASIM BIN ISMAIL

AN INTERPRETIVE TACIT KNOWLEDGE EXPLORATION OF MALAYSIAN

ACADEMICIANS

HARYANI BINTI HARON

A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the

requirements for the award of the degree of

Doctor of Philosophy (Computer Science)

Faculty of Computer Science and Information Systems

Universiti Teknologi Malaysia

APRIL 2009

I declare that this thesis entitled "An Interpretive Tacit Knowledge Exploration of

Malaysian Academicians" is the result of my own research except as cited in the

references. The thesis has not been accepted for any degree and is not concurrently

submitted in candidature of any other degree.

Signature

Name

Date

YANIfINTI T{ARON

25hMarch2009

iii

Dedicated to:

my supportive and understanding husband Mohd Shamsul Bahrin Hussain,

and

my beloved children Ahmad Muizzuddin, Ahmad Muzakkir, Maryam Mardhiah,

Ahmad Munzir and Ahmad Mursyidin.

iv

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

All praises to Almighty Allah, the Most Merciful and the Most Benevolent

for granting me the strength and courage to persevere throughout this painfully

wonderful and fulfilling journey. This thesis would not have completed without the

direct and indirect help extended to me by the various parties who warrant special

mention.

In particular, I wish to express my sincere appreciation to my supervisor,

Professor Dr. Rose Alinda Alias for encouragement, guidance, critics and friendship.

I am also thankful to Professor Dr. Trevor Wood-Harper, Associate Professor Dr

Jennie Carrol and Associate Professor Dr Azizah Abdul Rahman for their thoughts

and advice. Without their continued support and interest, this thesis would not have

been the same as presented here.

I am also indebted to Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM) for funding my

PhD study. My appreciation goes to all the Professors who participated in the study,

and for their support, encouragement and advices. A special thanks to the staff of

INTEC IT Unit for their endless support. My sincere appreciation also extends to my

fellow postgraduate colleagues who have provided professional, emotional and moral

assistance at various occasions. Finally, I extend my gratitude to my family for their

patience, understanding, moral and emotional support.

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ABSTRACT

This thesis reports the interpretive tacit knowledge exploration of Malaysianacademicians. Academicians are important assets in institutions of higher learning;therefore it is critical to understand tacit knowledge which resides in them. The lackof understanding of tacit knowledge impedes the efforts of managing it as a source ofcompetitive advantage. The research employs the sequential exploratory mixedmethods approach using grounded theory followed by a survey. Data are gatheredthrough semi-structured interviews incorporating the critical incidences technique. Itis discovered that tacit knowledge of Malaysian academicians is knowledgeinternalized in their work practices, which is externalized through action strategies infulfilling the seven performance indicators introduced by the Malaysian Ministry ofHigher Education. Three dimensions of tacit knowledge are discovered, namely theintellectual-affirmation tacit knowledge, self tacit knowledge and social tacitknowledge. A second-order structurational analysis reflects the duality of tacitknowledge and academicians’ actions. A duality between academicians’ actions andsocial structures is also discovered. Social structure acts as the medium inacademicians’ interaction that implicates tacit knowledge creation and use.Contextualization of tacit knowledge is captured through conducting an on-linesurvey on 20 public institutions of higher learning. A total of 595 academiciansresponded. Statistical tests show that there is a significant difference with the valueof p=.001 in level of tacit knowledge between experts and novice. Significantdifference with the value of p=.000 in the level of academicians’ tacit knowledgewith quality of experience is also identified. The third significant difference with thevalue of p=.000 is the level of academicians’ tacit knowledge with quantity ofexperience. Three contextual factors which are qualification, area of expertise anddesignation contributes to tacit knowledge construction through implicit learning.Theoretical contributions from the research include development of a theoreticalmodel of knowledge internalization, a structurational model of tacit knowledge and atacit knowledge framework of Malaysian academicians. Practically, the researchhighlights the tacit knowledge content of successful academicians which isimperative to improve the performance of an academician and the institution.Methodologically, the research illustrates the effective use of the mixed methodsapproach within the interpretive research paradigm. The incorporation of groundedtheory, structurational theory and survey combines the subjectivity and objectivityaspects of the problem situation thus giving a rich understanding of tacit knowledgewithin the context of public institutions of higher learning.

