hbem3203 management of communication in … · 3.5.3 using non-verbal communication 45 ... 6.2...

HBEM3203 MANAGEMENT OF COMMUNICATION IN EDUCATIONAL ORGANISATIONS Shasitharan a/l Raman Kutty

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM), March 2011, HBEM3203 All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form or by any means without the written permission of the President, Open University Malaysia (OUM). Version July 2010

Project Directors: Prof Dr Mansor Fadzil Assoc Prof Dr Widad Othman Open University Malaysia Module Writer: Shasitharan a/l Raman Kutty Moderator: Sarina Salim Translator: Shasitharan a/l Raman Kutty Developed by: Centre for Instructional Design and Technology Open University Malaysia Printed by: Meteor Doc. Sdn. Bhd. Lot 47-48, Jalan SR 1/9, Seksyen 9, Jalan Serdang Raya, Taman Serdang Raya, 43300 Seri Kembangan, Selangor Darul Ehsan First Printing (Translated Version), December 2009 Second Printing (Translated Version), July 2010 Third Printing (Translated Version), November 2010 Fourth Printing (Translated Version), March 2011

Course Guide ix - xiii Topic 1 Approaches to Communication Theories 1 � 1.1 Communication 1 1.2 Communication Method 3 1.2.1 One-Way Communication 3 1.2.2 Communication Model 4 1.3 Communication Channels 9 1.4 Feedback 11 1.5 Communication in Context 12 1.6 Communication Failures in an Educational Organisation 13 Summary 14 Key Terms 14 Self-Test 1 15 Self-Test 2 15 Topic 2 Leadership Style and Communication 16 2.1 Nature of Income Tax 17 2.2 Autocratic Leadership Approach 21 2.3 Democratic Leadership Approach 24 2.4 Laissez-Faire Leadership 27 2.5 Transformational Leadership 28 2.5.1 Aims of a Transformational Leader 29 2.6 Leadership Case Studies 31 Summary 31 Key Terms 32 Self-Test 1 32 Self-Test 2 32 Topic 3 Towards Effective Communication 33 3.1 Opening Minds 34 3.2 Class Culture 35 3.3 Remembering Names 37 3.3.1 Giving Instructions 38 3.4 Delivery Effective Lessons 40 3.5 Language Speech 41 3.5.1 Language Effects 43 3.5.2 Speech During Introduction and Closure 44 3.5.3 Using Non-Verbal Communication 45

Table of Contents

TABLE OF CONTENTS iv

3.5.4 Listening 48 3.5.5 Listening Styles and Methods 49 3.5.6 Positive Active Listening 49 3.5.7 Listening Problems 50 3.5.8 Chairing a Meeting 50 Summary 52 Key Terms 53 Self-Test 1 53 Self-Test 2 53 Topic 4 Communication from an Organisational Perspective 54 4.1 Organization Communication Network 55 4.1.1 Individual Communication Skills 56 4.2 Formal Communication Network 59 4.2.1 The Role of Formal Communication 60 4.2.2 Formal Communication Effects Towards School 61

Structure 4.3 Informal Communication Network 62 4.4 Additional Communication Network 64 4.4.1 Substance 64 4.5 External Environment and Organizational Communication 65 4.5.1 Improving Organization Communication 65 4.5.2 Network Analysis 67 Summary 71 Key Terms 71 Self-Test 1 71 Self-Tets 2 71 Topic 5 Towards Effective Writing 72 5.1 Effective Communication Tools 72 5.1.1 Searching for a Suitable Language 73 5.2 Short Writing 77 5.3 Clear Writing 78 5.4 Consistent Writing 78 5.5 Relevancy 79 5.6 Clear Graphic Usage 80 5.7 Using Correct and Suitable Language 81 5.8 Right Tone 82 Summary 83 Key Terms 83 Self-Test 1 83 Self-Test 2 83

TABLE OF CONTENTS v

Topic 6 Creativity In Communication 84 6.1 Ways of Getting Out of Holes 84 6.1.1 ChildrenÊs Attention 87 6.1.2 Handling Noises 89 6.2 Power in Communication 90 6.3 Thingking Differently (Difference in Thoughts) 92 6.4 Information Technology 94 6.5 ICT as Communication Tool 95 Summary 96 Key Terms 97 Self-Test 1 97 Self-Test 2 97 Topic 7 Conflict Solving Skills in an Educational Organisation (1) 98 7.1 Case Study Analysis 99 7.2 Inspirational Communication 101 7.2.1 Speech and Writing 101 7.2.2 Fundamental Ways to be Persuasive 104 7.2.3 Non-Verbal Communication 105 7.3 Supportive Communication 106 7.4 Effects or Influence of Status 108 7.4.1 Overcoming Cross-Cultural Barriers 108 7.5 LeaderÊs Role in Problem Solving and Negotiation 110 7.6 Practises to Enhance Communication Skills 112 Summary 113 Key Terms 113 Self-Test 1 114 Self-Test 2 114 Topic 8 Conflict Solving Skills in an Educational Organisation (2) 115 8.1 Related Case Studies Analysis 116 8.1.1 Forms of Conflict in School 116 8.2 Conflicts in Group Communication 117 8.3 Effects of Conflicts to an Organization 119 8.4 Handling Conflicts 121 8.5 Firmness 123 Summary 124 Key Terms 124 Self-Test 1 124 Self-Test 2 125

TABLE OF CONTENTS vi

Topic 9 Assertiveness in Communication 126 9.1 Assertiveness in Communication 127 9.2 Assertive Communication Through Practise 128 9.3 Firmness in Handling Conflicts 129 9.4 Transactional Analysis 131 9.5 Giving and Accepting Criticism 135 9.6 Transactional Analysis and its Application 136 Summary 138 Key Terms 138 Self-Test 1 138 Self-Test 2 138 Topic 10 Listening Skills 139 10.1 Active Listening 140 10.2 Barriers to Active Listening 143 10.2.1 Active Listening Strategy 147 10.2.2 Listening Skills Case 147 10.3 Enhancing Our Listening Skills 150 10.3.1 Active Listening 151 10.4 Questioning Method 152 10.5 Using Behavioural Questions 153 Summary 154 Key Terms 154 Self-Test 1 155 Self-Test 2 155 Answers 156 References 170

COURSE GUIDE

PANDUAN KURSUS x

COURSE GUIDE ix

COURSE GUIDE DESCRIPTION You must read this Course Guide carefully from the beginning to the end. It tells you briefly what the course is about and how you can work your way through the course material. It also suggests the amount of time you are likely to spend in order to complete the course successfully. Please keep on referring to Course Guide as you go through the course material as it will help you to clarify important study components or points that you might miss or overlook.

INTRODUCTION

HBEM3203 Management of Communication in Educational Organisations is one of the courses offered by Faculty of Education and Languages at Open University Malaysia (OUM). This course is worth three credit hours and should be covered over 8 to 15 weeks.

COURSE AUDIENCE

This course is offered to all students taking the Bachelor of Education (Education Administration) programme. As an open and distance learner, you should be acquainted with learning independently and being able to optimize the learning modes and environment available to you. Before you begin this course, please confirm the course material, the course requirements and how the course is conducted.

STUDY SCHEDULE

It is a standard OUM practice that learners accumulate 40 study hours for every credit hour. As such, for a three-credit hour course, you are expected to spend 120 study hours. Table 1 gives an estimation of how the 120 study hours could be accumulated.

COURSE GUIDE x

Table 1: Estimation of Time Accumulation of Study Hours

Study Activities Study Hours

Briefly go through the course content and participate in initial discussions 3

Study the module 60

Attend 3 to 5 tutorial sessions 10

Online Participation 12

Revision 15

Assignment(s), Test(s) and Examination(s) 20

TOTAL STUDY HOURS 120

COURSE OBJECTIVES

By the end of this course, you should be able to:

1. Explain the theories and communication process in the organisation;

2. Explain the communication problems in the educational organisation;

3. Acquire knowledge and skills in solving communication problems in school;

4. Acquire negotiation skills in order to solve conflict; and

5. Explain the role of headmasters as a leader in creating positive school climate and culture.

COURSE SYNOPSIS

This course is divided into 10 topics. The synopsis for each topic is presented below: Topic 1 introduces and defines communication and the methods of communication in an organisation. It will describe one-way communication, two-way communication and various other modes of communication; the rationale of the communication methods discussed; the importance of feedback as part of effective communication is also discussed. This topic concludes with a discussion on communication barriers in education organisations.

COURSE GUIDE xi

Topic 2 focuses on the definition of leadership and communication leadership. Communication leadership involves the democratic, autocratic and laissez faire approaches. Also, this topic will describe some of the problems, with case studies, related to recent communication leadership styles. Topic 3 is devoted to opening the minds of would-be teachers and educational leaders. Communication does not solely depend on verbal communication but it is also about making the classes livelier. The students in a classroom will communicate with each other when the teachers provide a conducive environment for this. Other aspects in this topic include culture in a classroom, remembering names, giving instructions to the students and expressing words. Topic 4 focuses on communication approaches from the organisation perspective. Among the elements discussed in this topic are organisational communication and the network, formal organisational network, non-formal network and additional network that exists in the organisation. You will learn about the effects of formal and non-formal communication network in an organisation. There will be some discussions on the external factors that can influence communication in an organisation. Students are encouraged to learn on how to improve communication based on the scenarios given in this topic. Topic 5 describes various aspects in writing. Writing skills is one important aspect of communication. The interpretation of a meaning in any writing depends on the way the writing is presented to the audience. Topic 6 focuses on ways of getting out of ÂholesÊ. Getting out of ÂholesÊ is often regarded as a weakness in any organisation. This topic will discuss the strategies that ought to be implemented to avoid ÂholesÊ while communicating. Topic 7 identifies the existence of conflict in an organisation. A few case studies related to conflict in an organisation are discussed. This topic will also discuss concepts such as inspirational communication, supportive communication, and cross culture communication. Topic 8 identifies various causes for conflicts in an organisation. Besides that, the impacts of conflicts to an organisation are also discussed. Topic 9 describes the assertive elements in an organisation. Why do leaders need to be assertive while communicating? This topic will conclude with some

COURSE GUIDE xii

emphasis on criticism in an organisation and various Transactional Analysis applications. Topic 10 identifies the listening skills required of educational leaders. Among the aspects discussed in this topic are the sensory involved in listening, ways to make effective listening, the barriers that occur when listening and the strategies to listen actively.

TEXT ARRANGEMENT GUIDE

Before you go through this module, it is important that you note the text arrangement. Understanding the text arrangement should help you to organize your study of this course to be more objective and more effective. Generally, the text arrangement for each topic is as follows: Learning Outcomes: This section refers to what you should achieve after you had completely gone through a topic. As you go through each topic, you should frequently refer your reading back to these given learning outcomes. By doing this, you can continuously gauge your progress of digesting the topic. Self-Check: This component of the module is inserted at strategic locations throughout the module. It is inserted after you had gone through one sub-section or sometimes a few sub-sections. It usually comes in a form of a question that may require you to stop your reading and start thinking. When you come across this component, try to reflect what you had already gone through. When you attempt to answer the question prompted, you should be able to gauge whether you had understand what you had read clearly, vaguely or worse you might find out that you had not comprehended or retained the sub-section(s) that you had just gone through. Most of the time, the answer to the question can be found directly from the module itself. Activity: Like Self-Check, activities are also placed at various locations or junctures throughout the module. Compared to Self-Check, Activity can appear in various forms such as questions, short case studies or it may even ask you to conduct an observation or research. Activity may also ask your opinion and evaluation on a given scenario. When you come across an Activity, you should try to widen what you had gathered from the module and introduce it to real situations. You should engage yourself in higher order thinking where you might be required to analyse, synthesise and evaluate instead of just having to recall and define. Summary: You can find this component at the end of each topic. This component assists you to recap the whole topic. By going through summary, you should be

COURSE GUIDE xiii

able to gauge your knowledge retention level. Should you find points inside the summary that you do not fully understand; it would be a good idea for you to revisit the details from the module. Key Terms: This component can be found at the end of each topic. You should go through this component so as to remind yourself on important terms or jargons used throughout the module. Should you find terms here that you are not able to explain, you should look for the terms from the module. References: References is where a list of relevant and usually useful textbooks, journals, articles, electronic contents or sources can be found. This list can appear in a few locations such as in the Course Guide (at References section), at the end of every topic or at the back of the module. You are encouraged to read and refer to the suggested sources to elicit the additional information needed as well as to enhance your overall understanding of the course.

PRIOR KNOWLEDGE

In the syllabus, students are required to go through the various levels of knowledge starting from level one and moving on to subsequent levels. Example:

ASSESSMENT METHOD

Refer to myVLE.

COURSE GUIDE xiv

INTRODUCTION

Communication is commonly referred to as a relationship. A relationship occurs when an individual is trying to communicate and wishes to deliver his message, opinion or information to a receiver. Human beings use various ways to communicate, such as by using the media, namely newspapers, radio, television computers, letters, or verbally. Communication from an organisationÊs point of view can be defined as a delivery process or an information exchange process between one or more individuals in an organisation. In an educational organisation, communication is regarded as a social interaction between the individuals through various activities, such as the transfer of message verbally. The communication in an educational setting takes place in classrooms or at the working place. This topic will cover the communication models, communication methods and the communication barriers in an organisation.

COMMUNICATION

1.1

In your opinion, why is communication still being accepted as a main stream area in educational organization? Ponder over this for a moment.

TTooppiicc

11 Approaches to Communication Theories

LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this topic, you should be able to:

1. Explain a few approaches in communication theories;

2. Identify the main elements in communication channels;

3. Differentiate the sources of the communication process; and

4. Summarise the role of feedback in communication.

TOPIC 1 APPROACHES TO COMMUNICATION THEORY

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Communication is an important element in an organisation. What is meant by communication? Let us examine some definitions of communication found in the educational organisation, as shown in Table 1.1.

Table 1.1: Definitions of Communication

Ramaiah (1992) A process involving exchanging of ideas, information, opinion or a process of delivery and receiving coded symbols representing meaning.

Katz and Khan (1966) Communication in an organisation is a process of flowing information, exchanging or receiving codes bound by the limitation of an organisation.

William Herney (1974) Communication is a coordination process among a group of individuals that depend on each other mutually.

Ramaiah (1996) A headmaster that is skilled in the process of communication by actively listening to others and responding proficiently.

Hussein (1993) Headmasters, aside from having the ability to efficiently handle matters pertaining to curriculum, must also equally possess the capabilities to communicate effectively. This quality is the decisive factor that ensures the effectiveness of a school playing its role in educating through the execution of curriculum.

After examining the definitions of communication as listed above, you should now be able to interpret the meaning of communication from various perspectives of studies.

ACTIVITY 1.1

Based on the epistemology perspective and your own experience, explain the definition of communication in an organization.


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COMMUNICATION METHOD

How do we go about conveying a communication with diversity and neatly, as suggested by Dewey? Communication between individuals can be done in two ways:

(i) One-way communication

(ii) Two-way communication

1.2.1 One-way Communication

The linear communication model is a widely known type of communication model. This model suggests the use of one way communication and the message is delivered or received through a specific channel. The information is transferred regardless of noise. An important implication in the linear communication model is the aspect of detailed information. Accurate facts are delivered during communication. In an educational organisation especially, a subordinate appreciates precise and lucid information from his leader as opposed to one of cynicism. The information is also expected to be delivered without commotion. Thus, any information wished to be transferred should be studied carefully so that it could be delivered effectively to the targeted receiver. The basic model of communication shown in Figure 1.1 illustrates that communication is a process consisting of several components. The final aim of this model is to whom the communication is being targeted. Components in the model enable us to understand what practically happens in a situation. Thus, these elements help us to apply the model more specifically. Hartley used the linear communication model as a basis before expanding it to form a new model which is called the interpersonal model. Study the diagram closely.

1.2

Conversation for Dewey is about creating and sharing meaning; it is about growth. We may secure and continue the conversation in many diverse ways, and diversity is the key to creative conversation.

John Dewey


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Figure 1.1: Hartley Interpersonal Communication Model According to Figure 1.1, we need to understand the social context such as time and place, which could influence the action and reaction resulting from communication. For example, a student delivering a speech on a stage in front of a crowded hall is in a different social context as compared to students having a discussion in a canteen. Now, let us look at several other communication models that are frequently used in the classroom.

1.2.2 Communication Model

There are a few communication models which are suitable to be employed in a classroom. Among them are Shannon and Weaver Model, NewcombÊs Symmetry Model and Wilbur Schramm Model. (a) Shannon and WeaverÊs Model

This model is known as Mathematical and Communication Theory and it is the result of studies based upon communication in the mathematical curriculum in 1949. This model can be represented in the Figure 1.2.


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Figure 1.2: Shannon and Weaver Model

According to Shannon and Weaver, the communication process starts at the source of information (stored away in the memory) which then produces messages through a transmitting apparatus (voice). This is then channelled to the receiving apparatus (ears). The receiving apparatus will then immediately interpret the message as received and re-send it to the final destination which is the brain. The effectiveness of this type of communication depends on the rate and strength of distraction in the background when the message is being delivered from the transmitting apparatus to the receiving apparatus. For example, this type of communication will not be effective if the message is delivered in a noisy surrounding.

(b) NewcombÊs Symmetry Model

This model is based on the interaction between individuals. It is also known as the Humanity Communication Model and was introduced in 1953. This type of communication model can be summarised in Figure 1.3:

Figure 1.3: NewcombÊs Symmetry Model (1953)


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According to this model, the process of communication is based on the interaction between two individuals towards a message that is being delivered or received. These three elements form a communication system that operates through four different orientations:

(i) Orientation A towards X matter, which is the attitude and faith of A towards X matter;

(ii) Orientation A towards B, which is AÊs attitude towards B;

(iii) Orientation B towards X matter, which is the attitude and faith of B towards X matter;

(iv) Orientation B towards A, which is BÊs attitude towards A.

According to the Humanity Communication Model, the effectiveness of communication is highly dependent on the attitude and faith of an individual and also the message that is to be delivered. For example, if B respects individual A and shows great faith towards X, then an agreement (symmetry) could be easily reached. On the other hand, if B shows mistrust towards individual A, then the message conveyed by A will have difficulty in reaching an agreement with individual B (symmetry).

(c) Wilbur SchrammÊs Model

This model was developed from Shannon and Weaver. Schramm in his book, How Communication Works (1954), described the three communication models.

Figure 1.4: Schramm I Model According to Schramm I Model, the communication process begins when a stimulus, which is termed as the source, is encoded. The encoding process is when the source is being interpreted into a message prior to transmission. This process then follows a transmission process whereby the message is transmitted in the form of codes, either verbally or non-verbally. When the message is received, it will be decoded and immediately sends to the recipient. In this model, the effectiveness of communication depends largely on how accurate the source of information is encoded by the teacher, before being transmitted to the students to be decoded.


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(d) SchrammÊs II Model This is an extended model from Schramm I, whereby he made the connection between the communication process and the field of experience of both sender and recipient of the message. According to Schramm, an effective communication process only occurs when there is an overlapping between both fields of experience, namely the source and destination. This is because the stimulus is encoded and decoded based on the experience of both parties respectively.

Figure 1.5: Schramm II Model (e) SchrammÊs III Model

This model is a further development from the first and second model. It describes communication as an interaction between two parties, namely the sender and the receiver. In the context of a classroom, this type of communication is frequently found during discussions or question-answer sessions held between teacher and students or among the students themselves.

Figure 1.6: Schramm III Model


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Make a careful study on what communication models are used and how information exchange can occur in schools. A one-way communication approach is by centralising the teacher and the students to listen attentively to the instruction delivered by the teacher. Teachers employing this approach usually apply certain strategies such as speeches, story-telling, demonstrations and giving out instructions. This model of communication is characterised by the passive nature, whereby it is less effective when the studentsÊ sole duty is to listen to what the teachers are delivering. Another weakness in this type of communication is the non-existence of communication between student and student, only between teacher and student. This is due to the lack of activities that could induce communication among students in the classroom. Another type is the two-way communication. It involves a discussion method, questioning method and individual method. This type of communication allows greater possibilities for students to ask questions and interact with both teachers and peers. This is an active form of communication and it could reduce the gap between teachers and students. Indirectly, students are trained to have confidence and openness to the opinions of others when a discussion is taking place. Teachers will have to plan activities that will engage the students for a substantial period of time. The last type of communication is the multi-way communication. The multi-way communication is characterized by the interaction between teacher and students, as well as among students themselves. It is also an active form of communication just like the two-way communication described above. This type of communication uses methods such as simulation, modelling and conservation. In this technique, the teacherÊs role is to approach the students as a group, whereby the students can apply the discussion method in their problem solving. Among the qualities that are exhibited in this type of communication is the cultivation of a more intimate bond between teacher and students and optimizing the potential of the students.

ACTIVITY 1.2

Why is social context important in communication?


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COMMUNICATION CHANNELS

To ensure that communication is effective, a proper channel should be selected. All channels have their advantages and disadvantages. The existence of various possibilities to channel information is known as channel richness. Channel richness is the total amount of information that can be transmitted when the communication process is taking place. A rich medium of communication is when a face-to-face scenario is taking place, whereby all sorts of information can be transmitted directly. Transmitting information using a computer is a poor medium of communication. Nevertheless, researchers have discovered that the use of interactive technology presently contributes to information enrichment. This is due to the possibility of transmitting information through interactive videos. There are three factors which influence the potential of all various types of communication channels namely:

(a) To manage all signals simultaneously;

(b) To facilitate two-way reaction; and

(c) To create a personal focus in communication. How about organisational communication? As previously explained, organisational communication is the exchanging of information and the transmission of information among several individuals or groups in a particular organisation. A communication channel can flow in three directions: top-down communication, down-top communication, and lateral communication. These three ways of formal communication channels should be strengthened and protected.

Figure 1.7: Communication flow How about the informal communication channel? Informal channel refers to the interaction of an education manager with his subordinates in an informal setting. This type of communication channel could take place when the education

1.3


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manager is meeting with his subordinates at the school hall, in the canteen or along the school corridors. Now, let us take a look at one of the more familiar communication channel, that is the formal communication channel used in an educational organisation. A formal channel is a communication channel that goes through a chain of orders. Among the examples of a formal communication channel is messages that is approved and acknowledged by the educational organisation, such as orders (in forms of memo issued by superiors to their subordinates) and also written reports pertaining to the participation of subordinates in various activities (i.e. teachers attending Staff Development Course, etc). (a) Top-Down Communication

The upper management transmits messages and information to subordinates using this type of channel. The aim is to enable the staff to have written authority, disseminate information about the organisation, and thus, enabling them to work more efficiently. This top-down communication consists of transmission of various orders and directives pertaining to work, policies and practices of the organisation, work progress, organisational vision and others. Usually, top-down communication takes in the form of speeches, posted messages on bulletin boards, email, manuals and policies.

(b) Down-Top Communication

Upstream communication denotes to messages transmitted from down to up a (superior) in the hierarchy of an educational organisation. An educational organisation has a specific channel for subordinates to voice their dissatisfaction or express their views to their superiors. An example is the existence of a feedback mechanism created by superiors to ensure that the subordinates understand the policies of the organisation. Sometimes a superior would like to know the opinions of his subordinates in relation to an implemented policy and its impact. Besides that, this method enables the subordinates to express their valuable opinion to the organisation. This specific communication channel allows the superior to gather information from his subordinates and use it as a basis in decision making. Downstream communication also provides opportunities for workers to participate actively in an organisation.

(c) Lateral Communication

Communication channels have grown into various forms either through conventional or electronic methods as a means to disseminate policies, elements or quality values to users.


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One way to test whether the communication taking place is effective is through the auditing process. During an auditing session, subordinates will be questioned on tasks and relate them to a pre-existing policy or system. Thus, communication is pivotal in order to ensure that the vision and policies of an organisation are understood and cherished by its members. Several public organisations have started a system of extensive control to ensure that all organisation policies are transmitted from staff (management) to their subordinates. This step is taken so that all information are transmitted more effectively. This approach also allows the management and monitoring system to work more systematically.

FEEDBACK

The absence of feedback is a barrier towards communication. Communication is the interaction between two or more parties; which is a two-way communication between the source and the recipient. In a one-way communication whereby the receiver does not give feedback to the source is perceived as a hindrance towards effective communication. Studies showed that two-way communication is more effective and precise compared to one-way communication. According to Leavitt (1972), one-way communication would make the recipients disappointed but less threatening to the sender. In schools, one-way communication is actively used between the headmaster and teachers, especially in situations where the headmaster is feared by his staff. In this situation, teachers, as recipient of messages have no faith in the headmaster who is the source of the transmitted information. Teachers would show doubt and question the real reason behind the message that is transmitted by the headmaster. This misinterpretation of information invariably would create conflicts when it occurs between two parties during the communication process.

1.4

SELF-CHECK 1.1

Give three examples of communication channels in your educational organization.

ACTIVITY 1.3

Why is non-existence feedback considered a barrier in communication? Discuss with your peers.


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COMMUNICATION IN CONTEXT

Communication barriers can exist accidentally without the knowledge of the sender or receiver. Take a closer look at the conversation below: Mr. Hashim has been appointed the headmaster of Megat Aziz Secondary School for two years. He prides himself on having a good rapport with his teaching staff. One day, as he was sitting in his office, a knock was heard and Mr. Hashim called out to invite the person at the door to come in. Mr. Hashim : Morning, Miss Iza, what can I do for you?

Miss Iza : Morning Mr. Hashim. I have some personal matters to settle and would like to take five days off starting next week to see a doctor for consultation.

Mr. Hashim : I would appreciate it very much if you could postpone the appointment with the doctor to another week since the students are preparing for an exam that is taking place in two weeks time.

Miss Iza : (frowning and without replying left the room) Two days after that incident, Madam Jo hurriedly went to see Mr Hashim in his office to inform him that Miss Iza was found unconscious in the toilet. Mr. Hashim, in a great haste arrived at the spot and several other teachers were already there trying to revive Miss Iza with smelling salts. Mr. Hashim : WhatÊs happening here?

Mdm Jo : Miss Iza was supposed to get five days off from you because she has to undergo a surgery. She postponed the appointment with her doctor when you requested her to do so. Now she fainted due to unbearable pain.

Mr. Hashim : She never told me about this problem.

Miss Iza : (regaining consciousness) You did not ask me.

(Adapted from Ramaiah, 1999)

What kind of barrier occurred in the above scenario? Sometimes, the headmaster is not provided with accurate information because he fails to make the necessary enquiries. In certain situations, the headmaster should get the accurate

1.5


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information in order to make a right decision. The case above clearly demonstrates that a headmaster should be skilful in communicating with his staff in order to gather the right information. In certain situations, the receiver or the person interpreting the message should be more constructive in giving feedback. The feedback that is received should not necessarily be regarded as a threat from the person that transmits the information.

COMMUNICATION FAILURES IN AN EDUCATIONAL ORGANISATION

In an educational organisation, communication at the management level functions as the web that provides fundamental information and policies from the Ministry of Education. To a headmaster, receiving information is an important aspect in communication because he needs to transmit information to his subordinates. Failure to do so, will cause communication breakdown and affect the performance of the organisation. Kamarudin (1982) stated: Abdul Halim (1994), wrote that communication barriers in an educational organisation could occur when:

(a) The headmaster is unable to control the dissemination of messages in the school;

(b) Inappropriate usage of communication apparatus such as an intercom

(c) Too many formal communications taking place;

(d) The teachers failing to understand, hear or misinterpret messages that are delivered to them;

(e) The legitimacy of information is being questioned due to the existence of various barriers such as semantic barrier, no feedback or inferior status; and

(f) The message being too general and not specific. Abdul Halim (1994), further concluded that the problems arise between a headmaster and teaching staff were due to:

(a) The headmaster being unapproachable;

(b) The headmaster fails to use the correct technique and style of communication to suit the various situations;

1.6

„..Failures of communication or inadequate communication may lead to suspicion, misjudgement or even mistrust among members of the school staff and of the whole school.‰


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(c) The headmaster fails to cultivate the necessary skills such as listening skills, delivering skills, skills to draw attention and skills to make an impartial judgement;

(d) The headmaster mistrusts his teaching staff; and

(e) The headmaster stresses on the importance of verbal and formal communication at the expense of other forms of communication.

Thus, a headmaster should ensure that his subordinates will not misinterpret his signals/information that is being delivered.

• This topic summarizes various definitions of communication in an

organisation and its methods.

• Among the highlighted aspects in this topic are one-way communication, two-way communication and multi-way communication.

• The rationale of the communication methods has been discussed.

• The importance of feedback as part of the effective communication has been discussed.

• This topic concluded with the discussion on barriers of communication in an educational organisation.

Communication

Problem

Operation

Principal

Subordinate

Theory

ACTIVITY 1.4

What will happen if a manager fails to overcome barriers in communication? Support your views with relevent examples.


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1. What are the factors that influence the potential of information channels in

communication?

2. Explain upstream communication by giving specific examples.

1. How does the Ministry of Education benefit from an effective

communication system?

2. According to opinion of Abdul Halim (1994), what are the reasons that cause communication barriers in school?

INTRODUCTION

In education, the leadership element is an influential aspect. This is due to the socialization aspect, whereby the existence of a group and society need a leader to lead and manage them. This interaction is a mechanism, which requires a leader to possess special skills or talent. Research findings revealed that communication leadership is associated with a range of styles and strategies used by the leader when completing a task. There are various types of communication leadership used by a leader, namely: autocratic, democratic, laissez-faire, transformational and situational communication leadership. In this topic, the various types of leadership communication approaches from an educational organisation perspective will be discussed.

TTooppiicc

22

Leadership Style and Communication


1. Identify leadership and communication styles used by leaders in an organization;

2. Identify the main criteria in an autocratic leadership approach;

3. List out the similarities and differences in democratic, laissez-faire and transformational approaches; and

4. Discuss the main approaches in situational leadership.

TOPIC 2 LEADERSHIP STYLE AND COMMUNICATION

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LEADERSHIP CONCEPT

Leadership is a quality exuded by a person of high standing or position, in order to influence the characters and behaviours of the subordinates or workers under his supervision. The main reason is to persuade his subordinates to follow a prescribed process in order to achieve an organisational goal. Leadership is also closely associated with having the skills to persuade and offer guidance so as to instil confidence, reverence and obedience among the subordinates with the final aim to achieve an organisational objectives. Elements of leaderships include:

(a) Leadership process

(b) Leadership concepts

(c) Rights to execute one or more action to lead What are the qualities a leader should have? A person with the nature to lead should possess the characteristics listed below:

(a) Self Confidence. A leader should possess a high level of self confidence in order to be able to persuade his subordinates effectively.

(b) Forming realistic goals and be able to achieve them within a predetermined time frame.

(c) Opportunistic. A leader should be able to continuously identify and locate opportunities. When an opportunity arises, a leader should be able to make a quick and precise analysis and assessment prior to taking it.

(d) Location of Control. Being able to exert control at the right time, place and situation is considered an advantage to a leader. A leader that succeeds in exerting inner local control would reap greater success. Controlling external location is not practised anymore at present due to difficulties in execouting this.

(e) Goal Oriented. In business, those that manage to survive and persevere usually share a common trait, that is, they are continuously moving

2.1

The effective functioning of social systems is assumed to be dependent on the quality of their leadership.

Do you agree with the statement above? Discuss with your course mates.

ACTIVITY 2.1


18

forward to achieve their goals. They understand the importance of being goal oriented and thus, work hard to achieve it.

(f) Optimistic. A leader should be optimistic in order to be able to persuade his subordinates. Without this quality, it might be difficult for his subordinates to have the drive to excel. The importance of this quality is most apparent when a leader wants to find opportunities in situations that are both desperate and pressing.

(g) Fortitude. A leader should have a high level of courage because his position necessitates him to constantly face complex situations.

(h) Tolerance of Ambiguity. A leader should be able to deal with complex situations with a degree of tolerance. When a pressing and difficult situation arises, a leader should be able to control his emotion, motivate others and to boost his subordinatesÊ morale while maintaining it at a high level.

(i) Strong Inner-Self Motivation: The motivational force that drives a personÊs behaviour comes from intrinsic and extrinsic sources. Intrinsic factors comprise needs, desires and determination. Extrinsic factors arise from influential forces originated from the surroundings such as reward and penalty.

(j) Galender (1999), summarised several activities closely related to leadership. Among them were administration, communication, human resource management, interaction with outsiders and other matters (Figure 2.1). A leader should have several characteristics to enable him to lead effectively:

Figure 2.1: A leaderÊs routine


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A leader with successful leadership skills should play several functions which include:

(a) To initiate ideas and implement what has been proposed;

(b) To promote group participation in activities organized by the organisation;

(c) To represent the organisation at meetings;

(d) To form work groups with the support of subordinates;

(e) To encourage communication among subordinates;

(f) To supervise information exchange between leaders and subordinates;

(g) To filter information from within or outside the organisation in order to ensure that important information is shared;

(h) To give suitable rewards according to the individualÊs level of competence and efficiency; and

(i) To generate quality products. A leader should be equipped with specific skills in order to shoulder difficult tasks. Lethans (1995) suggested several skills which a leader should cultivate, including communication skills, human resource development skills, creativity, self-management skills and civility (see Figure 2.2).

Figure 2.2: Skills for organisational leaders


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Abdul Halim (1994) summarised six types of communication related to education administration, one of which is the control type. This control type favours a one-way communication whereby the outcome is in the form of instructions, commands and demands. The person giving the communication wants to stress his opinion and ensure that his subordinate follows his directive. A control type communicator will often try to influence others to follow and execute what he wants. The second type is the equalitarian type, who emphasizes communication which flows both ways. This type of communication usually produces something more fluid and unhindered that will result in mutual understanding that excites the interest of both communicators and receiver. An equalitarian type would create a cordial and positive atmosphere. The third type believes in structuring communication. This type of communication is based on the construction of rules and regulations to enhance its foundation. The communicator is tied to existing rules and tried to influence others by subjecting them through a set of regulated rules or laws. Thus, it is more objective in its approach and less influenced by emotion.

Figure 2.3: TeacherÊs role as a leader when negotiating with parents Source: http://www.maine.gov/education/bullyingprevention

/images/ parentteacher.jpg The dynamic type focuses on important matters only. The communicator will relate his opinion candidly while focusing on important matters. This type of communication is based on frankness, pragmatism and action. The communicator is interested to deliver his opinion in a direct manner and hopes for a reaction or solution.


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The fifth type is the type who relinquish communication. The communicator in this category usually tries to agree with other peopleÊs opinions. They are called relinquish communicators because they tend to prefer to fulfil the desire of others. They o value the opinions of others and thus, inadvertently place the responsibility on others as well. When opinions from others are accepted, a sense of shared responsibility is created. The last type is called the withdrawal type of communication. This type of communication does not stress any aspect of communication because the communicator has no confidence that his opinion will leave a strong impact on the receiving party. The communicator tends to take on an individualistic approach and rarely participates to make decisions through the interaction.

AUTOCRATIC LEADERSHIP APPROACH

This is a classical approach whereby a leader will use his power and status to make a decision. The opinions and views of his subordinates will not be taken into account when the decision is made. Leaders under this category will not accept any explanation by his subordinates. Subordinates are expected to follow his decision and instruction. But how to go about motivating subordinates? Environmental motivation is generated by creating a structured set of rewards and penalties. During the past 30 years, this type of leadership was severely criticized. Studies have shown that organisations practising autocratic leadership eventually will face problems such as subordinates being absent from their work and duties. This type of approach will certainly cause heavy losses to any organisation especially when defiant subordinates are systematically discriminated. Approaches taken by autocratic leadership are as follow:

(a) Highly dependent on threats and penalties in order to control subordinates.

(b) Inability to trust subordinates.

(c) Subordinates are not given the opportunity to give input or opinions.

2.2

SELF-CHECK 2.1

State three communication activities carried out by a leader.


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Figure 2.4: Autocratic leaders are fully in-charge Source: http://www.cartoonstock.com/lowres/hsc2014l.jpg

However, autocratic leadership is needed in certain situations such as in the following situations:

(a) A newly-recruited staff that has yet to be trained and thus is not familiar with his scope of duties or procedures to adhere.

(b) Orders and directives to be given only when they are accompanied by effective supervision.

(c) Subordinates that do not respond well to other types of leadership.

(d) When production is required.

(e) When a decision is to be made within a limited period of time.

(f) When the authority of a leader is being questioned by a subordinate.

(g) Unsatisfactory regional maintenance.

(h) When tasks need to be coordinated among various departments. Autocratic leadership is not suitable in the following situations:

(a) When subordinates are tense, fearful, expressing anger, defiance or being rebellious.

(b) When subordinates hope to have their opinions be given due attention.


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(c) When subordinates start to rely entirely on their leaders for all decisions.

(d) When the morale of subordinatesÊ is depressingly low, leading to subordinates absenting themselves from work or quitting their jobs. This will cause major losses to the organisation.

And what is meant by authoritative leadership communication? This type of communication refers to the practice whereby subordinates are being pressed down by commands or autocratic powers of a leader. In this scenario, no space is given to the subordinates when it comes to decision making. Glodhaber (1983) gave his opinion that messages passing from a leader to his subordinates are normal in nature. However, aspects of discipline, orders and fundamental aims are stressed. Shukri (2004) found that authoritative communication is a norm based on his study on authoritative communication on a group of teachers undergoing practical training. The involvement of newly recruited teachers in the process of planning and decision making is limited. This is because the headmaster or schoolmaster exerts more influence when it comes to planning and other such related matters. New teaching staff are usually not given the chance to be involved in any work committee or participate in other major boards whereby their voices could be heard. These circumstances can cause dissatisfaction and reduce motivation. This type of environment often results in teachers becoming uncommitted in their work, showing poor attendance, practising self-isolation, and are grounds for fermenting inter-personal conflicts between them and the school as well as other teaching staff (Shukri, 2004).

ACTIVITY 2.2

1. Explain the autocratic leadership approach attributes. 2. What are the situations whereby an autocratic leadership

approach is relevant? Discuss with your course mates.


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DEMOCRATIC LEADERSHIP APPROACH

Democratic leadership is also known as involvement type because it encourages subordinates in the decision making process and tries to get them to participate in the discussions. A democratic leader would explain to his subordinates all the elements pertaining to their work. Both leader and subordinates then reach a decision or solve a problem jointly. This type of leadership requires the leader to act as a facilitator and to make the final decision after taking into account all the information given by his staff.

Democratic leadership can produce good quality results in the long run. Generally, subordinates respond well to the trust given to them along with other positive attributes arising from a democratic leadership such as cooperativeness, team-work and a high morale. A democratic leader usually:

(a) Develops a plan in order to help his subordinates to evaluate themselves.

(b) Allows his subordinates to set their own targets.

(c) Encourages his subordinates to progress and to be promoted

(d) Identifies and encourages his subordinates to greater heights of achievements.

This type of leadership can be successful when it is implemented skilfully among experienced subordinates or when operational changes is being practised or when handling problems of an individual in a group.

2.3


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Democratic leadership is a more effective approach when:

(a) The leader wishes to inform his subordinates on matters that will directly influence their work.

(b) The leader desires his subordinates to reach a decision or solve a problem together.

(c) The leader wants to create job opportunities or propel the career of an individual to greater heights, thus increasing his subordinatesÊ satisfaction.

(d) There are a lot of problems or difficulties that require lots of input in order to resolve them.

(e) Changes are imperative or there are problems that need to be resolved, lest they interfere with the work of the subordinates.

(f) You need to inspire the spirit of working as a cohesive team and to encourage participation among workers.

The democratic type of leadership is discouraged under these following circumstances:

(a) When time is a limiting factor to enable you to get all the input from various parties.

(b) The leader himself could easily and effectively make a decision.

(c) The business is unable to countenance any sort of error.

(d) The leader feels that his position is vulnerable under this type of leadership.

(e) The safety of his workers becomes a critical concept. Suggestion:

(a) Situations that can benefit from the Democratic type of leadership When the energy level among the workers is high and members could benefit from active discussion and by exchanging opinions.

(b) Bureaucratic type of leadership Bureaucratic leadership is a form of management through Âadministrating everything by the bookÊ. Everything is run using standard procedures and policies. When a precedent cannot be found in the book, the leader will have to refer the matter to a higher authority.


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Bureaucratic Leadership The leader is more like a police officer rather than a leader. This type of leadership is effective in the following circumstances when:

(a) Workers perform routine work.

(b) Workers need to understand a certain procedure in their line of work.

(c) Workers handle equipment that require a set of procedures in order to execute their given duties.

(d) Safety drill in a work place is being performed.

(e) Workers are tasked with handling money.

This type of leadership is not advisable under these circumstances:

(a) Work of a difficult nature with a strict schedule.

(b) Workers start to lose interest in their work.

(c) Workers do only the minimal work expected from them.

ACTIVITY 2.3

1. What are the situations when the democratic leadership approach is relevant? Discuss with your course mates.

2. Explain the weakness of a democratic leadership approach.


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LAISSEZ-FAIRE LEADERSHIP

Laissez-faire leadership is also known as a Âfree-handÊ type of leadership because it seldom involves direction. The leader gives total freedom to his subordinates to make decisions and solve problems in order to achieve their final goal.

This type of leadership is effective under the following circumstances:

(a) When the workers are highly-skilled, educated and experienced in their line of work.

(b) When workers have a high sense of responsibility towards their duty and a willingness to push themselves to succeed in their career.

(c) When outside expertise is being sought, i.e., consultants are brought in.

(d) When the workers can be trusted and are experienced in handling their tasks.

This type of leadership is not advisable under these conditions:

(a) When workers feel insecure under this type of leadership.

(b) When leaders/managers fail to summarise/respond to their workers who excel in their job.

(c) When the leader fails to show appreciation or to thank his workers for their excellent performance.

(d) When the leader is unable to comprehend or does not know his own responsibility and thus, expect his subordinates to make all the decisions for him.

2.4


28

Suggestion: Situations that can benefit from the Laissez-Faire type of Leadership:

(a) When the situation becomes inflexibly structural and its members feel suffocated. Laissez-faire leadership allow a certain degree of freedom which can dispel boredom from constraint workers.

(b) When members of an organisation want to make decisions on their own.

TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERSHIP

Transformational leadership is an approach whereby the culture that influences the leadership pattern of a leader or an organisation is altered by changing the pre-existing values or vision. MacGregor suggested that transformational leadership is a mutual effort by both the leader and his followers to raise morale and boost motivation. In the context of an organisation, a leader exerts great influence on his followers. Thus, the leader could have the capability for transformational leadership by having a vision and acting upon it in order to create changes and fulfilling the agenda of his organisation. Cecelia Falbe, in her research on leadership, based upon her study on 58 heads of executives, concluded that the concept of leadership is based on social influence. The result of this research showed that the leadership of a leader in an institute could directly inspire change and systematically helped in developing values in an organisation. Let us take a look at the characteristics possessed by a transformational leader:

(a) A transformational leader is an agent that advocates for changes (Leithwood & Jantzi, 1990; Tichy & Devanna, 1986). This type of leader acts as a catalyst for changes, and not in the role of controlling changes.

(b) A leader that has a vision, and a holistic view on how an organisation should look like in future. A transformational leader also will try to assess the time as to when all the aims of the organisation will be realized.

2.5

ACTIVITY 2.4

1. What are the situations where the laissez-faire leadership approach is relevant? Discuss.

2. Why is the laissez-faire leadership viewed as giving a Âfree handÊ in handling matters?


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(c) A leader that inspires his staff to be ambitious and achieve more than what they think they are capable of (Hoover, 1991; Bosler & Bauman, 1992). An organisation with a lucid vision enables its staff to excel in their duties and tasks.

(d) A leader having the ability to heighten the level of awareness pertaining to the aims and goals of an organisation (Hoover, 1991). This leader will act as a role model for values that he tries to instil in his subordinates. He will dedicate himself to alter the values of an organisation, in order to achieve organisational goal.

(e) A leader plays the role of an educator towards the community as a whole (Cuban, 1989). He will act as a model in his community whereby his actions enable him to influence others towards change.

(f) A leader with strong determination. A transformational leader has the patience to wait for a long time for his ideas and changes to be carried out.

We often find that subordinates have changing views on the leadership of an educational organisation. Ramaiah (1998) pointed out that the issues of leadership revolve around committed responsibility. In other words, leadership is not about finding fault or being aggressive towards subordinates. On the contrary, it is about duty and responsibility. Islam stresses the concept of shouldering responsibility as a form of worship. A leader executing his responsibility diligently is equated to having a heavy task as performing worship. Thus, a transformational leader should always think of the duties and responsibilities entrusted to him.

2.5.1 Aim of a Transformational Leader

Leithwood (1990) explained that a transformational leader should possess these three basic aims: (a) Help staff to build and preserve a culture that centres on cooperation and

exhibit a high degree of professionalism when performing their duty. The leader will encourage his staff to set a common goal, apply to bureaucracy to support changes, share leadership, and actively exchange communication on various schools of thought and norms.

(b) Help to develop teaching staff. Human development is closely linked to

professional sprouting. How to get staff involved in enhancing professional knowledge? By getting them to participate in various activities that can assist in achieving the true aim, which is getting new ideas.


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(c) Help staff to work smart. A leader should help his staff to arrive at a solution collectively as a group.

An individual with transformational leadership skills is usually charismatic and has the ability inspire, stimulate intellectually and empathise with others. According to Weber (1968), charisma refer to the extraordinary characteristics endowed upon an individual, separating him from the masses. A charismatic individual willingly sacrifices for the prosperity of his organisation, displays a confident self, has integrity, adheres strongly to organisational values and stresses the importance of supporting a common vision in an organisation. A charismatic leader is also associated with being sensitive towards the needs of his subordinates. He, explained the future direction of the organisation and its aims, loves to share his ideas with his subordinates, gives inspiration, prepares to take on risks, and invariably self-sacrifices for the benefit of the organisation as a whole, as well as is highly innovative. Let us examine closer what researchers think of a charismatic leader:

No Researcher Explanation

1 Conger and Kanungo (1992)

Agent responsible for radical changes.

2 Howell and Avolio (1992)

A leader possessing the panacea that can cure various diseases in an organisation.

ACTIVITY 2.5

1. What are the situations when the transformational leadership is relevant? Who are the leaders in education associated with transformational leadership?

2. Why are transformational leaders often regarded as agents or catalysts of change?


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LEADERSHIP CASE STUDIES

Brother Casmir, a headmaster and renowned educationist from St Xavier Secondary School, Penang, is known among the local community and peers as an efficient and professional leader. During monthly assemblies, Brother Casmir would invariably give out presents and praise to his teaching staff for their excellent dedication towards their work. He would also present gifts to students who obtained excellent results in their examinations. Besides that, Brother Casmir founded the tradition of an Annual Award for students who show great leadership in their respective associations and clubs. Brother Casmir placed a lot of attention in the school prefects to supervise the discipline of their students. Prefects with excellent performance will be awarded. He also delegated his responsibilities to teachers and staff to efficiently handle various events held in the school.

• This topic discussed the definition of leadership and communication

leadership. Among the aspects that have been discussed are various approaches in communication including democratic communication, autocratic, laissez-faire and situational communication leadership.

• An educational leader has to use a communication leadership approach depending on the scenario in their organisation.

• This topic concluded with looking at some of the styles in a communication leadership case study.

2.6

SELF-CHECK 2.2

What is the leadership style practised by Casmir? Discuss.


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Authoritarianism

Autocratic

Autonomy

Bureaucratic

Curriculum leadership

Democratic

Equalitarian

Innovation

Interaction

Laissez-faire

1. What are the elements in a leadership?

2. Explain the five qualities a leader should possess.

1. State four situations whereby autocratic communication approach can be

used.

2. Explain three situations whereby the democratic type of communication is effective.

INTRODUCTION

Effective communication is not solely depending on speech. Some other elements are used to ensure that communication is delivered effectively. Nowadays, technology has enormously helped people to rapidly deliver a message. Technology devices such as computer email or web sites are used to disseminate information and thus, making the communication process easier. However, there are some other aspects that should be taken into consideration for an effective communication process. Some of those aspects are beautifying a classroom, class culture and remembering names. These approaches should be made part of a routine for a teacher to forge closer bonds with the students. The aim of meaningful learning is when the communication process occurs between students and teachers.

TTooppiicc

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Towards Effective Communication

LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this topic, you should be able to:1. Explain the main elements towards an effective communication

process; 2. Identify the main elements in developing effective communication in

schools; 3. Categorize words that can be used when communicating with others;

and 4. Evaluate the use of body language in communication.

TOPIC 3 TOWARDS EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION

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OPENING MINDS

Most of our behaviours are derived from our mind. In a classroom, subconsciously, we are able to perform creatively. What effort have you done to open your mind positively? Ponder over this for a moment before reading on. Creating a cheerful environment in the classroom is not something alien to most teachers. Most of the time, the teachers will have the initiative to make the classroom cheerful by decorating it with posters, colourful cards or attractive pictures and printed materials. The posters and learning materials are typically assembled at the back of the classroom. Another corner is reserved for quizzes and the latest news which are pinned on a notice board. Most researchers think that a comfortable and cosy classroom could enhance learning and encourage communication. Certain subjects such as Arts and Music will inspire students to decorate their classrooms. As for example, students learning Chinese language would be motivated in their pursuit if they are surrounded by Chinese calligraphy. This visual aid will certainly inspire admiration and interest of the Chinese ancient civilization and culture among students learning Chinese. Besides that, the exhibition of works, arts and composition by other students will also inspire others to work hard. When there is an interaction between the student and his or her surroundings, an intimate sense of belonging will exist. This intimate sense of belonging refers to the mutual and natural manifestation of feelings. Since we cannot predict the social situation of a group of children, the teachers, however, can promote the social situation by encouraging communication amongst the school children. When we are familiar with the children for an extended period of time (a week or more), we will discover the diversity of relationship fostered among the children. This phenomenon should be viewed positively and not negatively: Several tips that can be used to foster an early relationship in class are:

(a) Memorizing as many names as possible

(b) Introducing ourselves to the children

(c) Be punctual, courteous and neat

(d) Showing them that we are sincere in helping them to learn

(e) Ensuring that there are rules and regulations and acquainting the children to it at an early stage

(f) Interaction in groups or individually, either in class or outside the classroom to draw their attention.

3.1


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(g) To identify what is interesting in class and to continue the interesting factors so that you can teach comfortably.

(h) Try to involve the children in their studies by asking them questions and paying attention to their needs.

(i) Work closely with children with special needs (altering the speed in teaching to suit their ability).

(j) Identify children with problems and try learning/understanding their problems and behaviours. Take them to a corner and explain to them how their behaviour can jeopardize their studies.

(k) Pay attention to absentees and then try to encourage them by saying how great to see them again and tell them what they have missed out in class

CLASS CULTURE

Culture is an important aspect in personality development. Class culture also plays a crucial role in shaping the character and behaviour of a student. Class culture will leave an imprint on the mind of a student from the moment he first steps into the class until an indelible impression is formed. Class culture refers to the belief and impression of things taking place in classroom. This culture is formed through the relationship between teacher and students in the context within the class, supported by external activities outside the classroom. For example, if the teacher himself excels in sports or has a melodious voice, these attributes will influence the formation of positive attitude among students while teaching.

3.2

State what you think are two challenges when attracting childrenÊs concentration.

ACTIVITY 3.1


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Figure 3.1: Teachers need to have a good understanding on societyÊs culture and subculture

However, the question arises is that should the teacher admit himself to the existing class culture or try to impress his own culture on the class? This is an interesting point to ponder. Let us study the situation listed below: First, let us look at the existing regulation in a classroom. A teacher might try to rationalize the existing routine found in a classroom since most class routines are of basic importance. Among the duties of a teacher are answering questions for fielded to them by students, collecting exercise books, evaluating homework, ushering and guiding groups of students during training sessions. At the same time, teachers also have to study the various personalities of his students. However, when this thing is taking place, are other aspects pertaining to students in the class being raised? Teachers might want to be cautious when offering his opinion, as an inappropriate choice of word might be critical to the class. Are you the type of teacher who is not scared to object and criticise certain aspects that are implemented in other classes? As a communicator, teachers should bear in mind that they are not pioneers in a program. Most of the time they are only responsible to what is happening in their classroom and thus, they have the authority to sationalize a routine and set their own rules. Each teacher will have his own style of management and apply it to his own students. There are certain teachers who are inflexible in their rules and sensitive of being criticised by his peers. In this kind of situation, it is most important for teachers to build a good rapport among colleagues; so that they can learn each othersÊ routine and regulations through observation. This might actually help teachers in the process of achieving learning objectives based on routine and rules that have been set up. A teacher is able to change the class culture by proposing ideas and opinions through discussions among colleagues.