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ABSTRAK

Tesis ini mengkaji pengetahuan tersirat di kalangan para ahli akademik diMalaysia. Ahli akademik merupakan aset terpenting bagi sesebuah institusipengajian tinggi. Oleh itu adalah kritikal untuk memahami pengetahuan tersirat yangdimiliki mereka kerana kekurangan pemahaman mengenainya menghalang usahauntuk menguruskannya sebagai sumber kelebihan daya saing. Penyelidikan inimenggunakan kaedah rencam penerokaan berjujukan, iaitu teori beralas telah digunadan diikuti dengan kajiselidik. Pengumpulan data dilakukan dengan menggunateknik insiden kritikal melalui kaedah temuduga separa struktur. Hasil kajianmendapati bahawa pengetahuan tersirat yang dimiliki oleh ahli-ahli akademik diMalaysia merupakan pengetahuan yang diabadikan di dalam amalan pekerjaanmereka, dan diterjemahkan menerusi strategi tindakan yang diambil bagi memenuhitujuh petunjuk prestasi yang diperkenalkan oleh Kementerian Pengajian Tinggi,Malaysia. Tiga dimensi pengetahuan tersirat dikenalpasti, iaitu pengetahuan tersiratdalam menegaskan kebolehan intelektual, pengetahuan tersirat di dalam menilai dirisendiri dan pengetahuan tersirat di dalam aspek hubungan sosial. Analisastructurational tahap kedua menampakkan dwi hubungan antara pengetahuantersirat dengan tindakan ahli akademik. Dwi hubungan antara tindakan ahliakademik dengan struktur sosial juga telah ditemui. Struktur sosial memainkanperanan sebagai perantara dalam interaksi ahli-ahli akademik mempengaruhipembentukan dan penggunaan pengetahuan tersirat mereka. Perkaitan kontekstualdengan pengetahuan tersirat dikaji melalui kajiselidik dalam talian yang dilakukan keatas 20 institusi pengajian tinggi awam. Sejumlah 595 orang ahli akademik telahmemberikan respon. Ujian statistik telah membuktikan terdapat perbezaan ketaradengan nilai p=.001 untuk tahap pengetahuan tersirat ahli akademik yang pakarberbanding dengan ahli akademik yang baru. Perbezaan ketara dengan nilai p=.000juga telah dikenalpasti untuk hubungan di antara tahap pengetahuan tersirat ahli-ahliakademik dengan kualiti pengalaman mereka. Perbezaan ketara yang ketiga dengannilai p=.001 dikenalpasti untuk tahap pengetahuan tersirat ahli-ahli akademik dengankuantiti pengalaman. Tiga faktor kontekstual, iaitu kelulusan tertinggi, bidangkepakaran dan jawatan, menyumbang kepada pembentukan pengetahuan tersiratmelalui pembelajaran secara tidak formal. Antara sumbangan teoretikal kajian iniialah sebuah model teoretikal pengetahuan tersirat, sebuah model structurationalpengetahuan tersirat dan sebuah kerangka pengetahuan tersirat ahli-ahli akademik diMalaysia. Sumbangan dari aspek praktikal pula termasuk penghasilan kandunganpengetahuan tersirat yang penting bagi meningkatkan prestasi seseorang ahliakademik dan institusinya. Dari segi metodologi, kajian ini membuktikankeberkesanan penggunaan kaedah rencam di dalam paradigma penyelidikaninterpretif. Penggunaan teori beralas, teori structurational dan kajiselidikmenggabungkan aspek subjektif dan objektif di dalam situasi permasalahan yangseterusnya memberikan satu pemahaman yang mendalam mengenai pengetahuantersirat di dalam konteks institusi pengajian awam Malaysia.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER TITLE PAGE

DECLARATION ii

DEDICATION iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iv

ABSTRACT v

ABSTRAK vi

TABLE OF CONTENTS vii

LIST OF TABLES xv

LIST OF FIGURES xviii

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS xx

LIST OF APPENDICES xxi

1 INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 Introduction 1

1.2 Background of the Research 3

1.3 Problem Statement 5

1.4 Research Questions 6

1.5 Research Objectives 6

1.6 Conceptual Framework of the Research 7

1.7 Scope of the Research 8

1.8 Significance of the Research 9

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1.9 Structure of the Thesis 10

2 LITERATURE REVIEW 15

2.1 Introduction 15

2.2 The Conception of Tacit Knowledge 17

2.2.1 The Schools of Thought on Tacit

Knowledge 17

2.3 The Ambiguities of Tacit Knowledge 18

2.3.1 Articulation of Tacit Knowledge 19

2.3.2 Ownership of Tacit Knowledge 20

2.4 Research Approaches on Tacit Knowledge 21

2.4.1 Positivist Approach on Tacit Knowledge 21

2.4.2 Interpretive Approach on Tacit

Knowledge 22

2.4.3 Trends in Tacit Knowledge Research 23

2.4.4 KM Generations 24

2.5 The Notion of Tacit Knowledge 27

2.5.1 Construction of Tacit Knowledge 27

2.5.2 Externalization of Tacit Knowledge 29

2.5.2.1 Externalization of Tacit

Knowledge in Malaysian Context 30

2.5.3 Ontological Dimensions of Tacit

Knowledge 32

2.5.4 Importance of Tacit Knowledge 32

2.5.5 The Context-Bounded Nature of Tacit

Knowledge 34

2.6 Tacit Knowledge in Institutions of Higher

Learning 35

2.7 The Conceptualization of Tacit Knowledge 36

2.7.1 Tacit Knowledge Conceptual Definition 37

2.7.2 Conceptual Framework for Tacit

Knowledge Exploration 38

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2.8 The Analytical Lens in Exploring Tacit