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Culture is not something static or eternally relevant. As a teacher, we can solicit new ideas in order to gain knowledge. New experiences and knowledge are useful to stabilise a challenging situation. A teacher can gain new ideas to improve his teaching and his situation in class by constantly engaging in discussions with:

(a) Colleagues

(b) Headmaster/Principal

(c) Vice Principal

(d) Parents

(e) Stakeholders

Through the means of communication, we are actually providing ourselves a chance to build a class that is suitable to our management pattern and personality. An age-old culture may not be relevant at this age and time. As teachers, we should practise innovation and communicate with various parties in order to instil positive tradition in the teaching profession.

REMEMBERING NAMES

Various techniques are employed as an effort to help us remember names. This is because we know that by addressing each student with their names, we are creating a mutual and emotional bond. As a teacher who has many students and faces many names to remember, how can a teacher remember all their names? Addressing students using their personal name is pivotal to create an effective relationship with students. Students will feel that they are given personal attention by the teacher as an individual. One of the common ways to help teachers remember names is by drawing a chart with the name of each student and their sitting place. A teacher can refer to this chart when he calls out his students. This chart can also be improvised by asking students to provide pictures and attaching these next to their names on the chart.

3.3

SELF-CHECK 3.1

When facing a challenging situation, whom should a teacher refer to?


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This is a technique frequently used by teachers when calling out names and students will feel that they are given a fair share of attention in class Another technique is to put a name tag on each student. Numerous schools are using this technique with the addition of the students names in the classroom as well on the tag. Sometimes, teachers will request to have the tag be placed on the studentÊs desk, a method whereby a teacher can do away with the chart. This is actually a motivation towards the students who appreciate the efforts of their teachers remembering their names. Besides that, another technique is to divide the class into groups; a frequently practised method used during group training sessions. Each group will have its own technique to memorize the names of its members. Sometimes, each individual will be assigned a number at the beginning and do a self-introduction when his number is called. A headmaster running a school should also remember the name of his subordinates as well. It is considered a duty for a headmaster to memorise the names of the teaching staff as this could reflect his professionalism and increase self-esteem among his staff

3.3.1 Giving Instructions

Giving out instructions in the classroom on a daily basis is a fairly normal practise for any teacher. Instructions given in a clear and smooth manner is important to manage a class effectively. Students will be unable to perform their task satisfactorily if the instruction given by teachers is unclear or difficult to

Did You Know! An effective manager should learn the technique of giving instructions and guidelines to his subordinates. Failure to give absolute instructions can reflect on us being careless in our duties.

ACTIVITY 3.2

Suggest two techniques that can be applied to memorise the names of students.


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understand. Thus, a teacher should request his class to pay attention and be silent prior to giving any instruction. Failure to issue clear and distinct instructions reflects badly on the teacher being careless during the process of delivering the instructions. There are a few situations which render a teacher unable to read out the instruction or guidelines during an activity (Tie, 2002). During Science lessons, it is imperative that a teacher gives clear instruction before the laboratory activity can proceed. There are a number of experiments that are dangerous and forbidden in the lab, but the teacher might choose to do it because either he has done it before or he might view the experiment as safe. An explosion or a fire might start due to his actions; and worse, the students might suffer from an injury such as losing an eye or suffer from major and minor burns.

Figure 3.2: Instructions need to be listened to carefully

Sourcer: http://www.globalpreviews.co.uk/lion-aslan/edit/files/images/rbsb2_07%20Deaf.jpg

Another example is when a teacher fails to give instructions when conducting experiments. It is compulsory to wear gloves when conducting experiments, especially in handling chemicals that are corrosive and carcinogenic. Failing to give this instruction to his students might cause them to proceed with the laboratory work without gloves. Students might then be exposed to harmful chemicals and suffer from burns if they accidently have skin contact with corrosive chemicals. In another case, a new teacher was assigned to teach Physical Education, whereby he has to train a group of 15 year old students in football. After demonstrating to his students how to tackle a ball, his students were unable to perform the manoeuvre. The teacher became frustrated and instructed one of his students to execute the manoeuvre. In his enthusiasm, he tackled the ball with force and thus, caused serious injury to the student by breaking his leg.


40

The examples above show that teachers are responsible to provide proper instructions while executing their duties. The types and the quality of instruction issued from teachers are crucial in order to avoid injury and accidents from happening. A vague instruction is difficult for students to understand and to follow. Clear and precise wording is pivotal so that the instruction will not be misinterpreted. Vagueness in communication will not only cause confusion but also accidents.

DELIVERING EFFECTIVE LESSONS

How do we effectively deliver a lesson? Prior to teaching a subject, a teacher should be confident of the title, content and scope of the topic that he will be teaching. He should possess the necessary skills to think and communicate, while delivering the chosen subject. Sometimes, we do come across situation whereby a person has only a vague idea on what he is going to teach and thus, rendering the lesson trivial. Therefore, it is very important to have a profound knowledge in the subject that will be taught. Some teachers have the misconception that the school is a training ground, whereas, in reality, their responsibility is to shape and support the student's learning process. Furthermore, school is the place for teachers to plan and to cultivate values in students so that they are successful in life. If we take a look at the learning process, is education solely to gain knowledge in order to excel in examinations? Learning is not merely securing information, but training ourselves in both comprehension and memorization. The memorizing process is just similar to our process of returning home by memorizing the route or braking when we realize that we are over speeding during driving. These actions are done our car because we understood what we are doing. Learning is about improving the mind, action and conduct. A child has gone through a learning process when he knows and understands what he does not prior to this process. But at a higher level of learning, an effective learning process will motivate a student to further improve himself and to increase self-confidence. A variety of methods can contribute to a better learning process. In

3.4

SELF-CHECK 3.2

Why should a teacher communicate with clear and precise instructions?


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addition, learning is all about shaping a positive attitude and cultivating relevant and useful skills. Effective learning is when a child can see clearly how a learning process is being carried out and how knowledge and understanding are formed and utilized. A teacherÊs role is to improve the studentÊs learning skills in order for the student to be independent when facing challenges in future. The learning process can occur intrinsically or extrinsically. Extrinsic learning is characterised by experiences that can be utilized positively or negatively. A positive experience can further reinforce the learning process while a negative experience can cause detrimental changes on the students. One way of learning is having students to focus on important topics and memorising important facts and information. However, this only works on certain types of lessons. Sometimes students should be encouraged to step out from the cocoon and to start networking effectively in order for them to learn in a macro-environment.

LANGUAGE SPEECH

How do you speak in class? How frequently do you make mistakes in your language? Are your mistakes being noticed by your friends Using the correct and suitable language is pivotal in verbal communication. This is because verbal communication involves both words and meanings. The choice of word and the correct meaning should be suitable to the audienceÊs level of understanding. Generally, words and its meanings are viewed from several aspects:

(a) Symbol.

(b) Arbitrary.

(c) Tied to the context.

(d) In relation to the culture.

(e) Having both denotative and connotative meanings.

(f) Communicating concrete and abstract meanings.

3.5

SELF-CHECK 3.3

What are the roles of a teacher during the learning process?


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Denotative refers to: • Definition which is limited and explicit to a word.

Example: Graduates are male students in universities. Connotative refers to: • A reaction; personal and subjective in nature towards a word.

Example: Graduates are male students in universities who are not hardworking but always succeed.

How can wordings exert such influence in written text? Powerful words are chosen because they contain:

(a) The power to build.

(b) The power to influence the mind and action.

(c) The power to touch onesÊ emotion and reflect a culture. The correct choice of words and intonation while delivering it are important. In writing memos, official letters or letters for circulation, the choice of words reflects heavily on the effort of an educational organisation to influence the readerÊs understanding and to deliver the organisationÊs instructions succinctly. In choosing a correct word, several barriers can occur and they are: (a) Bypassing

Misinterpretation, whereby a word means something else to others. Example: „Gracefulness‰ may be „well-mannered‰ to a mother but to a

young man, it has the connotation of being „effeminate‰. (b) Bafflegab

To use unnecessary words with abstract meanings. For example:

(i) „Please do not speak loudly and do not make noise‰.

(ii) „Please be silent‰ is more appropriate.

(c) Ambiguous Words that are not used in the right context or in the right way. Example: The size of the meteorite is very big.

(d) Generalisation

Categorising all things or items under the same group. Example: All politicians have personal agendas.


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(e) Statistical Evaluation To label a person, object and incidents without taking into account changes that have occurred. Example: Abu calls his 21 year old nephew a rascal just because the latter

broke AbuÊs window pane when he was 10. (f) Polarisation

An extreme statement about a person or situation. Example: Either you are indeed too clever or too foolish for liking that

person. (g) Confusion in Inference of Facts

Stating a fact without basing it on any observations, facts or opinion from experts. Example: Men are cleverer compared to women.

(h) Prejudice

Words that show discrimination against women, ethnicity and religion. Example: Malays are stupid, Chinese are filthy and Indians are bad.

3.5.1 Language Effects

The use of language can have several effects in communication: (a) Name and Identity

(i) To shape how other people think of us and perceive us.

(ii) To have different connotation i.e. lion-fierce, sparrow-noisy.

(iii) Having odd names will make the person feel inferior.

(iv) Men generally are more affected by the negative impact. (b) Credibility and Status

(i) Speech manners reflect a personÊs status.

(ii) Crucial during interviews. (c) In Relations

(i) Convergence is adapting the way of speaking to conform to a particular group.

Example: To alter oneÊs manner of speech to blend in with the masses.


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(ii) Divergence is adapting the way of speaking to instil kinship.

Example: Using a regional dialect to show kinship.

(iii) Demonstrative Pronoun Choice is a way of speaking using either a more positive or more negative word.

Example: You, me them, they, him to show intimacy or rivalry.

(iv) Sequential placement is a technique to arrange words to express oneÊs view towards an issue or matter. Normally starting with a positive tone and follow by a negative tone.

(v) Negation is a way of stating disapproval in a veiled manner or indirectly. Example: „It wasnÊt bad‰, „I think it is OK‰.

(vi) Duration or period of speech can determine whether the two parties conversing are intimate or otherwise. Example: a couple in love.

(d) Power

(i) The correct usage of language can illustrate the possession of power.

(ii) Goodness- showing confidence, firmness and credibility.

(iii) Weakness- short-term results, reflects a weak culture.

(iv) The best way is to combine both types of languages; firm and soft. Example: making inquiries and not interrogating.

(e) Ethnic Spirit, Racism and Sexism

(i) Racist and sexist language can have damaging effects on the person that is being discriminated.

(ii) Racist remarks are insulting to the discriminated ethnic whereas a sexist remark glorifies men. Example: a negro, white man, coloured man.

3.5.2 Speech during Introduction and Closure

How do we start and end a conversation? A number of professionals depend on language skills to earn a living, i.e. politicians, sales person, entertainers, artist or motivational speakers. Fluency of speech does not necessarily translate to having communication skills. Sometimes, a voluble person could have the reverse effect of hurting those around him. It is a misconception to consider by speaking out is communication, whereas effective communication is a talent that needs to be honed.


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However, communication is not solely about speaking. Communication skills are based on knowledge and a good rapport between two parties that can be developed through conversation and dialogue. Quality Conversation and dialogue could forge an intimate bond between two acquaintances. A salesperson will undergo a detailed training on how to initiate a conversation. The training is to help the salesperson to develop characters such as being courteous and helpful towards potential customers. This approach can help the salesperson to build a working-relationship with a first time customer. There are several ways to engage a person in conversation. Some of these ways are chatting, holding a conversation, praising, entertaining and jesting, which can rouse emotional stimulation. In a formal situation such as an interview, the opening conversation is of crucial importance because it will determine the outcome to be good or bad. A few ways of explaining how to start a conversation or introduction are as shown in Table 3.1:

Table 3.1: Examples of How to Start a Conversation or Introduction

1. Introduction in a social situation

The interviewee has to ensure that they give a good introduction to the interviewer. Not only that, it is beneficial to make acquaintance with them before the session starts.

2. Introduction as a fact The interviewer starts the interview by asking important facts. The interviewer will then assess how the interviewee explains on the aspect of management and relevant issues.

3. Introduction as motivation The interviewee motivating the interviewer during the interviewing session by displaying visual props to attract the interviewerÊs attention.

The same technique can be used to end a conversation. The conversation should be summarised and the interviewer must ensure that the interviewee understands what is being explained to him.

3.5.3 Using Non-Verbal Communication

Non-verbal Communication means when the message is not transferred using a linguistic manner. In other words, body language replaces the linguistic factor. (a) Non-verbal Communication Attributes

(i) Non-verbal communication is prevalent in our daily lives.

(ii) All non-verbal communication has communication value (message).


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(iii) It differs according to culture.

(iv) Non-verbal communication is related to status of a relationship.

(v) Non-verbal communication is ambiguous.

(vi) Non-verbal communication has many functions. (b) Non-verbal Functions

(i) Repeating an action in order to express an idea emblem. Waving hands to express farewell.

(ii) Substitution as in yawning due to boredom.

(iii) Complement signalling the behaviour between two communicators. Example: when we are embarrassed by what the other party said, we hang down our head.

(iv) Accentuating oral message. Example: pointing finger accusatively and saying ÂThis is entirely your fault!Ê

(v) Controlling conversation. Example: Raising voices as a sign when we want to direct our conversation to a person.

(vi) Contradicting message. Example: putting a smile but fuming inside.

There are a few problems while interpreting non-verbal communication.

(i) Message invariably appears ambiguous.

(ii) Message appearing interminable and without ending.

(iii) Too many channels.

(iv) The interpretation highly depends on the context and culture. What can we learn from non-verbal communication? Researchers in this field divided non-verbal communication into several codes: (a) Emblem

Behaviour carrying specific meaning that is generally understood by the masses.

Example: Students raising their hands when the teacher aks a question. (b) Illustrator

Behaviour accompanies a verbal message and gives meaning to the message.

Example: A lecturer striking the desk to give emphasis on points that he is delivering.


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(c) Emotional Display Displaying emotion and feelings. Example: Very angry.

Figure 3.3: Emotional communication has its own meaning

(d) Regulator Behaviours that control and direct the flow of communication

between individuals. Example: Maintaining eye contact when addressing another

individual. (e) Adaptor

Behaviours that help us to acclimatise ourselves to the environment. Example: Unfurling the umbrella.

(c) Types of Non-verbal Communication

(i) Face and eyes

(ii) Limbs movement

(iii) Body contact (haptiks)

(iv) Voice

(v) Territoriality

(vi) Time (Kronemiks)

(vii) Physical attraction

(viii) Clothing

(ix) The environment


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(d) Function of Having Eye Contact

(i) Cognitive: to direct our behaviour pertaining to thoughts and thinking process.

(ii) Monitoring: to give information on how others respond to us.

(iii) Regulatory: to manage the flow of information.

(iv) Expressive: to give information pertaining to feelings, emotions and attitudes.

(e) Emotion that can be displayed on a face

(i) Shock

(ii) Fear

(iii) Annoyance

(iv) Anger

(v) Happiness

(vi) Sadness (f) Non-verbal Communication and Deceptive Communication

(i) Deception is a message knowingly transmitted with the intent to foster false beliefs or conclusions (Judee Burgoon).

(ii) Signs of interpersonal deception

• Energetic

− High-pitched, quick tempo

• Emotional

− Frigid smile, unemotional statement

3.5.4 Listening

Although a bit odd, listening is considered a skill, but it is a type of passive activity requiring us to think; unlike active activity that demands our attention. Recent researches revealed that the process of listening between individuals is influenced by several factors:

(a) The existence of various common problems as barriers to effective listening

(b) The different attitudes in the listening process

(c) The behaviour that helps us to identify others by listening to their distinct speeches


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3.5.5 Listening Styles and Methods

Listening style is an action that is shown by an individual when he is listening. What are the actions being expressed? Stewart suggested several actions that can be seen when a person is listening (refer to Table 3.2).

Table 3.2: Actions that Can be Seen When A PersonÊs Listening

1. Listeners pretending to listen

Listeners lacking interest in the speech and are only there to fulfil the invitation. Their thoughts are somewhere else.

2. Listeners with limited attention

Listeners paying scant attention when the presenter is talking. Or listeners show interest to certain topics or important comments only.

3. Listeners with own opinions

Listeners only give consideration to their own opinions or wanting others to give approval.

3.5.6 Positive Active Listening

To listen attentively is defined as active listening. The individual not only digests the information derived from active listening but he also needs to give support and to demonstrate to the speaker that he is paying full attention. Among the criteria of engaging in active listening are:

(a) Attending skill

(b) Following skill

(c) Reiterating skill By listening effectively, we can change our behaviour. This is also a form of active communication and it shows how we think. What type of behaviour should we observe during active listening? Among these are: (a) Respecting Others

We should show respect to the individual that trusts us. We should prepare to listen and help them when necessary. This shows patience and at the same time we are sidelining signs of impatience and strain when we are communicating.

(b) Preserving Attention

Sometimes, communication can occur for a long period of time. Thus, it is crucial that the listener uses eye contact, facial expression and other non-verbal communication techniques to reduce stress during the active listening process.


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(c) Try Minimizing the Element of Distraction When a person tries to view his opinion, try to understand what he has said by listening to it until the end. We should minimize the element of being distracted when listening. Fatigue might be a factor that causes the listener unable to listen attentively. Responding appropriately response to the speaker from time to time can diminish this problem.

3.5.7 Listening Problems

Problems in listening can occur in these situations (refer to Table 3.3):

Table 3.3: Problems in Listening

1. Oral debate An individual will start forming his own ideas after hearing what other people say. The individual forgets that his attention should be focused in listening and not arguing.

2. Facts Finding The individual only pays attention and listens attentively to the main theme of a debate. The individual may forget about the facts in the debate. The individual can overcome this problem if only he is aware of it.

In order to train a good listener, we have to be aware of the speakerÊs merit. Listening skills can be developed by utilizing the time profitably by critical questioning. By making inquiries such as what are the main contents or what are the main reasons of having the speech can elicit a good response from the speaker. Besides that, we can also obtain additional information such as the context whereby the facts are derived.

3.5.8 Chairing a Meeting

Most of us have the experience of attending a community or group project meeting that is handled unsystematically. Observing Behaviours Bales reported various researches in analysing the types of meetings organized by managerial staff. He categorized these meetings into 12 categories using an interaction process analysis. Each action taken is classified as a category.


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There are 12 categories involving the process of analysing actions that take place in a meeting. These 12 categories are listed below:

(a) Showing solidarity

(b) Expressing the release of tension

(c) Agreeing

(d) Giving opinion

(e) Giving views

(f) Orientation

(g) Making inquiries about orientation

(h) Making inquiries about opinion

(i) Making inquiries about suggestion

(j) Disagreeing

(k) Expressing tension

(l) Expressing opposition behaviour What are the contents of behaviour during a meeting? Contents of behaviour during a meeting refer to responses elicited from a chairperson and his group members. Based on your experience, try to recall the behavioural contents of a chairperson or the members during a meeting. Contents of behaviour in a meeting can be divided into three distinct actions:

(a) Saying O.K. expressing agreement.

(b) Can we leave this matter for a moment? This is an expression to enable an individual to allow himself time to think before giving a suggestion.

(c) I think we should all accept it explicitly. - This is an expression to ask other members to agree to the suggestion.

Chairing a meeting involves monitoring the membersÊ participation. So, a chairperson plays a crucial role of either bringing members into the meeting as a form of development or preventing them from voicing their opinion. There are several categories of roles that a chairperson plays: (a) Introduction

(i) Putting forth suggestions

(ii) Highlighting development


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(b) Taking action

(i) Agreeing

(ii) Disagreeing

(iii) Oppossing/ Defending

(iv) Preventing (c) Explaining

(i) Opening

(ii) Trying to understand

(iii) Making a conclusion

(iv) Securing information

(v) Giving information (d) Controling participation

(i) Making an exit

(ii) Making an entrance This system can be tested by ensuring the observer is able to use it candidly. This classification system is not helpful when the observer finds himself in a complex situation or arrives at a different interpretation for a same situation. Researchers also expand their observation in order to plan for certain situations. For example, Flanders has developed his planning for a class interaction whereby the focus is to differentiate the ways used by teachers to control their class.

• This topic covered the aspects on opening minds among the teachers and

educational leaders.

• Communication is not solely based on speech but related to making the class a cheerful environment.

ACTIVITY 3.3

Elaborate on two functions of a chairperson during a meeting.


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• The students can communicate better in cheerful surroundings.

• Among other things explained in this topic are the aspects of class culture, memorizing names, giving instructions to students and speech communication.

Development

Knowledge

Mind

Respond

1. State six tips that can be used to foster an early relationship in class.

2. State the sources where a teacher can gain new ideas to improve his/her teaching and situation in class.

3. Explain how teachers can memorise the names of students during group trainings.

1. Differentiate between denotative and connotative.

2. Explain the importance of words/languages in communication.

3. Elaborate two effects of language in communication.

INTRODUCTION

Communication in an educational organisation is a process of delivering thoughts from oneÊs mind to another (Highet, 1964). In a school context, a communication process occurs between a teacher and a student, a teacher and a teacher, an administrator and a teacher, and an administrator and the subordinates. Therefore, communication is a two-way process, which concerns the senders and the receivers. Since the interaction occurs between the senders and receivers, communication in an organisation depends on formal and informal communication. An organisation, which wishes to deliver excellent communication, needs to consider other additional networks to enhance the delivery process. An educational manager needs to understand the various barriers, which will hinder the communication process. Educational managers must try to reduce the communication barriers. There are cases whereby the

TTooppiicc

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Communication from an Organisational Perspective


1. Explain communication from an organisational perspective;

2. Identify the objectives of communication in an educational organisation;

3. Differentiate the formal and informal communication network in schools;

4. Discuss the use of additional communication networks in schools; and

5. Elaborate ways to improve the communication process in an educational organisation.

TOPIC 4 COMMUNICATION FROM AN ORGANISATIONAL PERSPECTIVE

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managers try to impose an open office concept to eliminate the communication barriers. Others try to provide a feedback system or suggestion box to improve the communication process in their organisation.

ORGANISATION COMMUNICATION NETWORK

Why do organisations such as schools need a communication network? Have you ever thought of how to develop an effective network in an organisation? In reality, developing good communication between individuals and the organisation within an educational establishment is an intricate task. However, with proper communication planning and the application of communication theories, the efficiency and effectiveness of the administrationÊs communication may be improved. Effective communication entails whatever information transmitted by the sender is received and clearly understood by the receiver. Whenever there is a lack of communication between the two individuals, then misunderstandings and conflicts that can damage good relationships would arise. An organisation committed towards communication would acquire suggestions to increase its individual and organisation communication. Seven guidelines suggested by Sayles and Strauss (1996) to achieve these goals are:

(a) Determine the information objectives and communication flow.

(b) Identify the listener and their characteristics that may distort the message transmitted.

(c) Encode a suitable message using proper communication to reduce distortion of the message by the listener.

(d) Determine a suitable media and channel that induces interest in the receiver.

(e) Send the message at an appropriate time to maximize the psychological impact on the receiver.

(f) Minimize the channels of communication used. Too many channels of communication will confuse the listener.

(g) Determine the outcome by obtaining feedback (in which is the best method for improving communication).

How does this aspect of communication fit in the school context? In a school, students would be able to understand more of what the teachers are delivering if the information sent by the teachers has its objectives. How then can teachers increase their communication flow in teaching? Teachers can use channels i.e.

4.1


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media such as LCD, television, videos and so forth in their teaching and learning in order to attract their studentsÊ interest to listen and learn. An educational organisation should always take into account on the effort put to improve the communication in schools. It needs a planned program by the development division to improve its communication flow. Some of the suggestions by Barnard (1938) to improve school communication include:

(a) Evaluate the design of communication in an organisation.

(b) Expand the mechanism to facilitate the communication process, e.g. close personal relationships, a comfortable place for formal and informal interaction, mechanical connections such as telephone and computer, and usage of a decision-making committee for decision-making and implementation.

(c) Create an information storage and retrieval system.

(d) Select personnel with good communication skills.

(e) Develop on-the-job training program for employees to improve their communication skills.

The Counselling Unit of the school can carry out an effective communication training or program to improve communication skills amongst the teachers and students. Besides training programs, an environment conducive for communication can be created in schools in the form of rooms for discussions. Every school can take this step by creating a dedicated room for consultation between the teachers and students. At a more specific level, three sets of development and applications are used to analyse and improve communication in schools i.e. communication skills, feedback and organisational role.

4.1.1 Individual Communication Skills

Inaccuracies in the communication process can be reduced by overcoming barriers in interpersonal communication (Bowditch and Bouno, 1985, 88-90). Such barriers include the emotional state of both the speaker and the listener, contradicting verbal and non-verbal communication, the lack of trust between the speaker and the listener, suspicion that clouds the thinking of the individual and so forth. Therefore, educational managers must have interpersonal skills.


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Two skills involved in individual communication are: (a) Message Delivery Skill

It involves the ability to get the message across to the listener. For effective communication, we must strive to improve the message delivery. Message delivery skills can be improved in FIVE ways.

(i) Accurate use of language Use of complex educational jargon and concepts should be avoided in favor of simple terms. In the context of a school, teachers should use language that is easily understood by the students. As you are aware, the language use of a Primary 1 and a Primary 6 student is different due to the differences in their conceptual comprehension and terminology. Hence, teachers must choose the language level used accordingly to the level of comprehension of the students.