Knowledge 39

2.8.1 GT Approach 40

2.8.1.1 The Use of GT in IS Research 41

2.8.1.2 The Strength of GT Approach in

Studying Tacit Knowledge 45

2.8.2 Structuration Theory 46

2.8.2.1 The Use of ST in IS Research 47

2.9 Knowledge Elicitation Methodologies 49

2.9.1 Observation 49

2.9.2 Interviews 50

2.9.3 Process Tracing 51

2.9.4 Conceptual Mapping 52

2.10 Tacit Knowledge Elicitation Methodologies 53

2.10.1 Critical Decision Method 53

2.10.2 Scenario Mediated Approach 54

2.11 Conclusion 55

3 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 58

3.1 Introduction 58

3.2 Paradigms of Inquiry 59

3.3 Research Approaches 62

3.3.1 Range of Research Approaches 63

3.3.2 Strategy of Inquiry 65

3.4 Research Design 67

3.4.1 Phase 1: Research Planning and

Literature Review 68

3.4.1.1 Review of Literature 68

3.4.1.2 Development of Conceptual

Framework 69

3.4.2 Phase 2: Qualitative Pilot Study 69

3.4.2.1 Document Analysis 71

3.4.2.2 Access Strategy 72

x

3.4.2.3 Interview Protocol 72

3.4.2.4 Interview Techniques 73

3.4.2.5 Pilot Interviews 74

3.4.2.6 Pilot Data Analysis 75

3.4.3 Phase 3: The GT Approach 77

3.4.3.1 Identification of Case Site and

Selection of Participants 79

3.4.3.2 Data Collection using Interviews 80

3.4.3.3 Field Notes 80

3.4.3.4 Data Analysis 81

3.4.3.5 Literature Comparison 82

3.4.3.6 Constant Comparative Analysis 82

3.4.3.7 Memo Writing 83

3.4.4 Phase 4: Quantitative Pilot Study 83

3.4.4.1 Development of Scenario

Mediated Test 84

3.4.4.2 Content Validation of the

Scenario Mediated Test 86

3.4.4.3 Pilot Data Collection using

Questionnaire 87

3.4.4.4 Pilot Data Analysis 87

3.4.5 Phase 5: Survey 88

3.4.5.1 Data Collection through On-Line

Survey 89

3.4.5.2 Testing of Hypothesis using

Analysis of Variance 90

3.4.5.3 Testing of Hypothesis using

Correlation Analysis 91

3.5 Conclusion 91

4 GROUNDING OF THE PRIMARY STUDY 93

4.1 Introduction 93

4.2 The Pilot Study Findings 95

xi

4.2.1 Document Analysis 95

4.2.2 Pilot Interviews and Analysis 97

4.2.3 Lessons Learned 99

4.2.4 Feedbacks on the Pilot Study 100

4.3 The GT Process 101

4.3.1 Case Site 102

4.3.2 Selection of Samples and Characteristics

of Participants 103

4.3.3 Research Interviews 104

4.3.4 Field Notes 105

4.4 The GT Findings 106

4.4.1 Concepts and Categories Generated

through Open Coding 107

4.4.2 Knowledge Internalization as the

Emerging Phenomenon 113

4.4.3 Causal Conditions for Knowledge

Internalization 116

4.4.4 Context in which Adaptation Strategies

Developed 117

4.4.5 Intervening Conditions Influencing

Adaptation Strategies 119

4.4.6 Strategies in Fulfilling 7Ps Requirements 120

4.4.6.1 Affirming Intellectual Capability 121

4.4.6.2 Capitalizing on Self-Knowledge 124

4.4.6.3 Building Interpersonal

Relationship 127

4.4.7 Consequences of Strategies for

Knowledge Internalization 130

4.4.8 Theoretical Model of Knowledge

Internalization 132

4.5 Tacit Knowledge Dimensions 136

4.6 Literature Comparison of the Emerged Tacit

Knowledge Theory 137

4.7 Conclusion 139

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5 STRUCTURATIONAL ANALYSIS OF TACIT

KNOWLEDGE 141

5.1 Introduction 141

5.2 Resonance of Tacit Knowledge and ST 143

5.3 Overview of Malaysian PIHL Setting 144

5.3.1 Human Agency in PIHL 145

5.3.2 Social Structures in PIHL 148

5.4 Adapting ST for Exploring Tacit Knowledge 149

5.5 Applying Tacit Knowledge Analysis Tool 150

5.5.1 Structure of Signification 151

5.5.2 Structure of Domination 157

5.5.3 Structure of Legitimation 163

5.6 Structurational Model of Tacit Knowledge 169

5.7 Conclusion 172

6 THE SURVEY AND CONTEXTUALIZATION OF

TACIT KNOWLEDGE 174


6.2 The Pilot Study Findings 176

6.3 The Survey Findings 178

6.3.1 The Tacit Knowledge E-mail Survey 178

6.3.2 The Demographic Profiles of

Respondents 180

6.3.3 Differences in Experience between

Experts and Novices 183

6.3.4 Tacit Knowledge of Experts and Novices 185

6.3.5 The Relationship between Experience

and Tacit Knowledge 186

6.3.6 Contextual Factors Influencing Tacit

Knowledge 190

6.3.6.1 Age and Tacit Knowledge 192

6.3.6.2 Length of Service and Tacit

Knowledge 193

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6.3.6.3 Gender and Tacit Knowledge 195

6.3.6.4 Designation and Tacit Knowledge 196

6.3.6.5 Field of Expertise and Tacit

Knowledge 198

6.3.6.6 Qualification and Tacit

Knowledge 199

6.4 Contextualization of Tacit Knowledge 201

6.5 Conclusion 204

7 RESEARCH REFLECTIONS 206


7.2 The Research Process 208

7.2.1 Phase I: Review Literature 209

7.2.2 Phase II: Formulate Research Strategy 210

7.2.3 Phase III: Conduct Qualitative Fieldwork 210

7.2.4 Phase IV: Analyze Qualitative Data and

Draw Conclusions 211

7.2.5 Phase V: Conduct Quantitative

Fieldwork 212

7.2.6 Phase VI: Analyze Quantitative Data and

Draw Conclusions 212

7.3 Reflections on the Research Methodology 213

7.4 Reflections on the Research Experience 221

7.5 Summary 223

8 CONCLUSIONS 225


8.2 Synthesis 227

8.2.1 Tacit Knowledge in Academic Domain 227

8.2.1.1 Tacit Knowledge is Knowledge

Internalized in Work Practices 228

8.2.1.2 Dimensions of Tacit Knowledge 229

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8.2.1.3 Values and Norms of

Academician Influences

Manifestations of Tacit

Knowledge 230

8.2.1.4 Implicit Learning is Vital for

Tacit Knowledge Acquisition 232

8.2.2 Socially-Constructed Notion of Tacit

Knowledge 233

8.2.3 Contextualization of Tacit Knowledge 234

8.2.4 Tacit Knowledge Framework 236

8.2.5 Summary of Synthesis 237

8.3 Contributions 238

8.3.1 Improves Understanding of Tacit

Knowledge Notion 238

8.3.2 Structurational Model of Tacit

Knowledge 240

8.3.3 Tacit Knowledge Framework 240

8.3.4 Approaches for Exploring Tacit

Knowledge 241

8.3.5 Insights into Practical Abilities of

Successful Academicians 242

8.4 Recommendations for Future Research 243

8.5 Concluding Remarks 244

REFERENCES 246

Appendices A – L 266 - 296

xv

LIST OF TABLES

TABLE NO. TITLE PAGE

2.1 Knowledge Management Generations 24

2.2 Application of GT in IS and KM Research Projects from2001 to 2007 42

2.3 Classification of ST Applications 48

2.4 Summary of Tacit Knowledge ElicitationMethodologies Selected for the Study 57

3.1 Research Operational Framework for Phase 1 68


3.3 Example of an Interview Caption 76



3.6 Scoring Key Used in the Study 86


4.1 Example of a Documented Field Note 105

4.2 Example of a Theoretical Memo 107

4.3 Categorizing Concepts Generated 108

4.4 Examples of Concepts Rejected by Experts 109

4.5 Concepts Organized into Categories 110

4.6 Theoretical Memo for Knowledge Internalization 114

4.7 Categories Pertinent to “Knowledge Internalization” 114

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4.8 Theoretical Memo for Academic Excellence Category 116

4.9 Paradigm Model of Knowledge Internalization 132

4.10 The Storyline for Knowledge Internalization 134

5.1 Essences of Self Tacit Knowledge 152

5.2 Essences of Intellectual Affirmation Tacit Knowledge 158

5.3 Essences of Social Tacit Knowledge 164

5.4 Summary of Structurational Analysis in MalaysianPIHL 171

6.1 Overall Comments on the Questionnaire 177

6.2 Scenario Quality Rating 177

6.3 Category of Respondents and Gender 180

6.4 Category of Respondents and Age Groups 181

6.5 Category of Respondents and Length of Service 181

6.6 Category of Respondents and Designation 182

6.7 Category of Respondents and Academic Qualification 182

6.8 Category of Respondents and Area of Expertise 183

6.9 Differences of In-depth Experience between Groups 184

6.10 Differences of Diversity of Experience between Groups 185

6.11 Score of Tacit Knowledge between Groups 185

6.12 Dimensions of Tacit Knowledge between Groups 186

6.13 Tacit Knowledge and In-depth Experience 187

6.14 Dimensions of Tacit Knowledge and In-depthExperience 188

6.15 Diversity of Experience and Tacit Knowledge 189

6.16 Diversity of Experience and Dimensions of TacitKnowledge 190

6.17 Age and Tacit Knowledge 192

6.18 Age and Dimensions of Tacit Knowledge 193

6.19 Length of Service and Tacit Knowledge 194

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6.20 Length of Service and Dimensions of Tacit Knowledge 194