(ii) Complete and succinct information must be delivered to the listener

For example, a teacher should give accurate and complete facts when teaching since children nowadays trust their teachers more. Therefore, a teacher should check and verify the authenticity of the information before it is delivered to prevent any controversies.

(iii) Background environmental factors and psychological noise must be

reduced For example, during a parent-teachersÊ meeting, interruptions due to ringing phones should be minimized. An educational manager who is delivering an important message must ensure that the listener understands the message that is being delivered.

(iv) Usage of various communication channels to stimulate the listenerÊs

senses For example, the usage of PowerPoint presentation, LCD, television and so forth in the teaching and learning process. Since most school nowadays is equipped with ICT based teaching and learning aides, these tools should be optimised so that it can be utilised as an effective communication channel.


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Figure 4.1: Slides and PowerPoint make presentations vibrant Source: http://www.aspsoft.com/images/Content/jonathan-goodyear-vslive2006-

orlando.jpg

(v) Face-to-face communication should be employed when required. One of the important components in the delivery of effective communication is face-to-face communication where we can gauge the listenerÊs response. At times, we need to practice face-to-face communication in order to obtain a personal response. In this way, it allows the sender to see if the message delivered is understood.

(b) Listening Skills

Listening skills involve the ability to comprehend the message delivered by the sender. Active listening, being one of the skills of individual communication, is just as important. Active listening covers the readiness and ability of the listener to understand the message delivered. This is followed by an appropriate response to the content and objective of the message, which involves feelings, emotions and personal values. Empathizing with the sender in order to understand the message can significantly increase the accuracy of communication in schools. To ensure effective communication, giving attention to the sender is just as important, especially for students who must listen actively to their teacher in class.

SELF-CHECK 4.1

Why is communication in an educational organisation often regarded as a difficult task?


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FORMAL COMMUNICATION NETWORK

Communication is an important component of an educational organisation. In schools, communication is crucial to enable students and teachers to carry out their respective roles. Based on the traditional bureaucracy model, communication channels across the organisation involve people in power. Barnard (1938) labelled this aspect as communication system. Barnard also highlighted several factors to be considered when using a formal communication system that is:

(a) The communication channel must be known.

(b) The communication channel must connect every individual in the organisation.

(c) Communication link must be direct and takes a short time.

(d) Application of a complete communication link.

(e) Proper communication must come from the individual who is in-charge and the orders are for those under his or her jurisdiction.

Accuracy can be measured by referring to the formal communication in writing. Communication is important for the internal operation of an organisation as it combines the functions of management, and likewise in education. For a large educational organisation, managing communication is indeed a pressing matter. Think of how to channel communication to all the members in that system. Generally, communication is required to:

(a) Promulgate and carry out the aims of the industry;

(b) Plan for the achievement of that aim;

(c) Organize the use of human resources as well as other resources in the best possible way;

(d) Select, train and evaluate members within the organisation;

(e) Lead, direct, motivate and create an atmosphere that will give rise to contribution; and

(f) Control performance.

The managerial communication not only fulfils management functions, but it also connects the organisation with the environment outside. This type of communication channel is different whereby an individual can report to the person in-charge.

4.2


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4.2.1 The Role of Formal Communication

The main objective of communication is the coordination of each division within an organisation. March, J.G and Simon, H.A (1958) assumed that organisational capacity (e.g. a school) to maintain a steady activity that is interdependent is limited by its ability to control communication. The more efficient communication is in a school, the bigger the ability to coordinate important activities such as the scope of the curriculum. Four aims of organisational communication include:

(a) Delivery of facts and information;

(b) Exchange of information, needs and feelings;

(c) Influencing and manipulation of people; and

(d) As well as informing others regarding the organisation.

Besides that, communication in an organisation plays four main roles i.e. to inform, give instructions, direct and evaluate someone or something or influence the attitude and thoughts of someone. The administration sends communication messages to complete one of the above roles. However, the crucial point of a school is the need for formal communication strongly in line with its power hierarchy. Look at the following example of formal communication.

What is your response after reading the case study? How formal communication can assist your school?

A company in Petaling Jaya wanted to install a closed circuit television (CCTV) system costing RM 300,000 as a means to improve message delivery to its workers. A consulted management expert suggested that the president should be joining his staff during coffee breaks instead of only mingling with the upper management behind closed doors. Although the president was a bit hesitant with that suggestion, he nevertheless agreed to try it out. Preliminary attempts failed as the president discovered that his workers were reluctant to open up with him. After doing some research, the president tried to approach his workers again but only this time, he stuck to discussing work related issues. The president was taken aback as he discovered that they were now willing to voice out their opinions. In fact, this form of communication went so well that the president asked his upper management to mix with the workers during coffee breaks.


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4.2.2 Formal Communication Effects towards School Structure

There are three types of school bureaucracy within the context of formal communication in schools:

(a) Centralised Communication

(b) Communication based on Organisation Types

(c) Communication Through Technology

(a) Centralised Communication

This form of communication does not delegate the powers of the head to his subordinates. The head is the source of all decisions made. An example would be the cluster school scheme in Malaysia, whereby under the Malaysian Central Education Development Plan, such schools are under the control of the appointed Principal or Headmaster.

(b) Communication based on Organisation Types

There are two categories within this type of communication i.e. whether the organisation has many levels (tallness), or does not (flatness). In a ÂtallnessÊ organisation, we would need to go through many networks before our message can reach the head. For example, in schools, the principal would delegate his powers to the senior staff and the senior staff would then further delegate their powers to the respective group leaders. For a ÂflatnessÊ organisation, there is little if not any sub leaders. An example would be schools in the Malaysian Schools with Little Student Category where they do not have subdivision of power. This is due to the minimal number of members in such schools that everyone would have to carry out their duties without delegation of power.

(c) Communication Through Technology Technological advancement has improved communication relationship through emails and video conferencing. Emails allow delivery of memos and any information rapidly. Similarly, mobile phones allow principles to call their teachers and hence, there is rapid delivery of information.


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Figure 4.2: Email is becoming important in communication networks

INFORMAL COMMUNICATION NETWORK

We always use various non-formal communications to communicate. What are the common topics of discussion in non-formal communication? Informal communications are messages that cross the organisation structure but are not part of the organisation hierarchy chart. An informal communication network, better known as „grapevines‰ exists in all organisations and is dependent on the organisation to form the type of formal communication that exists. One factor repeatedly studied by researchers and members of an organisation is the ability of individuals or groups to grasp quickly an issue or matter. They communicate well amongst themselves, and it may be that the need to communicate and understand each other be one of the reasons for the existence of a group (Litterer, 1969 : 162).

4.3

ACTIVITY 4.1

Discuss with your course mates the communication element from a traditional bureaucracy model perspective.


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Grapevines contain facts, opinions, peopleÊs attitude and suspicion, gossips, defamatory remarks as well as frank truth. It develops from the socialization between members of an organisation. For example, in schools, the informal communication and friendship between staff and teachers are caused by sharing the same office, task, cafeteria and transport. This is apparent in schools in our country. The presence of grapevines indicates that social relationship and communication channel exists at every level of that school. Study the following grapevines that occurred between the two informants below: Example 1

Questions Answer

What is the usual story that you have frequently heard being discussed in FBMK? Do you agree with the implementation of ISO?

Well, the latest story that I heard is the implementation of ISO. Most people complained that ISO requirements are too difficult to meet and in order to get the ISO certification there are too many things that need to be done. For example, the preparation of files, teaching and learning records. So many people have talked about how to go about doing such and how to meet the requirements of ISO. The lecturers are also talking about this. Overall, I agree with ISO. However, I feel that the implementation procedure might be inappropriate, as it does not strengthen the quality in reality. For example, if we look at the file preparation; it may be prepared with all the materials but the lecturer may not follow what is prepared or recorded in the classroom since there is no one to monitor the lecturer in class. Therefore, the lecturer may end up writing something in the file and teaching something else in class.

What story or grapevine did the informant hear and who had told the informant?

ACTIVITY 4.2

What do you understand by grapevines in an organisation? Elaborate on a few examples of grapevines in your organisation.


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ADDITIONAL COMMUNICATION NETWORK

Complementary Network consist of formal and informal communication. Formal and informal communication is present in all educational organisations in our country. The presence of both and the direction of the communication make them mutually dependent.

4.4.1 Substance

Communication can be categorised as instrumental or expressive. Instrumental communication is the action of distributing information and knowledge that can affect cognitive orientation. Examples include administrative policies, curriculum and subject objectives, and attendance records. This is commonly practiced in schools and the school notice boards become a medium for information delivery. Expressive communication is the attempt to change attitudes, life norms and values. Suitable orientation influence on students and organisational rewards are typical examples and substance of expressive communication. Both types of communication i.e. instrumental and expressive communication exist in formal communication. Furthermore, informal communication networks could increase the presence of both communication types in an organisation. For example, grapevines can be used as a measure of opinion and sentiment. School administration can use informal communication to discern the moral values of students, teachers and administrators. They can also use the float trial balloon to test the acceptance of a procedure or programme. For example, the administrator may want to introduce a new programme for teaching preparation. Before making the final decision, there is a possibility for the decision to be discussed with the staff informally. After procuring information via the informal communication network based on observation of reactions, administrators then use the formal communication channel to announce the new program. This allows the program to remain accepted or formally rejected. Bernard (1938) proposed that this type of communication could go on without any interference within the informal communication channel, but there would be uneasiness or an increase of issues arising from the premature decisions made in a formal communication channel.

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Other than being a testing ground for decisions, an informal communication network can be a positive medium to achieve satisfaction and personal expression by meeting the needs of communication and social interaction. Therefore, an informal communication network is a boon to schools as it can help reduce financial costs to a minimum by providing gratification to the social needs of all members in an organisation.

EXTERNAL ENVIRONMENT AND ORGANISATIONAL COMMUNICATION

When uncertainty and complexity increases, the two factors would merge, resulting in the need to heighten the information processing by individuals, the group or organisation. Firstly, in a case where uncertainty is high, a strategy must be made to obtain some capacity of deductions or assumptions. Sometimes additional information processing would be required. Secondly, in a complex situation, an array of communication levels is expected and processed. Based on this perspective, organisation like schools must be precise in ordering or overseeing critical factors both in the external environment, and in processing inside information for decision-making as well as coordination and control of subdivisions and members. The ability to accept, process and communicate information accurately and timely would make the organisation efficient.

4.5.1 Improving Organisation Communication

Communication within the field of education is often based on an empirical research methodology that is normally used in communication research. Communication research often involves three major components namely: (a) Content analysis, usually suitable content analysis concerning with

communication.

4.5

ACTIVITY 4.3

Elaborate on a few examples of instrumental communication in your organisation.


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(b) Sociometic analysis, which focuses on studies on the community, that reveals with whom we communicate with.

(c) Interaction analysis, which focuses on the frequency of the communication. In research methodology, a study of an organisation includes respondent observation, connected observation, communication sample, survey, general communication and network questionnaires, which are techniques used in community studies (Davis, 1978). These methods are commonly used in educational organisations. Besides that, general questionnaires are also used to elaborate on the frequency, openness and accuracy of communication. There are three questionnaires designed to evaluate accuracy, openness, and communication frequency; and two test instruments designed to test information or content accuracy and openness in communication. These tools are designed and developed by the military and medical field, in which the content and wordings are found to be suitable with the education field. The final tool that measures communication accuracy is by John Mayer and Elizabeth Cohen. Roberts (1977) who used questionnaires that investigate accuracy and openness, have found support that can be considered true regarding group assignment structure in order to improve accuracy and openness in communication delivery. In a higher level, group integration and two-way communication between subordinates will produce good accuracy. Groups that possess skills and higher communication status are more open to information exchange with other groups. A positive correlation between communication frequency of the teachers with the faculty union and the level of teachers working independently has been discovered (Brigges and Hallian, 1978). Accuracy and openness gives positive effect to achievement. Even so, the communication frequency between teachers may not be high. In studies done by Cecil Miskel, David McDonald, Susan Bloom (1983), teachers report their communication with other teachers occurring a few times in one week, and once a month with the principal. There are also communication studies based on LingrenÊs Model. Lingren's Model (1976) explains the role of stimulus in human behavior. According to Tolmen Klein (1971), a person is capable of implementing various changes due to stimulation and reaction in order to achieve a particular aim. Research has shown that input and an experiential learning process will further enable teachers to acquire verbal and language skills in school communication.


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Figure 4.3: Theory of LingrenÊs Model (1971)

The study above show that the lack of communication among teachers is caused by the burden of workload and time constraints. This has made it was incredibly difficult to investigate their openness, accuracy and frequency of their communication and interaction. Apart from that, teachers are also found to be imprudent in allocating time for communication and interaction.

4.5.2 Network Analysis

Network analysis is actually a process of formulating information on the informal communication network. Its aim is to create a highly accurate description of the target organisation. Such description usually encompasses information regarding the differences in communication structure and frequency of a group (Richards, 1985). With the advent of powerful computers, researchers increasingly rely upon sociometric surveys to assist them in explaining communication and group structure. Communication is a form of relationship. The reason for us communicating is to convey news, messages or opinions to someone. The first questionnaire measurement is to elucidate the accuracy in communication. Based on that questionnaire, it is pertinent for someone that delivers information, be it teachers or lecturers, to deliver it correctly to the audience or students.


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Figure 4.4: Communication is developing a network Source: http://www.campbeaumont.co.uk/daycamps/img/job-03.jpg

In the Malaysian education system today, teachers concentrate on teaching students based on a content area. For example, in the Science field; if the subject scope and facts taught to the students are wrong, then all the students would have received what that teacher had just delivered. Here we see that, every teacher must deliver knowledge accurately and clearly. This communication is very important to teachers, as students will receive input fully from them. If not, students will end up with the incorrect information and subject comprehension. Likewise, in the counselling field, a counselling teacher will conduct individual or clustered counselling sessions. If the counselling teacher is carrying out a counselling session, information conveyed to the students must be accurate and free from defect. Imagine the negative effect that would affect students, as well as the school, teachers and parents, if the information delivered were inaccurate. The second item concerns the openness in communication. It indicates that it is not easy for individuals to openly talk or give opinion. In the education context of Malaysia, this aspect of openness is clearly visible during group counselling sessions. In the early stages of cluster counselling sessions, group members namely, students will not be brave enough to discuss something. However, after undergoing two or three sessions, they will start trusting one another. Cohesiveness in the cluster will then be seen. Here, the readiness to share openly their thoughts and opinions will be noticeable after trust for one another has developed in that cluster.


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The third item discussed is the frequency in communication. At schools for example, teachers who communicate frequently in order to impart knowledge tends to produce students with excellent academic results. In organisational work, high communication frequency would also result in subordinates knowing what is desired by that organisation. This enables the subordinates to achieve the desired mission. As a conclusion, communication is crucial in MalaysiaÊs education system. It gives a clear picture to us on how communication plays an important role in an educational organisation. One reason for the effectiveness of the Malaysian education system is the communication practiced in the educational institutions. From the sosiometric perspective, data collection is usually carried out using questionnaires or short interviews. Respondents for example, teachers and administrators are asked to show the frequency and importance of the interaction with other staff members, and to whom did they discuss educational and social matters. An example would be from the trainees in teacher training colleges, whereby questionnaires and interviews are instruments used to determine the communication pattern and its effect on the students. Informal channels and group communication networks can be deciphered with a simple sociogram method for analysis using sophisticated computers. However, it is tougher to identify contrasting communication networks because it entails the study of human behaviour, which is abstract. Nevertheless, communication networks are fixed individual patterns that have relationships with other individuals. Of course, this aspect can be identified as information exchange as they involve members in a social organisation. As such, an individual relationship communication network within and between groups can be drawn. For example in a school community, groups such as teachers, administrators and students are one cluster that becomes an information channel and communication network.


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Figure 4.5: Non-formal communication enhances relationships

Source: http://www.sylviarimm.com/images/listening.gif Members in a communication network can play a variety of roles. One at the main method in understanding a personÊs role is by means of assigning star status. An assigned star is a hub within the network whereby this person is seen as potentially powerful because he or she has greater access to group resources. For example, a Student Head or Prefect can be said as a star that plays a role in influencing or controlling students apart from the teachers. As such, stars may be labeled as leaders within different group networks where the separating of roles occurs and individuals unelected or not selected as the other respondents. For example, in the context of education whereby a teacher is the star or idol that can lead the pupils. This is a usual situation in schools as it is part of our customs to respect teachers and they are the group entrusted to lead students. As such, teachers can afford to lead various student groups that possess different behavioural or emotional pattern. For example, in group counselling, only a teacher can lead the students to focus on the objectives of group counselling. How about the attribute of a person as a link? If one group communicates with another group outside its scope, or to areas outside their field, then they are known as links. For example, an official of the Ministry of Education whose responsibility to oversees teachers in several schools is the connecting links between the schools.


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• This topic has discussed the approaches from an organisational perspective.

• Among the elements discussed are organisational communication and its network, formal communication network, non-formal communication network, and additional communication network in any organisation.

• This topic concluded with external factors influencing communication in the organisation and ways to improve the communication process.

Socialisation

Stimulus

Teacher training

1. State five guidelines suggested by Sayles and Strauss (1996) to increase

communication ability.

2. Explain three applicable ways to improve individual information delivery skills.

1. How does centralised communication work in an organisation?

2. Explain how grapevines exist in an organisation.

ACTIVITY 4.4

What are the consequences that may arise if the information delivered is inaccurate? Justify with examples.

INTRODUCTION

Many people believe that writing is a difficult process. Sometimes, writing skills are often regarded as a gifted talent. This is due to the nature of writing which is considered difficult task. Acquiring writing skills is normally achieved from consistent training. A person who is interested in writing probably will start his initial writing by making some short notes. After that, the actual writing process will begins. It might be useful if you just jot down on a piece of paper what you would put down as your chief criteria. Think of those reports, memos and letters that you have read, or tried hard to read, what made them readable, what could have made them more readable, and so what would go into your list?

EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION TOOLS

Whenever you read through documents, what do you find interesting and effective? What aspects do you evaluate when you read a document? Making sense of what is read relies heavily on the connection between the receiver and sender. At times what is delivered may not be understood by the

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1. Explain the main elements in effective writing;

2. Identify the attributes of good language in an effective writing;

3. Differentiate between short, clear and consistent writing; and

4. Discuss the roles of tone in writing.

Towards Effective Writing

TOPIC 5 TOWARDS EFFECTIVE WRITING

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receiver due to a different communication context. In writing, a writer must find suitable words to use in his or her writing. It is usually better to start from a formal level, followed by an informal level. Formal word selection should be the rule rather than informal word use. Often, we are facing with the problem of writing a memo, report or letter. This is most likely caused by the formal language used in formal communication. Any form of communication such as letters would be considered out of place if written in an informal language. Interpretation and placement of meaning very much depends on the writing habit. Most people feel awkward whenever they have to write. In exams, we take ages to think and write down the answer script. In an educational organisation, correspondence depends on the current context that is understood by members in that organisation. Look at the circulars issued by the Malaysian Education Ministry. Such correspondence is more laborious due to the organisational culture that requires the use of more technical language. We may have come across messages that we accept in e-mail or from SMS in our mobile phones. What words are used in that e-mail or message? Many words are contracted and some of the Malay or English words are simplified. Apart from that, symbols are also used to convey messages. Most people in the present generation use more informal language rather than formal.. Look and compare e-mails written by an adolescent and that by an adult. E-mails and messages authored by the younger generation tend to use informal language and symbols compared to one written by an adult. The older generation will be offended if they receive informal letters from people that they do not know well.

5.1.1 Searching for a Suitable Language

Language is the connecting link between two beings. The type and quality of communication by teachers is of utmost importance. In schools, most teachers communicate in the directive form. Teachers give directions to enable students to involve in certain activities. However, the directive given by teachers can sometimes be vague and hence, misunderstood. In such cases, communication does not happen smoothly and this causes hardship. Instructions commanded by the teachers to students must be simple. The language used should be one that is easily understood and clearly accepted by students. Several communication barriers such as a noisy environment, level of attention and language used by teachers may cause misunderstanding of the information given. For example, when a teacher indicates something and gives directions by using the right or left hand. Alternatively, when the teacher


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indicates a certain activity with his or her right hand but uses terms that are misleading. Such situations may cause students to process the information wrongly. This may lead to dire circumstances and its effect is dangerous. Suitable and right word selection would also help to facilitate communication. In Physical Education, Living Skills or Science subjects, a readily understandable language is a crucial aspect in ensuring the studentsÊ safety.

The use of colloquial language can also invite problems. Confusion can happen when inaccurate directive is given to students. Students would interpret the words based on their own views and perceptions. At times, their views and perceptions may be misconstrued. An example where communication is open misunderstood would be when students are asked to carry out laboratory experiments. Communication breakdown may happen when the students fail to distinguish the container that contains wastewater and that which contains acid. We should find the appropriate language whenever we are writing a letter to someone. In communication, an individual's ability to master the language is an advantage. Individuals with language prowess would be able to formulate sentences that convey information effectively. (a) Spelling

(i) Spelling plays a vital role in communication.

(ii) Dictionary use is necessary to increase grammatical skills.

(iii) To further enhance grammatical skills, effective dictionary usage is necessary.


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(b) The Usage of Punctuation

(i) Punctuation marks in sentences possess particular significance.

(ii) Usage of punctuation marks is complex, as there are many ways to use these marks.

(iii) Every sentence requires suitable punctuation marks.

(iv) Punctuation marks should be used appropriately.

(c) Effective Writing Usage

(i) A sentence in English which indicates possession by people, children, woman or man usually has an apostrophe mark. For example,

• PeopleÊs safety

• WomenÊs clothes

(ii) We also use apostrophe in contractions that involve prohibitive directives. For example,

• DonÊt walk on the grass.

• You shouldnÊt write on the wall.

(d) Full Stop Usage

(i) A full stop or period is used at the end of a sentence to indicate its completion. For example,

• Mother is sewing a dress.

(ii) It is also used as a separator between dollars and cents in currency. For example,

• That dress cost RM15.90.

(iii) A full stop is also used after abbreviations. For example,

• Sungai Buloh Sg. Buloh

• Ramu a/l Samy S. Ramu

(iv) Full stops are not necessary when writing addresses. (e) Comma Usage

(i) A comma is used to separate words in a list. For example,

• Mother went to the market to buy some vegetables, fish, flowers and meat.


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(ii) A comma is placed after the use of connecting adverbs. For example,

• Therefore, ...

• Consequently, ...

(iii) We use commas after honorific salutation in letters. For example,

• Teacher,

• Sir,

(iv) Commas are used in a sentence that uses exclamation marks. For example,

• Congratulations, you did well in the examination!

• Wow, that is a beautiful house!

(f) Question Mark Usage

The Question Mark is used at the end of a sentence that is a question. For example,

• Why are you late for school?

• Where is your school?

(g) Exclamation Mark Usage

It is used at the end of a sentence that expresses strong feelings. For example,

• Damn, how dare you fight against me!

• Ouch, my stomach hurts!

(h) Capital Letters

Capital letters are used for the first letter of a sentence and the first letter of Proper Nouns. For example,

• My brother wrote a letter to his friend in Penang.

• Ali named his favourite cat Lucy.


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SHORT WRITING

Producing a piece of written work takes into consideration several factors. One important element in writing is to write what is pertinent based on a particular way. Any important goal needs to be delivered. Cut back on wordy sentences and go straight to the point. We must remember that writing is not recounting something, but more of stating facts. When we write briefly, that writing must also convey all the necessary information and facts. At times, a piece of writing is considered having merit due to the high number of pages.

You may have frequently asked your lecturer the required number of pages by an assignment. You may also have often pondered upon the question „How many pages are necessary for an assignment worth 20%". The question on the required number of pages is often a very subjective. At times, a writer may have to use certain examples and jargon whilst another may write continuously without touching the relevant points of discussion. Some writers may be more specific to the meaning delivered. Hence, short and comprehensive writing is a skill that should be acquired by the writer. Recall a written memo given to you. In memo writing, written information is extremely short and concise. The same goes for official government correspondence that goes through many drafts to ensure the desired meaning is conveyed. This is done to ensure that any long and detailed information summarized is able to deliver the information and facts in brief. It may also be boring for us to read long-winded articles. In addition, we generally prefer information presented as factual points or tabulated. Brief written information, however, is also open for different interpretations by individuals.

5.2

SELF-CHECK 5.1

What are the factors that influence the interpretation and placement of meaning?


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CLEAR WRITING

Many consider writing as a meticulous process. Poems, for instance, are written painstakingly so that there is a synergistic combination of tone and meaning. Poem interpretation itself is equivocal and can be construed in our own way. However, in official writing, clarity is an important aspect. We may regard our writing as complete. However, are we certain it is always true? Do other readers know what we want to deliver? A way to test for clarity in our writing is by requesting a colleague to check the draft. As a teacher or a school principal, you may turn to your counterpart to revise a memo or letter that you wish to send. As mentioned by Gowers, Âput yourself in your readerÊs positionÊ. Avoid ambiguous words that may invite variable definitions.

CONSISTENT WRITING

This is an important element when one has extensive information to write. Individual readers will feel uncomfortable when they come across inconsistent writing in sentences or word selection. Use of active and passive sentences must be consistent so as not to mislead the reader. At times, the writing is casual and uses a multitude of examples, whilst in other times the writing is factual. Whenever possible, a writer should use the same template when writing. For example, the writing starts with an introduction, then followed by explanations and concludes with examples. Lately, there are many organisations who organize effective writing courses so that readers will not be bored. Use of proverbs can be interspersed so that that writing is appealing to the readers. Usage of available word processing software ensures consistency of word selection.

5.4

5.3

ACTIVITY 5.1

Recall the memos that you have read. What are the common features of a memo?

ACTIVITY 5.2

State the definition of perception according to the perspective of Glickman (1990).


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RELEVANCY

We may come across irrelevant writing that does not convey what is intended. This will cause readers to feel bored and unable to comprehend the content. Before starting to write, we should identify the reason and purpose of producing the written work. Determine what are the major issues that you wish to discuss in that writing. Visualize it in the form of a mind map and write according to this mind map. A reader should be able to understand the key points that the writer wants to convey. Sometimes that key points are reiterated to enforce the meaning sent. Readers prefer to read something that is akin to a novel, whereby the story has an ending. The writerÊs objective is to impose the writer's thoughts into the reader's mind. Hence, a readily understandable writing structure is vital.