6.21 Gender and Tacit Knowledge 195

6.22 Gender and Dimensions of Tacit Knowledge 196

6.23 Designation and Tacit Knowledge 196

6.24 Designation and Dimensions of Tacit Knowledge 197

6.25 Field of Expertise and Tacit Knowledge 198

6.26 Field of Expertise and Dimensions of Tacit Knowledge 199

6.27 Qualification and Tacit Knowledge 200

6.28 Qualification and Dimensions of Tacit Knowledge 201

7.1 Lessons from Reflections on the Research 223

xviii

LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE NO. TITLE PAGE

1.1 Organisation of Chapter 1 2


1.3 Organisation of the Thesis 11



2.3 Dimensions of the duality of structure in interaction(Source: Giddens, 1984) 47



4.2 Academicians Adaptation Strategies 121

4.3 Theoretical Model for Knowledge Internalization 133

4.4 Tacit Knowledge Dimensions 137


5.2 Conceptual Map of an Academician’s Interaction 147

5.3 Dimensions of the Duality of Structure (Source:Giddens, 1984) 149

5.4 Tacit Knowledge Analysis Tool 150

5.5 Application of Tacit Knowledge Analysis Tool inMalaysian PIHL Context 151

xix

5.6 Structurational Model of Tacit Knowledge 172



7.2 Flowchart of the Research Process 208


8.2 Socially-Constructed Tacit Knowledge Framework 237

xx

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

ANOVA - analysis of variance

BIZIT - Business and Information Technology International

Conference

CDM - Critical Decision Method

GT - Grounded Theory

IS - information systems

KM - knowledge management

MOHE - Ministry of Higher Education, Malaysia

PARS - Postgraduate Annual Research Seminar

PIHL - public institutions of higher learning

ST - Structuration Theory

7Ps - Seven Performance Indicators

xxi

LIST OF APPENDICES

APPENDIX TITLE PAGE

A Literature Reviews on Research Approaches in TacitKnowledge Studies from 1999-2007 266

B Summary on the Differences in Glaserian and StraussianGT Approach 269

C Variation in Application of GT in IS Research 270

D Assumptions of Different Philosophical Paradigms 271

E Interview Protocol 272

F List of Critical Incidences Generated from Interviews 274

G Critical Incidences Themes 276

H Content Validation Form 279

I Quality Rating Form 283

J Demographic of the Participants (Interviewed) 284

K Coding Reliability 285

L Questionnaire 286

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Introduction

Tacit knowledge has been credited with the successes of organizations.

However, it is an ambiguous construct and has been appropriated diversely in

research. The difficulties in managing tacit knowledge for an organization’s

competitive advantage are due to the lack of understanding of tacit knowledge within

its contextual boundary. This thesis aims to explore the tacit knowledge construct

within the context of Malaysian public institutions of higher learning (PIHL). This

chapter introduces the reader to the area of concern of the research examined by this

thesis. It begins with an introduction of the chapter and gives an overview of the

sections. The organization of this chapter is shown in Figure 1.1 on the following

page.

2

Figure 1.1: Organisation of Chapter 1

3

1.2 Background of the Research

The information age, facilitated by the development of Information

Communication Technology, leads to an emergence of a new type of economy called

knowledge economy or the K-economy. In this era, organizations have to convert

themselves into organization of knowledge-specialist in order to survive and remain

competitive (Drucker, 1993). Together with globalization, K-economy pushes

knowledge to be the main agenda in business survival (Kermally, 1988). Knowledge

resides in people and organizations must make more effective use of the knowledge

and expertise available within their existing employee base (Hellstrom and Husted,

2004). Knowledge in people is tacit knowledge, which is the background knowledge

of all understanding and expertise, and managing tacit knowledge involved locating

and sharing it within the organizations (Stenmark, 2001; Hansen et. al, 1999).

However, tacit knowledge is contextual-bounded, it is embedded in specific context

that it can only be described and understood in relation to a whole body of

knowledge in its context inclusive of both the specific organizational context and

specific individual context (Endres et. al. , 2007; Li and Gao, 2003). Tacit

knowledge has various advantages and potentials to organizations. These include an

important role in organizational performance, a key factor in enhancing the quality of

strategic decisions making and innovations. Tacit knowledge reflects expertise, core

competencies and a source of inspiration for human actions in workplace and

everyday practice and life.

The term tacit knowledge has been appropriated in various situations

(Gourlay, 2004). This contributed to the ambiguities surrounding the tacit

knowledge construct and is reflected by Gourlay (2006) who summarizes four

ambiguities in tacit knowledge, namely the ownership of the tacit knowledge, the

way of tacit knowledge acquisitions, the functions of tacit knowledge and the

possibility of tacit knowledge articulation. The ambiguities surrounding tacit

knowledge are discussed in section 2.3. Most authors define tacit knowledge as the

physical “know-how” or cognitive mental models (Polanyi, 1966; Nonaka and

Takeuchi, 1995). Therefore tacit knowledge has been studied predominantly from

the cognitive and psychomotor perspective (Polanyi, 1966; Nonaka and Takeuchi,

4

1995; Leonard and Sensiper, 1998; Collins, 2001). However, tacit knowledge is also

a dynamic knowledge which results from ongoing social process of construction

(Aadne, 1996; Sveiby, 1997). A study on tacit knowledge epitomes revealed that

tacit knowledge can be classified into four groups, cognitive, sensuous, physical and

social (Haldin-Herrgard, 2004). Nevertheless, few studies explore tacit knowledge

from the social construction perspective (Brockmann and Anthony, 2002; Bhardwaj

and Monin, 2006; Swart and Pye, 2002).

Institutions of higher learning have long been connected with the production

of knowledge. The creation and dissemination of knowledge had long been the

social role of institutions of higher learning (Metcalfe, 2005). In the knowledge era,

higher learning institutions expanded their scope of activities in the creation and

dissemination of knowledge to include teaching in preparing students to become life-

long learners, research to expand human knowledge and creativity and service to

universities, local, national and international communities (Metaxiotis and Psarras,

2003). Therefore, tacit knowledge is pertinent not only to businesses but also to

academic institutions which have to leverage on their knowledge for sustainability in

the k-economy era (Goddard, 1998; Khurana, 2007). Institutions of higher learning

must respond to their changing role in a knowledge-based society (Metaxiotis and

Psarras, 2003) and need to be consciously managing their knowledge assets (Rowley,

2000). Higher learning institutions role are no longer just to provide knowledge to

the students, but also to manage and collaborate the existing knowledge towards

becoming a learning organization (Steyn, 2004). Moreover, as mentioned by

Goddard (1998) and Khurana (2007), universities and other higher institutions are

recognized to be in the knowledge business and increasingly they are exposed to

marketplace pressures in a similar way to other business. However, a survey by

Hijazi and Kelly (2003) indicate that higher learning institutions have some difficulty

in understanding the implication of managing knowledge to support business

process.

The Malaysian government is seriously pursuing knowledge-based economy

by laying out seven strategic thrust in its K-based Economy Strategic Plan. One of

the thrust is to develop the public sector into a knowledge-based civil service, which

5

directly affected public institutions of higher learning. Therefore, being the

producers of human capital, public universities must be prepared to become a

knowledge-driven university to face the challenges in the era of knowledge. In the

Malaysian context, higher academic institutions face the challenge of fulfilling the

needs of Knowledge Management (KM) (Mohd Ridzuan Nordin, 2001). A study

conducted on the implementation of KM in Malaysia revealed that KM initiatives are

still at the moderate level (Mohd Ghazali Mohayidin et. al, 2007).

1.3 Problem Statement

While tacit knowledge is credited for all its potentials and values, it is also an

ambiguous construct in an organization. The ambiguities surrounding the tacit

knowledge necessitate a deeper understanding of the construct so that it can be

managed as a source of competitive advantage. The role of tacit knowledge as the

key factor in the organizational performance is undeniable but tacit knowledge is a

contextual-bounded knowledge. Exploration of tacit knowledge must be done in a

specific context in relation to a whole body of knowledge in a particular context.

This includes a proper methodology and instrument appropriate for its domain in the

explication process of tacit knowledge.

Tacit knowledge has been predominantly analyzed within the cognitive and

psychomotor discipline. However, tacit knowledge is a dynamic knowledge resulted

from the ongoing social process of construction and collective action in an

organization, therefore there is a need to explore tacit knowledge through the

structurational perspective specifically in understanding the role of tacit knowledge

in the shaping the social structures and human actions in organizations.

In conclusion, the research problem revolves around the challenges in

managing tacit knowledge in academic institutions, which is caused by the

ambiguities surrounding the tacit knowledge and the nature of tacit knowledge which

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resides in people, socially-constructed and contextually-bounded. How is tacit

knowledge construed in the context of Malaysian PIHL?

1.4 Research Questions

Based on the problem statement described in the previous section, one

research question outlining this research is identified.

How is tacit knowledge construed by the academics in the context of Malaysian

PIHL?

The research question is further elaborated into three sub-questions

representing the main issue pursued by the research.

i. What is tacit knowledge in the context of Malaysian PIHL?

ii. How does tacit knowledge shape academicians actions and social

structures?

iii. How is tacit knowledge contextualized?

1.5 Research Objectives

Based on the research question described in the previous section, three

research objectives are identified. They are:

1. To understand the tacit knowledge in the context of PIHL.

i. To discover tacit knowledge dimensions.

ii. To discover tacit knowledge manifestations.

iii. To describe the social construction of tacit knowledge.