Writing forms can be categorised into the following:

(a) Generic

(b) Sequential

(c) Chronological

(d) Sentence priority

(e) Spatial

(f) Comparison

(g) Pros And Cons

(h) Familiar To Unfamiliar A written work can start from general statements and moves on to specific statements. This is known as deductive writing. On the other hand, inductive writing starts from specific details and moves on to general ideas.

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CLEAR GRAPHIC USAGE

As a teacher who teaches in class, we should train our students to use simple graphical illustration to visualise a conceptual relationship with ease. Thus, we teach students to construct and draw flow charts, draw fishes etc. What is graphic communication? Graphic communication refers to the use of tables, pictures, figures, mind maps, histograms, grads, flow charts, Gantt charts etc. Graphics usage is crucial to information channelling. We see that element in reports and manuals issued by certain organisations. Perhaps you have heard of the saying ÂA picture is worth a thousand wordsÊ. However, a picture may not mean anything at times. In such cases, that picture needs to be supported with suitable sentences and phrases. Graphics can be a very striking element when representing financial information. For example, in financial reporting, there is a sure use of graphs. Teachers who use PowerPoint presentations when teaching will try to include pictures, tables and various graphical elements to capture the studentsÊ interest towards the content sent.

Figure 5.1: Mind maps function as a readily understandable graphical material

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A few guidelines to follow when using graphical material in communication are:

(a) Why do I use that graphical material?

(b) Do I understand what is in that graphical material?

(c) Does my audience understand the graphics being presented? Use of graphics has several advantages, amongst which are:

(a) Simplify complex events. For example, a chart used to illustrate the Education Ministry organisation;

(b) Ability to show the current trend within an organisation. For example, the graduate application trend for teaching profession in the last three years could be shown with a chart, table or graph;

(c) Functions as additional information to written information. However, there are some weaknesses in using graphical materials such as:

(a) Graphics used may not reflect the true information and is false;

(b) Graphics distort the original meaning that we wish to send.

USING CORRECT AND SUITABLE LANGUAGE

Usage of correct and suitable language is important especially to children. In schools for example, students will learn a multitude of languages. If the mother tongue of those children is different from the language of instruction in school, then they will face problems in grasping the language taught in school. Teachers who teach that language will also face teaching and learning problems as the child cannot understand instructions issued by the teacher.

Figure 5.2: The use of correct and suitable language is critical

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One of the ways to overcome that problem is by using body language, pictures as well as translations. Teachers also need to simplify the language used to the studentsÊ level. The language used must be polite and suitable with the students. For example:

(a) Please erase the blackboard.

(b) Good morning, please sit down.

RIGHT TONE

We must determine the tone in which we write. Writing is not a form of unplanned communication; on the contrary, it is communication that is targeted on a specific target or groups. You would have come across various written works that are targeted on certain groups, such as children, adolescents, adults or even influential individuals. The same goes for e-mails that we receive. Think of the tone. For example, we may feel elated reading letters from related educational organisation which starts with:

(a) We would like to inform you with great pleasure that you have been offered.

(b) It is with great pleasure to inform you that your application for a scholarship has been received.

The use of appropriate tone is very important in writing. Likewise, a rejection of a candidate to a programme usually starts with:

(a) We regret to inform you that your application for the position in PPPS has not been successful.

(b) We are sorry to inform you that you have not been selected as a facilitator for the KKBS Programme.

You should avoid using passive sentences in letters if possible. Writing should impart an impersonal value to the recipient. When writing letters, we should also take into account the mood factor. This is as we tend to write with a joyous and fun tone when we are happy. However, when we are stressed and agitated, then the writing will change in tone. Hence, we should avoid writing whenever we are in a bad mood.

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• This topic elucidated the important aspects in producing a written work.

• Writing skills take into account elements such as language aspect, spelling usage and punctuation, consistent and clear writing.

• Use of suitable tone in writing was also discussed.

Generic

Graphic

Histogram

Passive

1. Explain what is interpretation and placement of meaning in writing.

2. Describe three language aspects that should be given emphasis in writing.

1. What are the categories that are present in writing?

2. Describe the advantages of using graphics in writing.

INTRODUCTION

Creativity is always a challenge to a speaker. A listener will easily feel bored if he notices that an individualÊs communication is not interesting. Probably we have seen some of our colleagues sleeping during lectures or meetings. Effective communication needs to consider the importance of creativity. This is necessary as the receivers could misinterpret some of the meaning in the communication. Creativity does not solely depend on the way facts are presented but other aspects such as tone of voice and usage of ICT. This topic will discuss the strategies that ought to be implemented to avoid ÂholesÊ while communicating. There are a few approaches for consideration in order to make communication interesting.

WAYS OF GETTING OUT OF HOLES

Did you know!

A ÂholeÊ refers to a situation when a person is unable to continue communicating due to a lack of ideas. This situation can occur in an organisation as well.

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1. Explain what is meant by creativity in communication;

2. Identify ways to improve effective communication;

3. Differentiate certain situations in communication; and

4. Discuss the role of ICT as a communication channel.

Creativity in Communication

TOPIC 6 CREATIVITY IN COMMUNICATION

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Have you ever experienced situations where you are stuck when communicating? The following situation most probably is familiar to you: „I keep telling him and telling him but nothing changes. She does not want to say anything and I am quite desperate.‰ These statements represent a standstill; the various sides are stuck and there is none of that ebb and flow, which we is essential for effective communication. What we need here is a change in strategy; there is little point in soldiering on or hammering away if there is no progress. The Law of Diminishing Returns is relevant to human communications as well. If you do find yourself stuck when communicating, then be creative and think of other tactics. Before reading on, think back to any time when you were in a communication ÂholeÊ and had to dig your way out. What tactics did you use? Did they work? Here we suggest some tactics that you can use: (a) Back off

In other words, it is not worth your while prolonging the communication. After a period, the more effort you seem to put in, the less reward you seem to get out of it. Thus, it is time to cut your losses. You could only make use of this tactic if the communication is not that valuable to you, that is a loss of communication that would not matter much.

(b) Change the direction

Instead of hammering away at telling, start asking questions - less output more input. Very often, a change in direction will provide a chance for the involving parties in the communication to find a way out of their difficulties. Turn yourself around, face the other way, and see your communication from a different angle.

(c) Change the mood and the tone

You might soften it, reduce its intensity, and make it quieter, less personal, less parental or patronising but more mature. It could be the tone, which acts as a block to the communication.

(d) Change the environment

Try moving the chairs around, draw down the blinds, or move from a corridor to a room. The wrong environment can rob a communication of its life and vigour. Think of all those meetings that just died because the room was small and stuffy.


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(e) Change your posture If you are standing up, try sitting down or moving closer. There is enough research into non-verbal communication and other aspects of body language to show that how you appear to the other person in terms of your gestures can determine the success or otherwise of your communication.

(f) Change the language

Change the formality, which is stiff, and make it more informal, less full of jargon; make it more human, use analogies or examples to bring it closer to your listener. Language should be a bridge and not a barrier.

(g) Change channels

If you are using visual aids, stop, turn off the machine, move forward and speak directly to the audience. If on another situation, you have been speaking directly to the audience, then, as a change, move across to the OHP and put on a slide instead. In other situations, you can stop faxing, e-mailing, and go to see the person face-to-face.

(h) Change the pace

If you always provide instant replies cool it down and allow yourself time for pause and reflection. If you have been rather recalcitrant in replying then surprise that other person by replying straight away.

(i) Change your audience

You may find that you have been communicating with the wrong audience - the people who would really appreciate your message might not be present. Carry out a review with whom you should be communicating with.

These are some possible changes and strategic moves that you can adopt in your communication, if you are stuck in a situation where you do not appear to be making any progress.


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Figure 6.1: Communication needs to take into account the environment factor

Source: http://guelphmontessori.com/images/06elemart.jpg

6.1.1 Children’s Attention

ÂAttention spanÊ refers to the ability to pay specific attention towards certain matters or things for a period, before losing interest or getting distracted. Primary and secondary school children have a much shorter Âattention spanÊ than what we think! The formula to calculate the period of an Âattention spanÊ is by adding four minutes to the studentÊs respective age. This actually has no scientific base, so why not test it out on an individual or in a class? In future, the wide usage of Internet will decrease the Âattention spanÊ to a mere nine seconds! Just a simple ÊclickÊ is sufficient to jump from one page to another!


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Figure 6.2: To what extent can children be controlled?

Source: http://www.rmf.org.lb/imag/finales/nurserygallery/nurs7.jpg So, how can we increase the Âattention spanÊ of children? A good start is having a lesson plan using Âbite-sized learningÊ. Assigning tasks to qualified students should be prioritised and enough time given to them to perform. Try studying the differences of the task performance of an individual, a pair or small groups and gauge the effectiveness in keeping their interests. We should also keep in mind how to associate a learning process to suit their age or experience. ChildrenÊs attention can easily be distracted when there is no visualization. We should also avoid creating unnecessary distractions, such as making needless announcements during lessons. Unless you are a magician or a ventriloquist, it is not easy to secure the attention of the crowd. Some of us have the capability of attracting childrenÊs attention and thus, we are able to control and babysit children more easily. If not, be patient, as the Âattention spanÊ of an individual develops with age, time, interest, maturity and through experience. Besides this, encouraging the studentsÊ participation during a lesson can also attract their attention. This process can indirectly motivate students to pay attention to the teacherÊs instruction and speech. Always bear in mind that a two-way communication can elicit positive effects on the studentÊs attention. We can prepare challenging questions to encourage students to think before answering. Through this way, not only will it secure their attention, but also enables them to comprehend their lessons more thoroughly. As we know, children are typically uneasy to sit quietly in one spot for a long period. Therefore, we have to ensure that the input delivered to them is interesting, simple, and most importantly, suitable to their level of


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understanding. In this case, as the person delivering the input, we should ensure that the above requirements are fulfilled. For example provide them with activities that involve a lot of physical movement such as games.

6.1.2 Handling Noises

Noise or the absence of it, is an aspect that we need to pay attention if we want to have a successful communication. In a classroom, noise can issue from within the classroom or from outside the classroom. For example, noise is created when children start to talk, play and count, read aloud or even from the traffic if the school is situated near a main road. So, how do we prevent this in order to create a quiet environment conducire for children to study and focus on what we are teaching? There are several ways we can adopt to reduce the noise interruption. An interesting learning environment is created when each student actively participates in an activity that has been planned. We can organize activities such as allowing the students to listen to a piece of story from a radio, and then asking them several questions and doing comprehension exercises verbally. We can also encourage them by rewarding students with small gifts like colouring books or stickers when they answer correctly. This kind of activities could indirectly cause the children to be more quieter and pay more attention.

Figure 6.3: Is noise a factor in disrupting lessons in class?

Source: http://www.phonak.com/com_eschooldesk_classroom3_200.jpg


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If a noise originated from a next door classes or surrounding traffic, the best way is to bring the class to a quieter place such as the school canteen, laboratory, or beneath a tree. Through this, we can avoid having the noise from interrupting the lesson and achieve a more effective communication between teacher and students.

POWER IN COMMUNICATION

They are a few ways to stay energised in a communication. Among the suggested ways are:

(a) Getting a suitable trainer The trainer need not be highly skilled in communication but someone that can be trusted. They also should be able to criticise without fear or reservation. Some might be able to give constructive criticism but due to their position in a particular circumstance, it is difficult for them to be a good coach. A trainer should possess these qualities:

(i) Able to meticulously assess a personÊs behaviour;

(ii) Able to communicate through observation and reports it back.

With the above methods, a trainer could re-energise individual communication. A trainer is different from a mentor, whereby a mentor is seldom associated with the aspect of skill development, but more of a supporting role. On the other hand, a trainer will coach an individual to acquire skills and try to improve it.

(b) To elicit response from the audience

A successful speaker is someone who can gauge the audienceÊs behaviour. A good speaker can „read‰ his audience and divert them accordingly. The skill to „read‰ what an audience wants is through several ways as follows;

• Observing non-verbal behaviours;

• Listening to the tone of their voices; and

• Be vigilant of the tone that used in asking questions.

There are certain speakers that could not response with a tone of voice that the audience expects. Sometimes, the audience expects the speaker to answer in a more sober tone instead of adopting a jovial and inconsequential manner when addressing a serious issue. Thus, the choice of the various types of approach used to elicit a response is important. The failure to catch what the audience wants, means failing to deliver.

6.2


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(c) Reflection after communication How can we try to build what we have experienced and what we have learned theoretically? One regular method is through reflection. This approach is most pressing especially when we are embarrassed while delivering a speech, scolded or performed badly. We need to take some time to reflect on our experiences in order to handle the situation.

(d) Observing others

We can indeed learn a lot by observing others. Through careful observation of their manner, the approach taken when giving a speech or methods they adopted when answering questions, we can learn to improve ourselves. In this way, we can accumulate various tips to express our views.

(e) Taking notes from other types of communication such as television, video

or audio. Mass media is a good way of communication. Therefore, sometimes it is good to reflect on the speeches or presentations on TV programmes.

(f) Practising

Giving a speech is a skill that needs practising. Through close observation of video or audio, we could improve our way of communication and speech delivering.

What can we learn from others to become a creative person?

SELF-CHECK 6.1


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6.3 THINKING DIFFERENTLY (DIFFERENCE IN THOUGHTS)

Give careful thought to the situations below and see how creative communication is presented: Situation 1 When a presentation is bad, the audience will be bored and the failure in the delivery of information, despite the speaker continuing with his or her presentation. „the following slides show the prediction of expenditure, and now let me explain to you how we can economise⁄‰. However, if the speaker changes his tactics by switching off the OHP and takes a few steps away from it and say: ‰Now let me give you a few examples so you wonÊt feel bored⁄‰ At this instance, the audience will be more alert, and start focusing on the speaker. The feeling of boredom recedes, and they start to get interested. The following examples are several ways to inspire the audience. The speakerÊs voice must be audible and clear, lighting must be bright enough and the OHP screen large enough to sustain the interest of the audience. After making a closing statement on his discussion on ways to economise, the speaker can resume by switching on his OHP and continue by summarising his talk. Situation 2 It was a tax assessment interview and the situation is dull and not progressing well. Mike, the assessor is getting bored with JohnÊs presentation. „Oh God⁄‰ Mike grunted, ‰Another 45 minutes to go„. A change of strategy is sorely needed. Mike then shifted his chair and walks towards the coffee pot, poured out two cups of coffee and handed one to John along with a packet of biscuits. He said: „It seems that we are going nowhere. How about, for a change, you ask and I answer?‰ John ponders as he dips his biscuit into the coffee.


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„Since you have asked, I would like to know about my future. I mean, will my position be secured despite the company losing the Appleyard contract?‰ An exchange of opinions has occurred and the situation becomes more effective and the relationship improved. What we need to change is the path of communication by changing the direction of the communication. By shifting to the coffee pot and opening a question to the assessor, the interview becomes more lively and interesting Situation 3 In a meeting, all is quiet and 20 individuals with bowed heads look at notes on the table. „Alright then,‰ said the chairman, „who can suggest ideas on how to improve the situation?‰ ⁄⁄silent⁄.. „No idea? We need to reach a consensus on this matter‰. One man sitting at the end of the table starts to talk. „Chairman, I suggest that we split into small groups and discuss within these groups to gather ideas‰. The Chairman then asked the opinion of others and all the other members agree and start to retire away from the table and form groups. Each group managed to come up with various opinions and ideas that can contribute towards solving the problem at hand. The meeting thus becomes more productive, whereby members are more comfortable discussing in small groups rather than within a large group of 20 individuals. All these three situations above illustrated that when caught between creativity and strategy, change the direction to suit the mood in order to accommodate yourself and your colleagues. We can also apply the principles of creativity and tactics manoeuvre in various other forms of communication. Situation 4 Susan from the marketing and sales department has sent her monthly report to her manager. However, she has yet to receive any other response aside from comments like „Keep up your good work‰ or „Better effort next time‰. This situation has to change for she has the right to receive a more constructive response from her manager.


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What is required here is that she needs to request a meeting with her manager. She can then explain to her manager in person how much time and effort she has spent in preparing the reports. She can tell her manager that she would appreciate some other form of encouraging comments. Through this, both parties could then agree to think of a more effective way to approach this situation. The problem is solved by having a monthly meeting with her manager, after the latter has read SusanÊs report in detail, and listed down some inquiries for the meeting.

INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

Numerous technologies such as laptops, LCD and OHP are widely used in most of the schools. In a more advanced computer lab, computers with internet access allow students to surf the net or play the CD-ROM to assist in their education process. All these technologies are both expensive and need great responsibility when using it. A difficult question that arises when using IT to teach is: „Am I using IT from the perspective of ÂtechnologyÊ or ÂleanologyÊ?‰ The basis of your answer to this question will determine what the plan is and how to use IT to achieve the teaching objectives. It shows that we use IT for our own means and purposes besides disseminating information using the tool of our choice. Take PowerPoint for an example, many trainees tend to saturate their slides with animations as a satisfactory approach in integrating IT in their presentation. Many teachers still in training face similar problems to incorporate as much IT elements as possible in their teaching. However, thinking back, what is the primary nature of teaching? Most often than not, we end up being an information presenter rather than a well-trained speaker.

6.4

ACTIVITY 6.1

Think of other situations whereby a teacher can be creative. Discuss with your course mates.


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Figure 6.4: ICT facilitates communication in an organisation

Source: http://www.st-lukes.devon.sch.uk/images/curriculum/ict.jpg From an educational point of view, IT offers the chance of balancing between the needs of students in line with education objectives. So what can parents do to help their children excel in the competitive world of education? The answer is by encouraging the children to participate actively in the IT aspect of learning process. IT can provide a bright future especially in terms of employment. In this IT-age, the knowledge and skills of IT are needed regardless of the industry. Thus, the learning of IT is crucial to all ages.

ICT AS COMMUNICATION TOOL

ICT is a tool to facilitate communication. Students and teachers at various locations can send, receive or share information in various forms. The advanced development of ICT at present enables communication to be conducted in various modes as listed below:

6.5

ACTIVITY 6.2

Give examples of technologies used in your school.


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(a) Text;

(b) Graphic;

(c) Audio;

(d) Video; and

(e) A combination of various modes. The exploitation of ICT in P&P is executed in a neat and well-planned manner; appropriately to increase the efficiency and effectiveness of P&P. ICT as a Communication Tool in Teaching and Learning Process:

• Individual Technique Alone;

• Individual-to-Individual Technique;

• Individual to Masses Technique; and

• Masses to Masses Technique. We can judge the importance of ICT as a communication tool from these following aspects:

(a) Ability to perform collaborative learning.

(b) Increasing studentÊs participation through „peer group‰ learning which is global in nature.

(c) Involving specialists from regional and international standing in the learning process.

• This topic discussed how an individual could avoid being trapped in

communication ÂholesÊ.

• Communication ÂholesÊ is a weakness in communication and several methods can be considered in order to be creative and innovative when communicating.

SELF-CHECK 6.2

Explain the meaning of ICT use in communication.


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• Among the suggested methods are changing the aim when delivering a communication, altering the emotion and voice during the communication process, making suitable changes according to the environment and modify the manner of delivering.

• Viewed from the physical aspect, the usage of ICT can be employed to make the communication more creative and interesting.

Distraction

Facilitator

ICT

1. What are the two ways an individual can avoid a communication ÂholeÊ? 2. What are the ways to improve childrenÊs concentration?

1. What are the ways to handle noise? 2. What are the methods we can use to elicit responses to energise our

communication?

INTRODUCTION

Conflicts are always regarded as something common in an organisation. Conflicts also used to be regarded as a negative element that prevents an organisationÊs growth and progress. However, conflict is a common phenomenon and is often difficult to avoid due to the weaknesses of human beings. In an organisation, human interaction is unavoidable. It is also almost impossible to avoid conflicts in an educational organisation. Schools as an educational organisation face the same challenge. It is important for leaders in an educational organisation to understand the conflicts taking place in order to take effective measures to create a more comfortable working environment. This effort would reduce the conflicts. In this topic, we will discuss some of the main aspects in communication such as inspirational communication, supportive

TTooppiicc

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Conflict Solving Skills in an Educational Organisation (1)


1. Explain cases related to the importance of communication to avoid conflict;

2. Differentiate between inspirational communication and supportive communication;

3. Explain the cross culture communication barriers in an organization; and

4. Explain the role of leaders when conducting negotiation.

TOPIC 7 CONFLICT SOLVING SKILLS IN AN EDUCATIONAL ORGANISATION (1) 99

communication, barriers in communication and cross culture communication. The role of the leaders when dealing with negotiation will also be discussed.

CASE STUDY ANALYSIS

Effective communication between leaders and subordinates is an important aspect. Research shown that an effective leader spends lots of his time and energy in developing empathy towards his workers. Empathy can have a huge impact on communication. Great leaders who possess empathy will listen attentively to what his workers have to say. The ability among leaders to communicate is creating a new type of leadership that is inspirational leadership. Research on 200 corporate leaders found that inspiring leaders are those skilful in developing ideas, eliciting responses from others and have the ability to exert influence in order to convince others of the superiority of his view. Studies on the contribution of non-verbal actions on the effectiveness of leadership found that subordinates are prone to prioritize non-verbal actions compared to verbal actions. An educational manager with a worn out facial expression and shows exhaustion while interviewing a nominee teacher will have difficulty delivering what he intended to deliver. Thus, an individual should cultivate verbal and non-verbal action skills in order to be an effective person.

7.1

Did you know! An educational organisation is often exposed to various means for communication problems to occur. An organisation that is dynamic and complex is the leading case study in communication for researchers.

TOPIC 7 CONFLICT SOLVING SKILLS IN AN EDUCATIONAL ORGANISATION (1)

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Furthermore, technology also plays a crucial role in leadership communication. At present, with the existence of various technological elements, a manager could form a virtual office. A manager could use technology to disseminate ideas, opinions and to motivate his subordinates. Until now, a manager might have used the telephone or other conventional methods to communicate, but along with the advancement of technology, he could motivate his staff more easily and reach a wider circle through email or a website. An organisation can also adopt this alternative method as a way to make known to his workers its mission, vision and values. Communication in a classroom is still an issue that needs attention. Robiah (1998) explained that problem arises in communication skills due to the following: (a) A teacher standing in front of the class giving lessons and students are to

write down the points on the blackboard; (b) A teacher with a fierce or sour facial expression in class and starts the

lesson by lecturing and venting his or her anger. Sometimes, punishment or judgement is meted out on students and those that fail to follow instruction will be threatened;

(c) A teacher fails to give precise and clear instructions, causing students

unable to finish their task. Students will then feel dissatisfied and unclear; (d) When students have enquiries, the teacher is unwilling to help by delaying

to give answers or instructing students to search the answer by themselves; (e) A teacher giving an impression of dislike when answering questions or

cannot be bothered with inquiries from the students. He or she often puts on a stern facial expression and never accepts any opinions;

(f) A teacher that after entering the class, gives some simple instruction to his

students to do their homework while he himself sits immovably in front. He pays no attention to the surroundings and allows his students to chat and play freely;

(g) A teacher without a strong vocal and students find it hard to follow what

he or she is trying to deliver. These scenarios mentioned above by Robiah (1998) showed that problems caused by the inattentiveness of a teacher. Teachers with the above character or attitude are teachers that are unable to fulfil the needs of students, and they are neither knowledgeable nor efficient in delivering messages. How can we solve the above problems?


Several steps can be taken: (a) To know the philosophy and theories pertaining to education and teaching

vocation. Teachers constantly have to understand the current process of education that demands teachers to know his group of students that he is teaching.

(b) To cultivate self-improvement and the right self-orientation while on duty.

What do we mean by self-orientation? Self-orientation refers to situations whereby a teacher has to identify whether to be democratic or autocratic while on duty. Self-orientation is also related to interpersonal skills.

(c) Stressing on openness and trying to understand other peopleÊs feeling.

INSPIRATIONAL COMMUNICATION

Information on inspirational communication is of pivotal importance. So, how can we cultivate high impact communication that can help promote effective leadership? A leader needs to have high inspiration and a dynamic communication. An effective communication can help an informal leader to elevate to a formal position. Inspirational communication is apparent from TWO categories:

(a) Speech and Written Form

(b) Non-Verbal Communication

7.2.1 Speech and Writing

Most of us are familiar with speech and written communication skills. However, is it enough by merely possessing skills such as delivering clear and eloquent speech, maintaining eye contact and avoiding speech impediment? In communication, a beautifully constructed phrase, rich in vocabulary and metaphor are important. Let us try to appreciate what Posner commented on the importance of language:

7.2

SELF-CHECK 7.1

Why do teachers need to emphasise on communication problems in a classroom?

Language is among the most powerful methods for expressing a vision. Successful leaders use metaphors and figures of speech; they give examples, tell stories and relate anecdotes; they draw pictures; they offer quotations and recite slogans.


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Among the qualities needed to shape a dynamic and inspirational communication are: (a) Integrity:

This refers to whether the messenger has integrity or otherwise. Integrity is a factor that has a profound impact in communication. If the person delivering the information has integrity, then an effective communication can be expected. How can we evaluate someone having integrity? Factors that determine a person having integrity are society placing their trust in him or having faith in his professional skills. If a person is a known liar, invariably he will have difficulty having others to trust him when he is delivering messages. On the other hand, if that person is a known expert in a particular field, of course the audience will be readily listening to his opinion.

Figure 7.1: Tactic to gain inspiration

(b) Using persuasive package A persuasive package is a set of standard tactics to influence and to direct the targeted person to act according to our wishes. This package is a frame of mind on how to influence others.

(c) Ensuring the message reaches the audience

A speaker has to know what the audience is interested in, so that we can motivate them accordingly. A leader should be aware that he would get the highest attention from his audience when he is speaking on issues relevant to his subordinateÊs welfare. This includes issues pertaining to salary, allowance and bonus.