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2. To describe the role of tacit knowledge in shaping the academicians’

actions and social structures.

3. To describe the contextualization of tacit knowledge.

1.6 Conceptual Framework of the Research

Figure 1.2 illustrates the initial conceptual framework in which the present

study was carried out. The conceptual framework was based on the literature

examination on the related area of exploration. Three main features of tacit

knowledge, namely its construction, manifestations and ontological dimensions form

the framework. The framework suggests that tacit knowledge is acquired through

implicit learning from the experience gathered through the job domain. The ability

to learn from experience contributes to tacit knowledge construction. Externalization

of tacit knowledge is through actions performed by academicians in a particular

problem or situation. Ontological dimension reflects that individual and

organizational tacit knowledge are distinct but interdependent, with both dimensions

being mutually enabling. Further discussion on the conceptual framework is in

section 2.7.2.

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Figure 1.2: Conceptual Framework of the Research

1.7 Scope of the Research

The scope of tacit knowledge in this research is within the academic domain.

The subject domain of the research is restricted to the academicians in Malaysian

PIHL. It does not include administrative staff in the PIHL. The unit of analysis of

this research is the academician groups in PIHL. PIHL in the context of this research

are the twenty public universities in Malaysia. The research does not include the

private higher institutions in Malaysia.

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1.8 Significance of the Research

This research is significant as it contributes to theory, practice and

methodology. The theory of KM has always been associated with business

organization, as profit, sustainability and competitive advantage are always

associated with business sectors. In relation to its contributions to theory, the

research proposes a framework for a socially-constructed tacit knowledge in the

context of Malaysian PIHL. The framework incorporates the process of tacit

knowledge construction and manifestations. The dimensions of tacit knowledge in

academic domain are also described. The framework is comprehensive as it also

integrates the dynamic relationships between tacit knowledge with human actions

and institutional structures. This research also proposes a structurational model of

tacit knowledge which describes the relationships between tacit knowledge and

recurrent social practices.

As for its contribution to practice, knowing what knowledge individuals

posses to successfully perform their jobs is fundamental to practice. Knowledge

internalization through accumulated on-the-job experience distinguishes successful

academicians from those who are less successful. The understanding of tacit

knowledge is imperative to accelerate the evolution from a novice to an expert and

eventually improve the effectiveness of an academician and contribute to the

institutional performance. The understanding of tacit knowledge can be utilised by

the higher education institutions in devising training modules for the academicians.

As for methodological significance, the research illustrates the effective use

of the mixed methods approach based on the sequential exploratory strategy of

inquiry within the interpretive research. The research incorporates grounded theory

(GT) approach in exploring an ambiguous but contextual phenomenon, thus giving a

rich understanding of the phenomenon within its context. In enhancing the

understanding of tacit knowledge, a survey is conducted. The instrument for the

survey is a scenario-mediated test, a test which is grounded in the real experiences

and challenges of academicians. The mixed methods approach combines the

subjectivity and objectivity aspects of the problem setting which mirrors the reality.

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1.9 Structure of the Thesis

The thesis is organised in eight chapters, as shown in Figure 1.3. The thesis

presents the development of the research in a structured and coherent manner.

Although the chapters are written in a seemingly linear fashion, the development of

the research is in no way linear. There are inter-relationships between different

chapters and sections of the thesis and they are clearly stated in the chapters. They

should not be read in isolation, and therefore, the best approach to understanding the

research is by briefly revisiting the related sections.

Chapter 1 introduces the research area of concern. The chapter begins with

the description of the research background, discussing the ambiguities surrounding

tacit knowledge construct despite its importance to organizational performance. The

changing role of PIHL in the knowledge era, the KM initiatives by the Malaysian

government and the current implementation of KM in Malaysian PIHL are also

elaborated in the research background section. The chapter proceeds with the

problem statement, arguing on the needs to explore and understand tacit knowledge

in order to manage it in the context of Malaysian PIHL. The chapter then describes

in detail the research questions and research objectives. Then, a conceptual

framework which guides the research’s fieldwork is described. The scope of the

research, involving the main features of tacit knowledge and the subject domain is

clarified. The chapter also describes the significance of the research, based on its

contributions to theory, practice and methodology. Finally, the chapter gives an

overview of the thesis structure.

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