(d) Selling the benefit of ideas to subordinate An effective leader should try relentlessly in selling to his subordinates the benefit of an idea and the advantage in getting the idea running. The leader should explain that the idea is advantageous to the organisation. This is in line with the prediction theory, whereby the leader should himself emphasize on the meaning he wishes to convey. The steps that a leader can take to ensure this approach works well are by requesting his subordinates to deliberate on the suggestion directly after the first meeting. In the second meeting, the leader could then steer the members (or organisation) to evaluate the idea. A leader can continuously evaluate the suggestion from time to time in order to get a consensus.

(e) Using challenging phrase

We can use certain phrases to make a speech more effective. The usage of such words can improve our image among audiences. Sometimes our image is uplifted when we use motivating phrases in our speeches. There are also words representing key innovations of a particular field. An educational manager who uses terms related to education knows that his speech has an effect on his audience and that he is supporting activities that can further develop the learning process of an organisation.

(f) Using anecdotes to illustrate a meaning

Anecdotes are an important component in inspirational communication. Using suitable anecdotes can help to convince certain groups, however, it should not be overused.

(g) Making a conclusion using suitable data

You can become more inspirational to others if you can summarize your speeches with concrete facts and data. We use data to lend weight when making points in speeches and those data can originate from various printed sources such as bulletins, magasines, flyers etc. However, if we rely too much on data, it could jeopardise our speeches because we will be


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labelled as incapable to form our own opinions. Thus, we have to balance the supporting data with points that we want to deliver in the communication.

(h) Reducing linguistic errors

Using interesting vocabulary confers a confident image of the speaker. Reduce phrases like „emm...‰, „o.k‰, „uh..‰, „err..‰ for we are exposing our lack of confidence in our message. One way to overcome this problem is by recording and then re-playing our own speech before making a self-assessment. An educational manager should be able to write and speak using correct phrasing and the latest facts.

(i) Writing a short, accurate and clear report

An effective educational manager should be able to write a good report. In both writing and speech, important ideas should be placed as the first item. Long and tedious sentences will only bore the reader.

7.2.2 Fundamental Ways to be Persuasive

There are four fundamental ways we can use to persuade a person, and these four elements are: (a) Showing Partiality

A leader should use suitable praises and compliments from time to time to deserving individuals. Sincere praises and compliments are an effective mechanism to exert influence.

(b) Showing correct conduct before requesting others to follow suit.

In other words, a leader should be a role model to his subordinates. (c) Influence of Colleagues

Gentle coercion from a colleague is more effective. If a leader wants a certain element implemented, he could send a trusted subordinate to deliver the message to his colleagues.


(d) Consistency Each individual should be committed when performing his duty or task. The commitment can be strengthen when each member participates in discussion and reveals their action plans for critical assessment.

7.2.3 Non-Verbal Communication

An effective leader should be skilful in verbal and non-verbal communication. Non-verbal communication is of equal importance because it also represents a meaning. A confident leader not only should show assurance in his speech, but also in his body language, facial expression and his conduct during the speech. We should know that not all individuals interpret the same body language with the same meaning. Let us look at the example given below:

(a) Embarrassed when faced with certain issues

(b) Talking with a low tone of voice

(c) Maintaining eye contact

(d) Smiling in a relaxed manner

(e) By agreeing with what is being said, for example: „Yes, teacher‰. In the above example, which do you think is suitable, and think of other subordinateÊs conduct and manner that are often displayed in your organisation? External image is also crucial when delivering messages. Others will be more respectful towards a person with fine conduct and good image compared to a person who is untidy and unkempt. Self-confidence can be expressed through several elements:

(a) Smart dressing such as a coat and tie

(b) Clean and shiny shoes

(c) Clean nails


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(d) Neat hairstyle

(e) Sparkling teeth. These aspects are of major importance in order to create a model organisational culture. In addition, the aspect of time is of equal importance. Your subordinates will respect a manager that has meticulous time planning. Good time management shows a manager that has a great sense in organizing his schedule and time. A manager should be aware that punctuality in starting a meeting should also end the meeting punctually. Good time management allows an educational leader to execute his plans accordingly.

SUPPORTIVE COMMUNICATION

What is meant by supportive communication? Supportive communication refers to a communication style of delivering information accurately, and supporting the communication between two parties successively. Studies show that there are eight main criteria in a supportive communication: (a) Supportive communication in the orientation of problem solving rather

than orientate towards an individual. An effective leader pays more attention towards problem solving (rather than to an individual) when there is communication with others. In general, we are more interested to solve a problem rather than to think on ways to improve a personÊs character. A leader with a supportive communication type will encourage individuals to solve the existing problem. For example, the leader might say, „You have to think of a suitable alternative to solve your problem at hand‰.

(b) Supportive communication in descriptive form and not assessing form.

Sometimes, when a person is being assessed, they become defensive. However, if the descriptive form is applied, a leader might say, „I noticed some errors in your report‰. This form of speech separates personal weakness from weaknesses in work. Weakness in performance while working does not necessarily depict a personÊs weakness in his personal character, thus both elements should be separated. Compare this to a leader

7.3

ACTIVITY 7.1

What do you understand by high impact communication? Explain and discuss with your course mates.


who uses the assessing form of communication by saying, „You are weak in your work‰.

(c) Supportive communication in analogy form. A leader using supportive

communication tries to match what the receiver is conceiving mentally by using a verbal or non-verbal form of communication. The analogy is seen from what is spoken by the leader in delivering his message.

(d) Supportive communication stresses on the existence, uniqueness or

importance of others. A leader should acknowledge the existence of an individual regardless of whether the individual has concrete or weak ideas. A leader practising supportive communication should not terminate ideas issuing from an individual (even if he disagrees with the idea) but should suggest that the idea will be more thoroughly discussed in successive meeting.

(e) Supportive communication in specific and non-global form. Generally, a

specific response is more valued than an answer that is broad or global in nature. „The teaching staff in my school is bad‰, is general in nature and could invite negative reactions.

(f) Supportive communication is closely associated with logic. This refers to

supportive communication which has close relations with the logic of a preceding message. This technique facilitates a subordinateÊs understanding of his leaderÊs ideas. A befuddled expression of thoughts will only confuse the subordinates with what the message is.

(g) Supportive communication shows taking self-responsibility. This refers to a

leader taking responsibility in what he says instead of on the organisation. An effective leader directs, „I want you to work eight hours today‰, and this reflects self-responsibility by using the subject „I‰ in his speech.

(h) Supporting communication needs active listening. An effective relationship

is formed when both parties listen to each other. A leader is incapable to solve any problems if he is unable to listen attentively to the message delivered to him. Listening is the most basic skill in management and mastering this skill gives us a chance to start a dialogue.

Supportive communication is actually a skill which needs constant practise. This skill needs to be integrated in daily practises in order to make it work. Try looking at the example below on how semantic problems are related to communication. Semantic problems in communication arise when there is an error in decoding or interpretation of the message. Besides this, mixing messages can also be


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confusing and give rise to semantic problems, which prevents effective communication. Semantic problems can be in the structure of words or languages. Try reading the example below: At 8.30 a.m, in the school hall, the students are preparing to sit for the Geography paper. The Head of Invigilator, Mr. Mazlan, receives an envelope with a front cover printed with the instruction: After reading the instruction above, Mr. Mazlan continues leaving the letter unopened on his desk. After the examination is concluded, the students grumbled as they found numerous errors in the question paper and complained to the Chief Examiner, Mrs. Salmah. Mrs. Salmah refers the issue to Mr. Mazlan. She requested a written report on why he did not announce the necessary corrections on the question papers to the students. When asked, Mr. Mazlan said he did not know that the envelope contains the necessary corrections. He said, „According to my interpretation, I am not supposed to open it for it is written ÂPrivate and ConfidentialÊ and thus, I left it unopened‰.

(Source: Ramaiah, Kepimpinan Pendidikan, 1998) The above example shows an error in decoding or interpreting a message. According to Mr. Mazlan, in this situation, the written instruction is a wrong choice to communicate such important matters. Semantic barriers can also exist when the verbal communication is conflicting to the non-verbal communication.

EFFECTS OR THE INFLUENCE OF STATUS

An officerÊs status or position in a hierarchical organisation can become a barrier in communication as well. According to Athanassiades (1973), upstream communication (down-top communication; subordinates to his superior) is biased towards the superior. Differences in status are the source of communication barrier between a subordinate and his superior. Teachers are also inclined to hide facts or fail to report their mistakes when performing tasks.

7.4

Private and Confidential

Do not Open without Permission


7.4.1 Overcoming Cross-Cultural Barriers

Interacting with an individual from a different cultural background is a great challenge. Nowadays, a leader invariably encounters individuals from diverse cultures. This is the source of diversity in our society and the main problem identified is language. Sometimes, only an individual from a particular cultural background can understand the meaning of a particular sign. It is possible that a sign can have different meanings in different societies. In cross-cultural communication, four problems can arise due to differences in languages:

(a) Semantic barrier: A certain word carries a certain meaning to a certain individual.

(b) Words with two meanings: Certain words can have two meanings.

(c) Different intonation limitation.

(d) Different understanding.

In fact, a cross-cultural problem is due to attributes, the effort to understand behaviour and manners of others. Three important elements when assessing a personÊs behaviours are: (a) Perception. Refers to how an individual interprets a matter related to

behaviour. If we do not have a profound understanding of a certain culture or history, often times we tend to have the wrong perception.

ACTIVITY 7.2

Explain how supportive communication occurs in your organisation.


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(b) Stereotyping. Assessing an individual based on his membership of group or belonging to a society. Stereotyping usually has a negative connotation and it could exert a negative implication on communication.

(c) Ethnocentrism is making an assumption pertaining to a certain culture and

their ways. Exhibiting ethnocentrism can impede communication. Leaders showing the above tendency should follow some guidance to avoid cross-cultural communication problems. Steps that a leader can take are: (a) Be sensitive to the fact that cross-cultures could bring about certain

implications. A leader should constantly be aware that problems due to cross-cultural communication are a serious matter and should not be interpreted negatively.

(b) Respecting all staff regardless of culture. This is the best way when interacting with staffs with cultural backgrounds which we do not understand. Showing respect to all cultures is the best way to know and understand the various cultures practiced by others.

(c) Using simple and direct phrases/language when talking to staffs. When

working in a group, workers will sometimes have trouble interpreting information, thus we should avoid using long and ambiguous sentences. We should also avoid using analogues. Talking calmly and slowly will help those who are not fluent in the language to understand the message easily.

(d) Try to speak in the language that he understands. Mastering a variety of

languages adds value to the communication. (e) Avoid using racial elements. An individual stressing on the aspect of race

when conversing is considered stereotyping negatively. (f) Sensitive towards the non-verbal communication of other cultures. The

usage of certain symbols/sign can have different meanings to individuals from different cultures.

ACTIVITY 7.3

What do you understand by cross-cultural communication? Discuss with your course mates.


LEADER’S ROLE IN PROBLEM SOLVING AND NEGOTIATION

Leaders and managers spend most of their time solving conflicts. Approximately 20% of their time is set aside to solve conflicts. However, what are the ways a leader can adopt when faced with conflicts?

Figure 7.2: Ways to solve conflicts Figure 7.2 shows various stances, which a leader who understands conflict management can adopt: (a) Competitive Stance

Competitive stance refers to a personÊs aim to dominate a situation or another individual. A person adopting this stance will view the situation as winning or losing.

(b) Accommodative Stance Accommodative stance refers to a situation whereby a leader tries to accommodate other peopleÊs wishes before his. Usually they are more generous and tend to sacrifice themselves to preserve a good relationship. They tend to be very loyal to an existing relationship

(c) Sharing Stance

Sharing stance refers to a situation between domination and fulfilling wishes of others. Usually they are more moderate and end up with a compromise.

7.5


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(d) Collaborative Stance Collaborative stance refers to the effort of fulfilling wishes of both parties. The driving force behind this stance is the philosophy of win-win situation in order to avoid conflict. In a win-win situation, usually the wishes of both parties are accommodated and this can preserve the harmonious existing relationship.

(e) Avoidance Stance

Avoidance stance lacks cooperation and firmness in leadership. Generally, they do not take sides and avoid creating further conflict. They tend to refer the matter to others to solve.

An educational manager should know when and which stance to use in order to have a more effective management.

PRACTISES TO ENHANCE COMMUNICATION SKILLS

Negotiation technique is one of the practises used to build communication skills. When you are performing a negotiation, you are actually solving a conflict. TWO techniques generally used in negotiation are Âdistributive bargainingÊ and Âintegrative bargainingÊ. In distributive bargaining, both parties start with zero situations. The aim of the negotiation is to distribute the available sources. Integrative bargaining refers to a win-win situation with the aim of pleasing both parties. Several techniques can be used during negotiation: (a) Start the negotiation with an acceptable offer. Generally, people have the

misconception that by accommodating others, we are exposing ourselves to unacceptable demands. However, when making demands, it should be within an acceptable range, reflecting its merit.

(b) Focus on the interest to solve the conflict. The proper aim of negotiating is

to end a conflict. Negotiation can also be used to satisfy the wishes of two parties in opposition.

7.6

ACTIVITY 7.4

What is the communication style used by your school principal? Justify with examples.


(c) Find the differences of both parties. Before starting a negotiation, we must

know that the task is to solve the differences of both parties. In this situation, a win-win situation is the preferred outcome.

The success of the negotiation technique also depends on how serious both parties are during the discussion.

• This topic discussed various conflicts in an organisation.

• The aspects covered include relevant studied cases in an organisation, inspirational communication, supportive communication and cross-cultural communication.

• This topic ends with a discussion on leaderÊs role in negotiation and its techniques.

Coding

Conflict

Value


114

1. State the problems in communication skills in school according to Robiah

(1998).

2. You are the administration counsellor requested to overcome problems of communication skills in the school. Give suitable suggestions.

1. Give examples of three qualities needed to be inspirational and dynamic in communication.

2. Give two criteria of supporting skills.

INTRODUCTION

Most organisations are exposed to conflicts. As educational leaders, we have to understand the cause of the conflicts in schools or in our organisation. Some educationists argue that conflict is of utmost importance in order to achieve organisational aims. However, the educational leaders always need to take measures to reduce any conflicts. If the leaders fail to reduce negative conflicts, the organisationÊs vision and mission will not be achieved. In the long term, the organisation will face many problems such as frustration, unhappiness, arguments or fights among their subordinates. These problems obviously are not beneficial to the organisation. Therefore, the organisational leaders need to have resolutions to overcome any conflicts. If the leaders can transform the negative conflicts to positive conflicts, then there would be an increase in productivity. The subordinates will also have a positive working environment. Other than that, the subordinates will be able to foster cooperation among themselves. This topic will discuss the causes of conflicts and the elements that are used in order to solve conflicts in an organisation, particularly an educational organisation.

LEARNING OUTCOMES

By the end of this topic, you should be able to:

1. Explain the main elements to solving conflicts;

2. Explain the role of leaders when solving conflicts and during negotiation; and

3. Discuss communication skills in an organisation.

TTooppiicc

88

Conflict Solving Skills in an Educational Organisation (2)


116

RELATED CASE STUDIES ANALYSIS

Several factors identified as causes of conflict within an organisation are differences in value, changes of roles, changing of expectation due to changes in role, changes in delegation of power, boundary of responsibility, changes of objective, changes of rules and regulations, overlapping of duty, limited rewards and others. Conflict can also arise from differences in relationship, value of trust, needs and human behaviour (Rahim, 1986). Montana and Charnov (2000) summarised the main source of conflict when there is competition for resources, communication failure, misinterpretation of information, disagreement pertaining to standard performance and problems in the organisation structure. Robbins (2003), in addition, divided organisational conflicts into three main reasons, which are communication, organisational structure and personal background. How can conflict arise from communication? Sometimes, a subordinate did not receive clear instruction and the superior has a high expectation from the subordinate. Semantic differences can also impede the communication process. Problems due to organisational structure are closely related to practises such as bureaucracy, instruction and duty, organisational structure, reward system and interdependency among groups. Bureaucracy is a major hindrance in solving problems, and the situation becomes critical when the subordinates disagree with their superior and vice versa. Personal element here refers to an individualÊs background, academic qualification and attributes.

8.1.1 Forms of Conflicts in School

Several studies found that conflicts in school were caused by the following factors:

(a) Two parties having incompatible objectives, and they have to make two decisions to achieve two different aims.

(b) Two parties wanting two different things, but using a single solution to achieve their aim.

(c) Both parties wanting the same thing but only one party gets it.

8.1

Did You Know! Not one organisation is free from conflict. Regardless of whether the conflict is positive or negative, it is a field that attracts the interest of educational researchers.


Caldwell and Spinks (1988) listed three factors related to conflict in schools:

(a) The limited resources in schools are unable to satisfy the needs of all individuals or groups;

(b) An individual or group tries to control the otherÊs activities; and

(c) Two or more parties disagreeing on the objectives of education.

No Task Detail

1 Attending scheduled meetings 35 minute

2 Non scheduled meetings 4 hour

3 Handling telephone calls 2 hour

4 Doing 14.7 activities in one hour

5 Tour 4 hour Studies by Martin and Willoer (1981) reported that a principal:

(a) Handles 148.1 activities per day;

(b) Performs an average of 42.2 hours of tasks per week;

(c) Performs 3.730 different activities;

(d) Performs an average of 17.7 tasks per hour;

(e) Almost 80% of the activities are verbal-interaction; and

(f) 3.75 hour are spent in unscheduled meetings. Now, let us look and assess the results of the above study. State your opinion on the educational manager in your school.

CONFLICTS IN GROUP COMMUNICATION

Do you think you are someone who likes to work in a group or individually? Sometimes we face certain situations while working as a group. How should we communicate when in a group? Certain individuals dislike working in a group because they feel burdened by problematic group members who can be uncooperative, unmotivated and have undesirable attitudes. One to one communication is relatively easier than in a group. During an interview session, the interviewee participating in a group discussion is evaluated based on his ability to communicate within a group. Both verbal and non-verbal communications are used during an interview.

8.2


118

Group communication requires more effort compared to individual communication. A casual self-introduction may be a good start to foster relationship with group members. An ice-breaking session will bond the members closer after knowing them more intimately. How do we improve communication skills in a group? In a group communication, we will go through several steps, as follows: (a) Forming situation whereby members of the group will introduce

themselves and make themselves comfortable; (b) Storming situation whereby the members are comfortable in the group

and try to understand each otherÊs feelings. The agenda of the discussion will be the focus of attention and members start sharing ideas.

(c) Norming group members understand their role within the group and

accept it as a norm. (d) Performing group members work as a team and try to complete the task

assigned to them. Members playing certain roles will be more prominent than others.

(e) Adjourning task completed and members will retire from the group. An organisation manager has to ensure no mourning session whereby group members will drift away after completing the task. Group communication stresses a lot on the second aspect of storming. Group members can sometimes suffer from ideas drying up whereby members within the group fail to understand their role clearly. If this situation is not handled effectively, it can turn into a conflict. Thus, storming is a session to avoid any conflicts. Group members are often asked:

(a) What is the purpose of this gathering?

(b) What are we supposed to do?

(c) How can we complete this task?

(d) When is the dateline for this assignment?

So, what is the role of an individual in a group? In any group, a leader plays the most important role. A group should have a leader with clear vision and purpose. However, Belbin (1970) suggested that group members should also play certain roles.


(a) The shaper a prominent character of a dynamic individual who is always ready for challenges.

(b) The plant a character with many ideas, creativity and innovation; a

person putting forth new ideas. (c) The complete finisher a character that looks through the entire completed

task meticulously, down to the most trivial points. (d) Monitor evaluator an individual that always refers the group back to the

original aim of why and what the group discussion is about. He will invariably asked; „What is the purpose of us being here‰ or „What are we doing right now?‰.

(e) Chairperson has the sole responsibility of managing the session and

encouraging group members to voice their opinions or ideas. The chairperson will try to achieve a consensus in a group meeting.

EFFECTS OF CONFLICTS TO AN ORGANISATION

There are three types of conflicts in an organisation, work conflict, relationship conflict and process conflict. Empirical studies have found that conflicts in an educational organisation could be either dysfunctional or functional, the latter leaving a great impact. Dysfunctional conflict destroys and threatens an organisation due to differences of personalities and thus, affecting the performance of an organisation. As explained previously, no single educational organisation is free from conflict. Freeing an organisation from conflict is not ideal. There is an existing view which says, without conflict, staff would be uncreative, unable to make decisions and fail to complete assigned tasks on time. However, staff exposed to maximum conflicts will express dissatisfaction, uncooperativeness, poor performance in work due to work politics and finally resign from the organisation (Ungku Norolkamar, 2003). Lippit (1982) concluded that conflicts within an organisation could cause several impacts:

(a) Diverting energy from the real task;

(b) Weakening the spirit;

(c) Causing polarisation of an individual or a group; and

(d) Hampering cooperation among staff.

8.3


120

In an educational organisation such as schools, work satisfaction is closely related to conflict. Most often than not, a teacher derives little work satisfaction due to the negative impact of conflicts in school. On the other hand, most educational managers aim at providing his staff with a high working satisfaction and at the same time maintaining an excellent work performance. Ungku Norolakmar and colleagues (2003), thought that the effect of functional conflict was apparent in an organisation when subordinates were able to present constructive ideas, put effort in fulfilling the requirements of the organisation and endeavour to achieve the targeted aims. This type of individual can generate healthy competition in order to make the organisation more competitive.

Nurturing healthy conflict energizes and motivates workers in a constructive way. It can gear the organisation towards the aspect of problem solving. Conflict can also have a positive impact on attitude, value and trust in an organisation. Individuals facing a conflict should be constructive, open, flexible and maintain high self-confidence in order to sharpen his skills to overcome further conflicts in future. Overall, one of the positive effects of conflict is to rejuvenate and revamp an organisation. Viewed positively, conflicts can have the positive effects of stimulating creativity, generating innovation and the main catalyst for change. Changes can lead to a higher commitment among the staff. These scenarios are crucial especially to educational organisations that have to be dynamic, complex and advanced. Glickman (2001) suggested several methods to overcome conflict:

(a) Requesting members to state their stands pertaining to the conflict;

(b) Enquiring members to state the stands of the opposition party;

(c) Giving explanation to members if the conflict persists; and

(d) Requesting the members to explain their determination pertaining to their opinion.

According to Odgers and Keeling (2000), conflicts could be overcome through several ways:

(a) Identifying the problem and reassess the problem from a new point of view to give it a new meaning;

(b) Searching randomly for a solution;

(c) Choosing the best option to solve the problem without favouring any parties;

(d) Taking action and not maintaining silence in order to solve the problem; and

(e) Performing a reassessment to ensure the effectiveness of the solution.


The steps suggested by Odegers and Keeling (2003), could be implemented provided that there were dynamic and proactive leader. A dynamic educational manager will use his communication skills to investigate the existing conflicts among his staff. He will then be able to accumulate as much information before deciding on a solution. The same approach was also suggested by Gorton (2002), who believed that conflicts could be overcome through problem diagnosis and developing an integrated solution.

HANDLING CONFLICTS

In the context of an educational organisation, several points are highlighted in the Conflict Management Skill Program: (a) Controlling Emotion

Controlling emotion is a skill. Are we able to control our emotions when we are accused, despite being innocent or having a colleague shouting at us when we are slow to complete a task? During a conflict, especially an ego-conflict, we should not take any action while we are still angry or disappointed. This emotion can jeopardize our thinking of achieving a consensus through the interaction.

(b) Selecting a Suitable Venue and Time

Seldom is a conflict successfully resolved in a noisy surrounding or at an unsuitable time. Thus, it is crucial to choose a suitable venue for discussing the conflict, for both the right time and venue can encourage both parties accepting the messages mutually. Sometimes the acceptance of friends who are in conflict need to be taken into consideration as it shows our sincerity and openness. This openness should be arrived at the right time and right venue.

(c) Message Planning

If we intend to have a discussion to solve a conflict, we should plan in advance. We should ask ourselves a few questions such as what is the aim of the discussion, and what do we expect from it. Proper planning on the message that we wish to deliver and the way of delivering are crucial.

8.4

ACTIVITY 8.1

Recall an argument or conflict that occured between your colleagues at work. What is its effect to your organisation or department?


122

Errors in the message content or the way the message is delivered can cause further conflict.

(d) Monitoring Non-Verbal Message

It is not enough to discuss a conflict based on the messages delivered verbally. Monitoring non-verbal message is important as well. Non-verbal messages can be used to further strengthen the meaning of our message to the opposition party and vice versa. Thus, we should always maintain good eye contact, a calm facial expression and voice. Effective handling of a non-verbal message can be most helpful when solving a conflict.

(e) Avoid Personal Attacks

Pointing out the opponentÊs weaknesses is not a way to overcome conflict. Name-calling and using words with strong emotion are not helpful when in the process of solving a conflict. We should focus on the issue rather than on the individual.

(f) Talking to Oneself in order to Control Feelings

It is best to think before talking or acting. We should assess the message we intend to deliver ourselves, before stating it to the other individual. Be patient and have self-control in order to control our feelings, which can cause a reaction which is strong in emotion. Talk in a soft voice, be courteous and convincing, and show integrity to reduce the stress due to the high emotions from both parties.

The are four approaches that you can use in handling conflicts. These are: (i) Assertiveness

Several ways to use this approach are: Give the opposition the understanding that he is denying our rights. We have to make our opponent realize that we have rights as well. The opponent might realize that he is being unfair to us. A conflict can be avoided when the opponent acknowledges our rights.

(ii) Empathy It is easier to be firm if we understand the feelings of our opponent. Try observing the feelings of our opponent when we put forth our views with firmness. We may be able to persuade our opponent to accept our message by being justifiably firm.

(iii) Explain what we want

We must explain clearly to our opponent what we want in order for him to realize that our wishes may be beneficial to both parties. Explain with


rationality, firmness and follow up with facts to state the importance of our wishes.

(iv) Using messages with „I‰ or „Me‰ when voicing our needs or requests

When in discussion, familiarize yourself with using pronouns such as „I‰ or „Me‰ so that in desperate and pressing situations, we are able to emphasize on the message that we want our wishes to be fulfilled, and at the same time acceptable to the opponent. This type of speech can induce the opponent to agree and be ready to compromise to our views.

FIRMNESS

Being firm is not meant to be taken lightly as a way to overcome conflict. The following are five ways to solve conflicts through firmness: (a) Explain Your View on the Situation

Without explaining the real situation, the opponent will have difficulty to accept why we are being firm in this particular situation. Thus, it is advisable to start the discussion by explaining the real situation of the conflict.

(b) State Your Feeling

After explaining the situation, follow up by stating what we feel if our view is not implemented. This direct confession can be either in a verbal communication or non-verbal communication form. If the opponent accepts our feeling, we can control our opponent through firmness.

(c) State the Deleterious Effects of Our Opponents Actions

We should also state to our opponents what the risks are if he persist in being stubborn or oppose to our wishes. Use facts and evidence to convince him of the reality of the risks due to his conduct. Firmness on our part might not be effective if the opponent is comfortable and does not realize the risk that he is ultimately facing due to his action.

8.5

ACTIVITY 8.2

Recall a conflict that occured in your organisation. How did the boss handle the conflict?


124

(d) Maintaining Silence when the Opponent is Responding We should show respect as well as firmness when handling conflict. Therefore, before pressing on with our firmness again, we should wait patiently and silently for the opponent to give his response. By patiently maintaining silence, we are actually giving time to ourselves to ponder calmly and to strengthen our firmness before striking again.

(e) Using Paraphrase to make Active Observations

Being firm is not meant to be done blindly, but only after actively observing our opponent while he is talking. Good observation can guide us in speaking more effectively and accurately. This will enhance the integrity of our determination and firmness in the eyes of our opponent. Paraphrasing is important for it shows our complete understanding of the issue and our opponent will respect us for that. It could influence the opponent to accept our determination more easily and thus, solve the conflict.

• This topic discussed various sources of conflicts in an organisation.

• The various views of experts pertaining to various dimensions of conflicts are duly explained. Conflicts in a group communication was also discussed.

• In addition, explanation on the effects and strategies to overcome conflicts in an organisation were also given.

• One of the strategies highlighted is firmness when handling conflicts in order to preserve justice for both parties.

Dominant

Epistemology

Paraphrase

Responsive

1. State the view of Robbins (2003) pertaining to conflict in an educational

organisation.

2. Elaborate on three sources of school conflicts.


1. Explain the views and opinions of Belbin (1970) on the different roles

among group members.

2. Explain the steps that group members have to go through in a group communication.

INTRODUCTION

As an educator, we should be assertive with our students. Assertiveness is commonly used in communication. However it should be used wisely in a classroom. If we do not use it wisely, the effect could be further damaging to the students. Sometimes, we will hear someone telling us that, „You are not strict enough to handle the students‰. In professional communication, being assertive should be complemented with good listening skills. The leaders also need to have high interpersonal skills. An educational leader needs to pose a good personality, have the advantage of being competitive in nature and motivated to face the society. An individual with communication assertiveness needs to ensure that he has a good social relationship. They need to have the skills and approaches to increase the self confidence in their inter-personal relationship.

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99

Assertiveness in Communication


1. Explain the main elements of assertiveness in communication;

2. Identify the needs of training to communicate assertively;

3. Explain the transactional analysis in communication; and

4. Explain the main aspects in giving and receiving criticism.

TOPIC 9 ASSERTIVENESS IN COMMUNICATION 127

ASSERTIVENESS IN COMMUNICATION

Generally, assertiveness is necessary when one is facing with a task at hand. Assertiveness also appears in communication such as during speeches, in text and other non-verbal form of communications. However, when we are being assertive, we have to provide a comfortable platform, allowing others to have freedom in their discussion according to their rights and needs. When this is achieved, the leader should maintain the equilibrium of status quo for all parties. By maintaining the equilibrium, a win-win situation can be easily promoted. Any form of assertiveness requires each individual to realize the ability to extend it in order to necessitate both parties to discuss and be cooperative in order to translate their needs into reality. A good relationship between two parties can be maintained through fair deliberation and through the process of preserving the equilibrium.

Assertiveness also exists when subordinates express their ideas to a superior. During the discussion on the idea that is being expressed, assertiveness is invariable being used. The key to make assertiveness effective in this situation is that both parties (superior and subordinate) must be comfortable in exercising it, while having a certain degree of mutual trust. Whether to accept or to reject an idea, both parties should have a clear understanding that they have the choice of accepting or leaving. Thus, maintaining the element of equilibrium is fundamental when assertiveness is being propounded. The question now becomes how can equilibrium be achieved? If a superior is too aggressive when preparing himself to be assertive, he might end up hurting

9.1

In what situation would you be assertive in your organisation? Discuss a situation that you have encountered whereby you needed to be assertive.

ACTIVITY 9.1

TOPIC 9 ASSERTIVENESS IN COMMUNICATION

128

others. Assertiveness that is being displayed through force and inflexibility may render the receiving party to act in a similar vein. This may lead us to conclude that assertiveness is not always necessary, and by insisting on it would only cause us harm. Thus, in such situations, the best solution would be to promote the state of equilibrium between both parties.

ASSERTIVE COMMUNICATION THROUGH PRACTISE

Assertiveness can lead to violence and aggressiveness. When a leader wants to be assertive, he must ensure that both parties are in a win-sin situation. A leader who is assertive but flexes his judiciary power unnecessarily could cause his subordinates to be uncomfortable when executing their duties. This is because the duty given to a subordinate is a form of trust which a leader has entrusted to the subordinate. Therefore, mutual trust between a leader/superior and subordinates should exist. A leader acting firm and exerting his legal power can cause his subordinates to feel uneasy when performing tasks. Assertiveness can also produce a sense of awareness among individuals in an organisation. Awareness arises from interactions of experiences and through effective relationship in communication. A leader with experience will know that exercising assertiveness is to create a sense of awareness among his subordinates and not for self-aggrandisement. It is more lasting and effective to instil the sense of awareness on sub-ordinates through assertiveness. In an organisation, sometimes we come across an individual who is calm and patient when faced with a situation. This individual usually refrains from voicing an opinion or objection and does not rebel when a question or problem is referred to him. An individual possessing this type of character will eventually end up as a passive observer. When an educational manager takes an aggressive measure, he has to understand that he is facing a situation of handling another person. He should not take an approach that can humiliate or demean a personÊs status or ability, and disparage or scold in public. He should use his skills by requesting the erring subordinate to his office. He then should calmly and diplomatically suggest

9.2

ACTIVITY 9.2

State situations whereby assertiveness can be used.


alternative ways to improve his subordinateÊs behaviour. A subordinate might lose control and turn rebellious if he is humiliated or his ability is disparaged.

FIRMNESS IN HANDLING CONFLICTS

In an organisation, each individual has the right to voice their opinions or views. They also have the right to know their rights according to the law or within the framework of the organisation. As a member of an organisation, a subordinate has the rights to communicate their ideas or suggestions. Numerous companies value the opinion of their workers for they believe that the workers are very familiar with the intricate mechanism of the organisation. Due to this factor, there are companies that reward its subordinates who are creative in ideas and views.

Each subordinate also has the right to express his feelings without prejudice. It is the superiorÊs duty to listen. All individuals have the right to voice what they think is relevant from their point of view. An individual executing his daily tasks has the rights to state his view without fear of prejudice. This is because he is working within the scope of his job agreed upon between the employer and employee. An individual might also encounter a situation whereby he is unable to satisfy all parties and thus, creating further problems. In the case of an individual isolated by his colleagues, he still maintains the rights of obtaining information or making enquiries. Thus, even a professional individual will make mistakes but it can be corrected if he is willing to learn from his mistake.

When we are working, we might encounter various conflicts. Try to think of a situation when you are the leader and you have to face challenging members of

9.3

ACTIVITY 9.3

State situations whereby you are assertive to your students or colleagues.


130

your group. When the majority of the group members voice their disagreement, you might end up with a conflict at hand. Thus, we should regard conflict as part of the job and whether we like it or not, aim to overcome it. Being a professional, we need to be skilful when dealing with conflicts that can arise in different ways. Conflicts are regularly interpreted with a negative connotation. However, conflicts should also be viewed healthily. As a teacher or officer in an educational organisation, we cannot avoid from encountering conflicts. The common way to overcome conflicts is through discussions. What are the examples or situation of conflicts that occur in schools? Usually a Principal tries to improve the studentsÊ morale using various forms of motivation. Despite this, conflicts still happen among his subordinate staff! Most of the time, this happens due to difficulty between the senior and junior teachers. This scenario might also exist in your educational organisation. So, what actions can the Principal take when facing with this situation? The Principal should always take corrective measures to improve the situation before it deteriorates to a serious conflict. As the person that manages the school, we should contain a conflict through good management at its beginning stage before it gets worse and becomes uncontrollable. The following are strategies to overcome conflicts: (a) To Avoid

(i) Avoid creating a conflict.

(ii) Do not turn a disagreement into a conflict.

(iii) Avoid forming polarizing opinions.

(iv) Always bear in mind that whatever steps decided upon must be beneficial to you and your workers.

(b) To Accommodate

(i) Accommodating is to find a middle path solution acceptable to both parties.

(ii) Cooperate in order to solve problems.

(iii) Each individual should contribute ideas when solving problems.

(iv) Individuals should put into practise ideas that have been agreed upon.

As a manager, being too strictly firm can only harm yourself and the organisation that you are leading. Subordinates become victims due to the existence of conflicts among staff. An organisation that imposes a standard working manual could facilitate all matters of work and communication between superior and subordinates. Creating a standard working manual is a way to


lessen conflicts among staff. This standard working manual usually comprises a set of rules regulating the staffÊs behaviour.

In an educational organisation, we might need to perform certain routine work specific to our job. This specification in actual sense signifies our responsibility towards a task given to us. A superior who assigns a task with specification, can assess a subordinateÊs performance within this scope and thus, avoid conflict. Work specification is important to superiors as they will be able to know and to assess the work scope of a subordinate within the organisation.

TRANSACTIONAL ANALYSIS

Eric Berne introduced the Transactional Analysis Theory to explain the effort to overcome conflicts within an organisation. This theory, stresses on the aspect of interpersonal skills as the way to overcome conflicts among staff. Transactional analysis is a combined aspect of emotional and feelings of an individual accrued from experience. It retains elements such as ego found in children, parents and adults. For example, parents raise their children with emotion and feeling. Sometimes, a child is strictly controlled by his parent in certain circumstances. Try to think of situation when a child is strictly controlled or watched over by their parents? What is the childÊs emotion under such strict surveillance? As parents, sometimes we also encounter neutral situations when watching our children. Transactional analysis stresses on adults possessing qualities to assess, to observe, to analyse, to question and to test. Try giving a few situations whereby a parent will display such qualities as mentioned above.

9.4

ACTIVITY 9.4

Describe the ways a school manager can reduce conflicts in schools.


132

Transactional Analysis also looks at how elements such as happiness, love, tearfulness, anger and frustration function at different emotional levels, be it positive or negative. Most of the time, a leader will try to present themselves as a family man when communicating. In this way, he feels and thinks like a parent. Parents will certainly put their family first when making any decision. We are on the level of an adult when we perceive a situation objectively and based on facts. However, when we react like a child to a situation, we are at the level of a child. In an educational organisation, the person managing a school should be discerning when applying all three levels of transactional analysis after taking into account the related elements. Thus, transactional analysis is pivotal when we are communicating. We, as adults will put ourselves on certain levels when we communicate with others. Sometimes, we adopt the ÂCritical ParentsÊ level, whereby we try to solve a problem in a diplomatic manner. Try to study the following scenarios:

Example A : Hazril, you have yet to complete your report. Weeks have passed and I have asked you for it several times since. Please hand in the report by today. Understand?

Example B : Hazril, please hand in your report. I dislike asking for it regularly. I am afraid I might be in trouble if I do not have the report by tomorrow. Would it be possible for you to submit the report by tomorrow?

Example C : Hazril, the dateline for submitting the report is drawing near. The report is very important. If we fail to hand in on time, I will be in trouble. Can we meet to discuss ways to solve this problem today? Please bring along the plan that you have drafted.


Try identifying the different tonal used in each scenario. Example A is similar to the tone a parent uses when instructing a child to do his bidding. The tone of voice is slightly sharp especially at the end of the monologue. Example B is akin to a childÊs tone of speech. Children like to plead, „May I⁄‰, „Please help me⁄‰ are normal in childrenÊs speeches. How about example C? Example C is similar to an adultÊs way of speaking. The purpose of the meeting is clearly stated and the message is delivered in such a way as to bring about a solution to the problem together. Strokes are an important part of Transactional Analysis. Most individuals need recurring stimulation and encouragement to solve problems. Recurrent strokes are a form of confession from an individual to another individual. According to Transactional Analysis, this is a situation whereby one party will give and the other party will passively receive. This can lead to a healthy emotional feeling of confidence that is comfortable for both individuals. This concept is indispensable to an educational manager by cultivating a thought, whereby saying thank you and praising deserving subordinates for their excellent performance is of crucial importance.

An educational manager should be discerning when using praises such as „Good‰, „You have shown excellent performance‰, „Continue your good work‰ or „Maintain your good results‰. Erne, the founder of Transactional Analysis pointed out that the implementation of management in communication complement each other. This is because when two individuals are talking, they are in fact engaged in a mutually responding situation. A conflict in communication management produces emotional pressure and strong negative feelings.


134

Try to look at the conversation below that demonstrates a conflict in communication: Manager : Azmir, can I discuss with you on the Classroom Analysis

Report?

Azmir : DonÊt mention that report again. I am fed-up with it.

Manager : Fed-up? Maybe you are but I notice that you have not written the report yet.

Azmir : Really? But do you know anyone to be assigned to assist me?

Manager : It is your responsibility to prepare the report and not finding excuses.

The above is an example of non-effective communication. Both individuals are in opposition. Both individuals should refrain from communicating like a child and start improving the situation. The adult way of communication introduced earlier in this chapter should be employed in this situation to avoid conflict. A professional leader should be mindful of his way of communicating with others. When a superior communicates with his subordinates, the intonation employed in the conversation is of equal importance. A superior should never mix personal issues when dealing with subordinates. An educational manager should also avoid praising subordinates who are only pretending to work hard when in fact the latter has a hidden agenda. A subordinate showing sincerity should be praised. This method will need time in order for the leader to make close observation of his subordinates. In this situation, the educational manager should understand the behaviour of his subordinates first, before obtaining the necessary information through communication skills. Communication skills are also important when completing a task because there is a probability that the subordinates might overstep their boundaries. This action by the subordinate might jeopardize the work performance. However, as a professional leader or educational manager, it is your duty to guide errant subordinates back to the right track so that they can contribute positively to the organisation. The right communication skill is able to free the organisation from conflicts which is disadvantageous to an organisation.

SELF-CHECK 9.1

Why transactional analysis is important?


GIVING AND ACCEPTING CRITICISM

Transactional Analysis also discusses on individuals criticizing an organisation. We might come across colleagues who criticize all programs and activities organized. Criticism is able to raise unnecessary issues and dissatisfaction from both parties.

However, criticism from an individual should contain assertive elements. In other words, assertiveness in criticism is to explain why, and the aim of criticism as to avoid further accusations. This is necessary for accusations can lead to revenge. If an individual explains why he is criticizing, the receiver can react to the criticism positively. Try to think of a scenario whereby criticism is given positively and received well! Transactional Analysis Theory listed three types of criticism:

(a) Unclear criticism;

(b) Invalid criticism; and

(c) Valid criticism. Unclear criticism is a hasty reaction to deny a responding accusation. It is rather useless to give a response to such criticism unless we are clear what the criticism is. The person being criticized should put forward the following questions:

(a) I do not thoroughly understand what you have just said, do you mind explaining it to me again?

(b) What you have just said is what you thought ⁄⁄..is that it?

(c) What are the things that you find offensive? After understanding the criticism we received, only then we can respond. However, there are criticism that is neither valid nor true, and without any basis. The accuser might say things like „I do not accept your criticism‰. An individual

9.5


136

should bear full responsibility of what he has said. The individual is accountable for his own speech. In this kind of situation, we must be an active listener and be assertive. We can either agree or disagree, assertively.

Another element of criticism is valid criticism. Valid criticism is to admit by saying, „Yes, I have made an error‰. Valid criticism affects the individual who admits his error from several aspects including feelings, self-esteem or credibility. However, we should never put the blame on someone elseÊs shoulder by saying, „Yes, I have made an error, but you are part of it as well.‰ We should appreciate the person that points out the error by saying, „I appreciate your concern on the issue, I promise to be more careful next time. I am now aware of its significance‰.

TRANSACTIONAL ANALYSIS AND ITS APPLICATION

Transactional Analysis is applicable in various organisations. The condition in a particular organisation can determine whether the transmission of communication contains elements of feelings or emotions. Is the tone of voice verging on exerting authority? Alternatively, is the tone of voice showing

9.6

SELF-CHECK 9.2

State three types of criticism based on Transactional Analysis.


responsibility? As an adult, we can discern these various shades of tones in voices, and this ability relates to the professional development of an individual. We can see Transactional Analysis in written communication as well. Try referring to all those memos, emails and letters that we have read daily. Informal communication such as email shows a variety of tones. Sometimes, we can get angry simply by reading and interpreting an email that is rudely constructed. Transactional Analysis is useful as well when we are in a negotiating process. We can conclude a negotiation effectively if it is approached in an adult manner. The final purpose of any negotiation is to achieve a win-win situation. Thus, handling the discussion in an adult manner is important. An educational manager should adopt an adult behaviour when in negotiation and this skill should be encouraged as well among subordinate so that they can apply it in other negotiations.

Transactional Analysis is also important to an educational manager in charge of a training program. In order to ensure an individual is aware of his roles and purpose in an organisation, Transactional Analysis is of crucial importance. After knowing their duty and function, a subordinate may then understand the daily transactions. Subordinates may also know how to improve their work quality. In addition, an individual can sharpen his interpersonal skill through Transactional Analysis. This interpersonal skill is most crucial to teachers because they have to deal with clients, students, parents and colleagues. Thus, a teacher needs to equip himself with interpersonal skills in order to solve various problems in the organisation. For example, when parents approach a teacher, the teacher can use his interpersonal skills to solve the parentsÊ apprehension. This is the best approach to avoid conflict between parents and teachers.


138

• This topic discussed elements of firmness in an organisation.

• The discussion focused on ways to be firm, especially in an educational organisation. Among the aspects explained are ways to handle conflicts and the Transactional Analysis.

• Elements of Transactional Analysis and its importance from an individualÊs emotional aspect were also discussed.

• This topic ends with an emphasis on the idea of criticism in an organisation.

Accountability

Assertive

Quality

Transactional Analysis

1. Explain how do you achieve an equilibrium in firmness. 2. State two strategies to overcome conflicts.

1. Elaborate on the emotional aspects of Transactional Analysis. 2. Explain why „strokes‰ is crucial in Transactional Analysis.

INTRODUCTION

The fundamental aspect in verbal communication is listening actively. When someone is listening actively, he is actually gathering all the information or messages. He is trying to improve his understanding about the messages. We also can understand othersÊ behaviour and improve our interpersonal skills. An organisation that practices an open concept needs to give opportunities to everyone to express their ideas and opinions. The ideas given should be listened to. A healthy flow of information will be established when there is freedom to express ideas. An individual or educational manager who is open should give opportunities to their subordinates to express ideas or opinions.

TTooppiicc

1100

Listening Skills


1. Explain the main elements in active listening;

2. Identify the barriers in active listening;

3. Explain the ways to enhance individual listening; and

4. Summarise the main elements of questioning as a method to enhance listening.

TOPIC 10 LISTENING SKILLS

140

ACTIVE LISTENING

A listening habit is an action to maximise our potential of learning instruments. Therapist and counsellors popularise active listening. In any relationship, when a person is conversing, he is trying to convey certain messages to the other party. It could be what he is trying to say is not similar to what he is actually saying. Among the sensory involved when we communicate are: (a) Ears - it is important to listen to what a person is trying to say. Ears are

used to listen to voices and tones which are useful to identify feelings. (b) Mouth - it is used to ask questions or give feedback. (c) Heart - it is used to understand feelings.

In our daily life, we have to optimize the use of the sensory in order to communicate effectively. If we donÊt use our ears effectively, we might not be able to listen actively. All the organs need to be used effectively. For instance, the usage of facial expressions when we communicate is important to deliver the proper message. Sometimes, we might not be able to convey the message effectively due to the lack of expressions in the communication. Sometimes a communicator fails to express his feelings because he canÊt convey the actual feelings. If a manager has active listening skills, he might be able to detect a messenger who is not telling things directly but instead showing it through facial or body movement.

In your opinion, why do we need to listen actively? Ponder over this for a moment.

10.1

TOPIC 10 LISTENING SKILLS 141

As a principal or leader in an educational organisation, it is advantageous to help subordinates to convey proper messages. Study the conversation below between a principal and a teacher. Below is a dialogue between Mr. Azizul (principal) and Mr. Syarin (teacher). Dialogue 1: Teacher : Mr Azizul, we believe that we wonÊt be able to achieve our

projection for SPM Mathematics this year. Our form five students are too weak and lazy in doing their exercises.

Principal : But that is the projection decided by the Mathematics department. We need to enhance our results in Mathematics since the education department and Education Ministry is emphasizing this subject now.

Teacher : They donÊt understand the types of students that we have.

Principal : Mr. Azizul, I am not, going to give excuses that our students are weak and lazy. My work here is to manage this school and to make sure that the studentsÊ achievement does not decline.

Teacher : But our students....

Principal : Therefore, you have to think further and in case you have any problems then you can come back to me.

Dialogue 2: Teacher : Mr. Azizul, we think we will not be able to achieve our

yearly projection for SPM Mathematics this year. Our form five students are too weak and lazy in doing the exercises.

Principal : I think you have problem.

Teacher : Yes, sir. Other teachers who are teaching them have the same feelings.

Principal : What do they feel?

Teacher : They told me that the students are performing badly. Therefore, we might not be able to achieve the yearly projection.

Principal : Looks like our form five students are really weak.


142

Teacher : Some of them are average students. Only a small percentage consists of good students. The majority are weak and lazy.

Principal : Is there any strategy by the Mathematics department to discuss and solve this problem? Do they have any special programs or additional classes to help those poor students?

Teacher : We have those classes, sir. It is still at the planning level and we have yet to carry out those activities.

Principal : I think with the help given by the Mathematics department, the weak students too can pass in the examination, although they might not be able to score distinction. Anyway, how about the lazy students?

Teacher : There are some students. Some of them are weak and they usually give up. Therefore, they fail to do the exercises.

Principal : I think your problem is not too serious. You can always see me if you think I can help you.

Teacher : I would try to solve this problem with the help of the other Mathematics teachers. I hope the extra classes and support programs will help the weak students.

(Source: Adapted from Ramaiah, 1999) In the above dialogue, the principal tried to use the active listening method. The principal gave feedback so that there will be an information flow. Information flow can actually allow the teacher to find other alternatives to resolve the problem.

Look at some of the decisions taken by the teacher after the principal used the active listening skills. A quality decision would have been achieved after the information flow occurs. Good principals will obviously take into consideration what the teachers are trying to say. In the dialogue, the principal tries to hear what the Mathematics teacher is trying to say. The impact is the teacher felt satisfied with the explanation. The teacherÊs grievances had been translated by


the principal in a positive way. The principal tried to offer his help to solve the problems. Good principals will often make use of the active listening skills to determine a teacherÊs problem.

BARRIERS TO ACTIVE LISTENING

Study this case below that is related to barriers in communication:

This is a case study related to problems in communication. This case involves Mr. Yeow who has been assigned to coordinate co-curriculum activities in his new school. Unfortunately, Mr. Yeow was not correctly informed about the complete responsibility of his new task. While carrying out the task, Mr. Yeow faced lots of problems and there were conflicts between him and the other teachers. Finally, Mr. Yeow approached the school principal and requested to be removed from his new co-curriculum coordinator post. Mr. Yeow is 45 years old. He is a graduate teacher who has vast experience in teaching. He held senior posts in various secondary schools before beentransferred to SM Sri Citra on his own request. Mrs. Mazni, the senior assistant of SM Sri Citra welcomed Mr. Yeow when he reported for duty. Mrs. Mazni briefed him on the school physical facilities. Mrs. Mazni took him to a few sections in the school. When they reached the staff room, Mr. Yeow was introduced to the other teachers. Finally, he was taken to the principalÊs room and was introduced to Mr. Azamy, the school principal. Mr. Azamy explained the teaching tasks to Mr. Yeow. However, Mr. Yeow did not think that he has any problems with teaching. Besides that, Mr. Yeow has been requested to assist Mrs. Mazni in planning and implementing the co-curriculum programs. Mr. Yeow was informed that

10.2

Think of any of your experiences in your organisation when you have problems in stating your opinions to your superiors. What are your feelings?

SELF-CHECK 10.1

State the sensory involved in active listening.


144

the entire co-curriculum program will be under the Senior Assistant II (StudentsÊ Affair). Mr. Sudir, the teacher who previously helped Mrs. Mazni was transferred to a different school early of this year. Mr. Azamy also was also seen talking and laughing on some issues during the time when Mr. Sudir was working as an assistant to Mrs. Mazni. After a few minutes, the conversation between Mr. Azamy and Mrs. Mazni stopped. Mr. Azamy suggested that a detailed meeting is arranged between Mrs. Mazni and Mr. Yeow. While walking to the Senior Assistant IIÊs room, Mrs. Mazni explained that other teachers had to help her in the co-curriculum program due to a lack of co-curriculum teachers. When they arrived at the Senior Assistant IIÊs room, two parents are waiting to discuss on a hostel matter. Therefore, Mrs. Mazni explained that she will place the details of the co-curriculum programme on Mr. YeowÊs table later. She added that Mr. Yeow can always see her or Mr. Azamy for any problems that arise. Mrs. Mazni then entertained the two parents who were waiting. After a few days, Mr. Yeow received a note which was placed on his table. The content of the note is as below: „Motivation Program for Upper Secondary Level Students:

1. Number of students: Male: 133 and female: 127.

2. Teachers who can help (3 persons): Mr. Ali, Mr. Maniam and Miss Julie.

3. Please refer to the co-curriculum Secretary for details of payment and other claims.

4. Please contact Mr. Azamy and get his approval to conduct this program.

(Hope this information will help you). Thank you.‰ After reading the note, Mr. Yeow went to the PrincipalÊs room and met Mr. Azamy and asked for his approval on the programme. The principalÊs room was locked and through the small window, Mr. Yeow saw Mr. Azamy talking on the telephone. A few minutes later, Mr. Yeow peeps through again and saw Mr. Azamy reading some letters; Mr. Yeow knocked on the door and entered the principalÊs room.

Mr. Azamy : Yes, Mr. Yeow, anything?


Mr. Yeow : Regarding the Motivation Program... (Mr. Yeow tries to give the note to Mr. Azamy) (Before receiving the note, Mr. Azamy said...)

Mr. Azamy : Can, you just follow what Mrs. Mazni has instructed you, she knows...

Mr. Yeow : Yes...( Silent and kept the note in his pocket and left the office).

Two weeks later, Mr. Yeow distributed the supervision timetable to the teachers: Mr. Ali, Mr. Maniam dan Miss Julie. As the resource allocation for the Motivation Programme is small, Mr. Yeow had divided the students of 260 pupils to 26 students in a group. Referring to the name list of students provided to him, Mr. Yeow made the supervision task as below: „Mr. Ali: 4 groups Mr. Maniam: 3 groups Miss Julie: 3 groups (Each teacher needs to meet their group and students at least once in a week and complete the task progress report for each of the supervision).‰ Upon receiving the instruction note from Mr. Yeow, the three teachers met Mr. Yeow and complained that the supervision duty given to them is too heavy and they suggested more teachers should be involved to supervise the groups. However, Mr. Yeow added that it is Mrs. MazniÊs instruction. Miss Julie went to see Mrs. Mazni when she was about to leave her office.

Miss Julie : Mrs. Mazni, why are there only three of us who are assigned to help Mr. Yeow?

Mrs Mazni : Mr. Yeow is a new teacher, can you please give yoru cooperation to him..em..if you donÊt have anything else, you need to excuse me. I need to meet the Welfare Officer.

Miss Julie : ..(Mrs. Mazni left the place although Miss Julie has not finished speaking.)

Two weeks later, there is no sign that the group meetings are planned. Mr. Ali, Mr. Maniam and Miss Julie are confused. Subsequently, Mr. Yeow went and met the three teachers again and heated arguments


146

took place. After those arguments, Miss Julie met with Mr. Azamy and explained to him the situation. Mr. Yeow was called and asked for the reason he did not allocate the task to the rest of the 60 teachers in the school. Mr. Yeow is confused and tries to further question Mr. Azamy, but instead he was directed to see Mrs. Mazni. Only then, Mrs. Mazni explained to Mr. Yeow that those three names given to him are the teachers involved in the planning of the whole Motivation Programme. They are not assigned to do the supervision task!

Case study questions: (a) What had actually happened from the incidents above? (b) What is the communication barriers that made Mr. Yeow fail to understand

the instructions given to him? A communication barrier happens in most areas in an educational organisation. Among the barriers and disturbances while communicating are: (a) The environment is not conducive and does not permitting an individual to

listen. For example, noisiness or weather. (b) The listener is not well and he could not concentrate on the conversation. (c) The listener is only interested to receive information that is important to

him. The rest of the conversation is not important to the listener. (d) The listener is prejudiced towards the speaker and this influences the

information that he is listening to. (e) The listener has his own problem. (f) The listener allows his own personal perception to influence him. Those

perceptions will influence the new input given. (g) The conversation has not concluded, but the listener has made his own

conclusion. (h) The listener does not give serious responses in the conversation. (i) The listener does not want to listen because he does not want to commit to

the topic of the conversation.


(j) The conversation is too long until the listeners get bored. The listeners do not want to listen anymore. The speaker tries to reduce the conversation although the message he wanted to convey has yet to finish.

(k) The listener does not agree with what has been said and does not let the

speaker say anything. (l) The speaker simply refuses to listen and does not wish to see the issue

because the job is not under his jurisdiction.

10.2.1 Active Listening Strategy

We have to understand that the reason we communicate is to convey our opinions and ideas. We want people to understand what we are trying to say. However, if the person refuses to listen to what we are trying to say regardless if it is important or not, this means the communication process is heading towards a failure. As a listener, having the right environment and good support is inevitable. For an education manager, he has to create a good environment and give support to the speaker to voice his opinion and feedback. There are a few strategies that can be applied by a manager and an educational leader to listen actively.

10.2.2 Listening Skills Case

Case example: Client is a 34 year old widow. According to her: „My life was destroyed after my husband passed away. I do not have the confidence in anything. It is as if I am handicapped. I depended on my husband. My life is meaningless without my husband. I do not have the confidence to live anymore. It is like I am disabled. My husband used to make all the decisions. Now it is difficult for me to sleep. I do not feel hungry anymore. Sometimes I do not eat. I know I look messy now and that probably hinders me from working anywhere else.‰

(Source: Cormier & Cormier)


148

Example of ListenerÊs Responses The listener can make these actions based on the case study above: (a) Seek explanation:

(i) Are you working now?

(ii) How will you look after your children?

(iii) Is there anyone else to help you and your children?

(iv) In what year did your husband pass away?

(v) Are you staying together with all your children? (b) Paraphrase:

All this while you are dependent on your husband and you were never directly involved in your family matters. You feel that life is meaningless after your husbandÊs death⁄.disabled⁄no confidence⁄things are not organized & you feel that you do not deserve to work anywhere else.

(c) Emotion Reflection:

Hmm⁄ after your husband passed away, you are having depression until you could are not able to⁄⁄ You think that you do not have any confidence to get a job because your situation does not permit you.

(d) Guide Questions (Exploring): How is your family surviving now? What is your plan soon? ⁄to solve your problems ⁄your depressions⁄your finances⁄to look after your children⁄your health and so on⁄? What are your feelings now?

(e) To interpret :

Before your husband passed away, you do not need to manage your family life. I am sure you have these problems now and it might be difficult to handle alone.


Environment

• To give a chance to people who want to say something

• Sit down with great interest, look straight at the person

• Give full attention to the conversation

• Establish proper eye contact

• Relax and do not rush to leave the conversation

• Patient

• Clear your mind from any issues or problems

• To accommodate the environment where the conversation is taking place

• Not to interfere when the conversation is incomplete

• Open minded although you do not agree with the speaker Message

• Remember the important points

• Remember the important words

• Arrange the message with your own dialogue

• Do not make an early judgment or conclusion Effective communication

• Write down if necessary

• Sensitive to the non-verbal message

• Get the feeling behind the message

• Empathy


150

ENHANCING OUR LISTENING SKILLS

Have you ever attended an interview? Have you interviewed any candidates? We would have attended an interview when we went for our job confirmation as a teacher in the Ministry of Education. However, it is important to note that an interview is an important component in communication. An individual who is involved in an interview faces a high commitment. In this section, we are going to discuss on the crucial aspects when we are being interviewed. When we are being interviewed, we have to consider and control the questions that are asked. This is important especially when we have to present to a group of people. We have to engage ourselves in an active listening process. This will lead us to a healthy way when engaged in a meeting. We can relate to this aspect when we interview a person. The two aspects are inter-related.

Listening is an activity which is crucial in all types of communication. A lot of research indicated that more than 45% of our weekly task is devoted to listening.

10.3

SELF-CHECK 10.2 Compare the strategies that you use when you;

(a) receive a message; and

(b) make an effective communication.


10.3.1 Active Listening

Sometimes, there will be a situation whereby we might think that a person is listening. But actually the listener is not listening and instead is thinking about other things. The listener is not using his capacity to listen actively. He probably is using passive listening. Thus, it shows that the listener is not paying attention to the conversation. This situation is not fair for the students in a classroom as the students are expected to interact with the teacher.

However, in normal circumstances, listening is regarded as a passive process, whereby information is collected and stored. ThatÊs all! Sometimes we try to listen and conclude the passive process with listening too. The two-way process does not happen. Successful listening is an active process which will allows one to collect, store and process information to develop a useful task. This is called to listen in an active way. In other words, a new task is engaged after the active listening is completed.

ACTIVITY 10.1

Think again of the situation when you were interviewed by the Education Commission Panel for your job confirmation as an educator. What were your feelings? Explain.


152

QUESTIONING METHOD

To have real interest on the topic that we are

discussing.

Motivation to listen

Memory distance

Source closeness

People have listening capacity for the first 15 to 20 minutes. Therefore, it is better that we listen for a short

period. Take a rest before continuing listening.

If we keep on nagging in the same conversation, it will lead to

boredom.

Attitude Consider the environment

If we think about obstacles/ barriers which will reduce activelistening, we will be able to develop active listening.

Figure 10.1: Questioning method

The right questioning skills (Figure 10.1) will develop a person to think and give feedback. In a classroom setting, a teacher usually uses a lot of questioning skills to identify whether the students understand the lesson. A teacher needs to possess in-depth knowledge to get the answers to the questions that he asked in the lesson. He needs to search for the right answers as well. There are few questions that a teacher often uses in a lesson: (i) Open

A person who uses open questions expects a wide range of answers. He probably wants the students to provide more information on the question.

(ii) Close

This type of question involves a person to answer ÂyesÊ or ÂnoÊ.

10.4

ACTIVITY 10.2

Why listening is said to be a passive process? Discuss.


(iii) Elaboration An elaboration will be used to further explain.

(iv) Development

This type of question makes a person convey their message clearly and precisely. A person who responds to development questions will search for answers to the question from various sources. They will be able to answer the question confidently.

Most importantly, a person should not ask questions harshly. They should ask questions politely and sincerely. Another important thing, we should ask interesting questions to the students. By provoking such questions, the teacher can expect more answers from the students. Sometimes teachers ask difficult questions when they realize the students have more information. Therefore, a teacher should know when to ask these questions to their students.

USING BEHAVIOURAL QUESTIONS

To establish behavioural questions in an interview:

(i) We hope to use this type of questions when we conduct an interview. These questions will help us as an interviewer to elicit the actual characters of the students. Sometimes we might not be able to get proper information in the interview session. These behavioural questions will help us to make predictions of their future characters.

(ii) A candidate who is facing some behavioural questions will think before he speaks. Thus, he will try to answer honestly and openly. When we are planning behavioural questions, we have to be careful on the work that the candidate is going to present to the panel.

(iii) You, as an interviewer have to get detailed information by using other questioning skills.

(iv) There is some evidence in psychology which refers to candidates who find it difficult when they are facing with behavioural questions.

10.5

SELF-CHECK 10.3

What do you understand by close questions?


154

(v) When the candidate is busy triggering answers in a short period, it is quite difficult for them to cheat or lie.

• This topic has discussed learning skills that are needed by an educational

manager.

• Among those aspects are sensory during listening, ways to listen effectively, barriers during the listening process and strategies to listen actively.

• Besides that, attention is given to questioning skills.

• There are some behavioural questions that are used as a part of the effort to listen effectively.

Counsellor

Empathy

Message

SELF-CHECK 10.4

State the advantages of asking behavioural questions.

ACTIVITY 10.3

What is your reaction when you are asked difficult questions in an interview? Discuss.


1. State five barriers and disturbances which occur when communicating.

2. State four listening skills that an individual should learn.

1. Explain the questions that will be used in a communication process.

2. State the importance of behavioural questions in an interview.

ANSWERS

156

Answers TOPIC 1: APPROACHES TO COMMUNICATION

THEORIES Self-Test 1 1. There are THREE factors influencing the potential of all various types of

communication channels:

(a) To manage all signals simultaneously;

(b) To facilitate two-ways reaction; and

(c) To create a personal focus in communication. 2. (a) Communication whereby the message is transmitted from the bottom

level to higher lever in the hierarchy of an educational organisation.

(b) Educational organisation has a specific channel for subordinates to voice up their dissatisfaction or to express their views to their superiors.

(c) organisation with hierarchy is an example of upstream communication.

(d) An example is the existence of a feedback mechanism created by superior to ensure that the subordinates understood the policies of the organisation.

(e) Sometimes a superior would like to know the opinions of his subordinates in relation to the implemented policies and their impacts.

Self-Test 2 1. (a) Using ICT.

(b) Conventional method such as staff meeting, induction courses, committee meetings, speeches.

(c) The aim of these methods is to enable the staff to understand organisation policy, system and practises.

ANSWERS 157

2. Communication barriers occur in school due to:

(a) The headmaster is unable to control the dissemination of message in the school;

(b) Inappropriate usage of communication apparatus like Â intercomÊ;

(c) Too many formal communication taking places;

(d) The teachers failed to understand, hear or misinterpreted messages that are delivered to them

(e) The legitimacy of an information is being questioned due to the existence of various barriers like semantic barrier, no feedback or inferior status

(f) Message being too general and not specific

TOPIC 2: LEADERSHIP STYLE AND COMMUNICATION Self-Test 1 1. Elements found in a leadership are:

(a) Leadership process

(b) Leadership concept

(c) Rights to execute one or more actions in order to lead 2. A person possessing leadership qualities should have:

(a) Self Confidence: A leader should posses a high level of self confidence in order to be able to persuade his subordinates effectively.

(b) The ability to form realistic goals and achieve them within a

predetermined time frame. (c) Opportunistic. A leader should be able to identify opportunities and

continuously do so. (d) Location Control. A leader should be able to exert control at the right

time, place and situation. (e) Goal Oriented. In business, those that manage to survive understand

the importance of being goal oriented, and thus work towards achieving it.

ANSWERS

158

Self-Test 2 1. Autocratic leadership is effective in the following situations:

(a) A new-ly recruited staff that has yet to be trained and is thus not familiar with his scope of duties or procedures.

(b) Orders and directive to be given only when accompanied by effective

supervision (c) Subordinates that do not respond well to other types of leadership. (d) When production is required.

2. Democratic leadership works well when:

(a) The leader wishes to inform his subordinates on matters that will directly influence their work.

(b) The leader desires his subordinates to reach a decision or solve a problem together

(c) The leader wants to create job opportunities or propel career of an individual to greater heights, thus increasing his subordinatesÊ satisfaction

TOPIC 3: TOWARDS EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION Self-Test 1 1. The SIX tips that can be used are:

• Memorizing names as many as possible

• Introducing ourselves to the children

• Be punctual, courteous and neat

• Showing them that we are sincere in helping them to learn

• Ensuring that there are rules and regulations and acquainting the children to it at an early stage

• Interact in groups or individually either while in class or outside the classroom to draw their attention

ANSWERS 159

• To identify what is interesting in class and continue the interesting factors so that you can teach comfortably

2. A teacher can gain new ideas to improve his teaching and his situation in

class by constantly engaging in discussion with:

• Colleagues

• Headmaster/Principal

• Vice Principal

• Deputy headmaster

• Parents

• Stakeholders 3. Each group will use a certain technique to memorise English or Malay

names such as John, Karen, Michael, Aziz or Ali. Sometimes, each individual will be assigned a number at the beginning and do a self-introduction when his number is called.

Self-Test 2

1. Denotative refers to: • Definition which is limited and explicit to a word Example: Graduates are male students in universities.

Connotative refers to: • A reaction, personal and subjective in nature towards a word Example: Graduates are male students in universities who are not

hardworking but always succeed. 2. Powerful words are chosen because they contain:

• The power to build

• The power to influence the mind and action

• The power to touch oneÊs emotion and reflect a culture 3. The effects of language in communication are:

(a) Name and identity:

• To shape how other people think of us and perceive us

• To have different connotation i.e. lion-fierce, sparrow-noisy

ANSWERS

160

• Having an odd name will make the person feel inferior

• Men are generally more seriously affected by any negative impact (b) Credibility and Status

• Manner of speech reflects a personÊs status

• Crucial during an interview

TOPIC 4: COMMUNICATION FROM AN ORGANISATIONAL PERSPECTIVE

Self-Test 1 1. FIVE guidelines suggested by Sayles and Strauss (1996) to achieve these

goals are:

• Determine the information objectives and communication flow.

• Identify the listener and their characteristics that may distort the message transmitted.

• Encode a suitable message using proper communication to reduce distortion of the message by the listener.

• Determine a suitable media and channel that induces interest in the receiver.

• Send the message at an appropriate time to maximise the psychological impact on the receiver.

2. THREE ways to improve information delivery by an individual are:

• Accurate use of language. Use of complex educational jargon and concepts should be avoided in favor of simple terms. In the context of a school, teachers should use language that is easily understood by the students. As you are aware, the language used in a Primary 1 and a Primary 6 student is different due to the differences in their conceptual comprehension and terminology. Hence, teachers must choose the language level used accordingly to the level of comprehension of the students.

• Complete and succinct information must be delivered to the listener.

For example, a teacher should give accurate and complete facts when teaching since children nowadays trust their teachers more. Therefore, a teacher should check and verify the authenticity of the information before it is delivered to prevent any controversies.

ANSWERS 161

• Background environmental factors and psychological noise must be reduced. For example, during a parent-teachersÊ meeting, interruptions due to ringing phones should be minimized. An educational manager who is delivering an important message must ensure that the listener understands the message being delivered.

Self-Test 2 1. This form of communication does not delegate the powers of the head to

his subordinates. The head is the source of all decisions made. An example would be the cluster school scheme in Malaysia, whereby under the Malaysian Central Education Development Plan, such schools are under the control of the appointed Principal or Headmaster.

2. It develops from the socialization between members of an organisation. For

example in schools, the informal communication and friendship between staff and teachers are caused by sharing the same office, task, cafeteria and transport. This is apparent in schools in our country. The presence of grapevines indicates that social relationship and communication channels exist at every level of that school.

TOPIC 5: TOWARDS EFFECTIVE WRITING Self-Test 1 1. Interpretation and placement of meaning very much depends on the

writing habit. Most people feel awkward whenever they have to write. In exams, we take ages to think and write down the answer script. In an educational organisation, correspondence depends on the current context that is understood by members in that organisation.

2. (a) Spelling

(i) Spelling plays a vital role in communication.

(ii) Dictionary use is necessary to increase grammatical skills.

(iii) To further enhance grammatical skills, effective dictionary usage is necessary.

ANSWERS

162

(b) The Usage of Punctuation

(i) Punctuation marks in sentences possess particular significance.

(ii) Usage of punctuation marks is complex, as there are many ways in which to use these marks.

(iii) Every sentence requires suitable punctuation marks.

(iv) Punctuation marks should be used appropriately.

(c) Effective Writing Usage (i) Sentences in English which indicates possession by people,

children, woman or man usually have an apostrophe mark. For example,

• PeopleÊs safety

• WomenÊs clothes (ii) We also use apostrophe in contractions that involve prohibitive

directives. For example,

• DonÊt walk on the grass.

• You shouldnÊt write on the wall.

Self-Test 2 1. Writing form must have the following categories:

• Generic

• Sequential

• Chronological

• Sentence priority

• Spatial

• Comparison

• Pros And Cons

• Familiar To Unfamiliar 2. The use of graphics has several advantages, amongst which are:

• Simplify complex events. For example, a chart used to illustrate the Education Ministry organisation;

• Ability to show the current trend within an organisation. For example, the graduate application trend for teaching profession in the last three years could be shown with a chart, table or graph;

• Functions as additional information to written information.

ANSWERS 163

TOPIC 6: CREATIVITY IN COMMUNICATION Self-Test 1 1. (a) Change the mood and the tone

You might soften it, reduce its intensity, and make it quieter, less personal, less parental or patronizing but more mature. It could be the tone, which acts as a block to communication.

(b) Change the environment

Try to move the chairs around, draw down the blinds; move from a corridor to a room. The wrong environment can rob a communication of its life and vigour. Think of all those meetings that just died because the room was small, stuffy and badly ventilated. In 1985, President Reagan carefully prepared the Lake Geneva cabin where the meeting with Soviet Leader Gorbachev was to take place: an open communication with comfortable chairs, cups of coffee and other relevant changes to ensure no communication barriers should occur during the meeting.

2. A good start is having a lesson plan using Âbite-sized learningÊ. Assigning

tasks to qualified students are prioritized and enough time should be given to them to perform. Try to study the differences of the task performed by an individual, a pairs or small groups and the effectiveness in keeping their interests. We should also keep in mind how to associate a learning process to suit their age or experience. ChildrenÊs attention can easily be distracted when there is no visualisation. We should also avoid creating unnecessary distractions such as making needless announcements during lesson.

Self-Test 2 1. There are several ways we can adopt to reduce the interruption due to

noise. An interesting learning environment is when each student actively participates in an activity that has been planned. We can organize activities such as letting the students listen to a piece of story from a radio and then asking them several questions and doing comprehension exercises verbally. We can also encourage them by rewarding students with small gifts like colouring books or stickers when they answer correctly. This kind of activities could indirectly cause the children to be quieter and pay more attention.

ANSWERS

164

2. A successful speaker is someone who can gauge the audienceÊs behaviour. A good speaker can „read‰ his audience and divert them accordingly. The skill to „read‰ what an audience wants is done through severals ways as follows;

• Observing non-verbal behaviours;

• Listening to the tone of their voice; and

• Be vigilant of the tone used in asking questions.

There are certain speakers that could not respond with a tone of voice that the audience expects. Sometimes the audience expects the speaker to answer in a more sober tone instead of adopting a jovial inconsequential manner when addressing a serious issue. Thus, the choice of the various types of approaches used to elicit a response is important. The failure to catch what the audience wants is a failure to deliver.

TOPIC 7: CONFLICT SOLVING SKILLS IN AN EDUCATIONAL ORGANISATION (1)

Self-Test 1 1. According to Robiah (1998) problems due to communication skills cpuld be

solved through several ways such as:

(a) A teacher standing in front of the class giving lessons and students are to write down the points on the blackboard;

(b) A teacher with a fierce or sour facial expression when in class and

starts the lesson by lecturing and venting his anger. Sometimes, punishment or judgement is meted out on students and those that fail to follow instruction will be threatened;

(c) A teacher fails to give precise and clear instructions and causing

students unable to finish their task. Students will then feel dissatisfied and unclear;

(d) When students have enquiries, the teacher is unwilling to help by

delaying the answers or instructing students to search for the answer by themselves

ANSWERS 165

2. Several steps can be taken: • To know the philosophy and theories pertaining to education and

teaching vocation. Teachers constantly have to understand the current process of education that demands a teacher should know his group of students that he is teaching.

• To cultivate self-improvement and the right self-orientation while on

duty. What do we mean by self-orientation? Self-orientation refers to situations whereby a teacher has to identify whether to be democratic or autocratic while on duty. Self-orientation is also related to interpersonal skills.

• Stressing on openness and trying to understand other peopleÊs feelings.

Self-Test 2 1. Qualities needed to form an inspirational and dynamic communication are:

(a) Integrity: this refers to whether the messenger has integrity or otherwise. Integrity is a factor with a profound impact in communication. If the person delivering the information has integrity, then an effective communication can be expected. How can we evaluate someone who has integrity? Factors that determine a person with integrity are society placing their trust in him or having faith in his professional skills. If a person is a known liar, invariably he will have difficulty in others trusting him when he is delivering messages. On the other hand, if that person is a known expert in a particular field, of course the audience will be readily listening to his opinion.

(b) Using a persuasive package. A persuasive package is a set of standard

tactics to influence and direct the targeted person to act according to our wishes. This package is a frame of mind on how to influence others.

(c) Ensuring the message reaches the audience. A speaker has to know

what the audience is interested, so that we can motivate them accordingly. A leader should be aware that he would get the highest attention from his audience when he is speaking on issues relevant to his subordinateÊs welfare. This includes issues pertaining to salary, allowance and bonus.

ANSWERS

166

2. The criteria are:

(a) Supportive communication in the orientation of problem solving rather than orientation towards an individual. An effective leader pays more attention towards problem solving (rather than to an individual) when in communication with others. In general, we are more interested to solve a problem rather than to think on ways to improve a personÊs character. A leader with a supportive communication type will encourage individuals to solve the existing problem. For example, the leader might say, „You have to think of a suitable alternative way to solve your problem at hand‰.

(b) Supportive communication in descriptive form and not assessing form. Sometimes, when a person is being assessed, they become defensive. However, if the descriptive form is applied, a leader might say, „I noticed some errors in your report‰. This form of speech separates personal weakness from weaknesses in work. Weakness in performance while working does not necessarily depict a personÊs weakness in personal character, thus both elements should be separated. Compare this to a leader who uses the assessing form of communication by saying, „You are weak in your work‰.

TOPIC 8: CONFLICT SOLVING SKILLS IN AN EDUCATIONAL ORGANISATION (2)

Self-Test 1 1. Robbins (2003), in addition divided organisational conflicts into THREE

main reasons, which are namely, communication, organisational structure and personal background.

2. Several studies found that conflicts in school are caused by the following

factors:

• Two parties having incompatible objectives and they have to make two decisions to achieve two different aims.

• Two parties are wanting two different things but using a single solution to achieve their aim.

• Both parties are wanting the same thing but only one party gets it.

ANSWERS 167

Self-Test 2 1. Belbin (1970) suggested certain roles have to play by group members:

• The shaper a prominent character of a dynamic individual who is always ready for challenges

• The plant a character with many ideas, creativity and innovation; a person putting forth new ideas.

• The complete finisher a character that looks through the entire completed task meticulously, down to the most trivial points.

• Monitor evaluator an individual that always refers the group back to the original aim of why and what the group discussion is about. He will invariably ask „What is the purpose of us being here‰ or „What are we doing right now?‰.

• Chairperson has the sole responsibility of managing the session and encouraging group members to voice their opinions or ideas. The chairperson will try to achieve a consensus in a group meeting.

2. In a group communication, we will go through several steps. These steps

are:

• Forming situation whereby members of the group will introduce themselves and make themselves comfortable.

• Storming situation whereby the members are comfortable in the group and try to understand each otherÊs feelings. The agenda of the discussion will be the focus of attention and members start sharing ideas.

• Norming group members understand their role within the group and accept it as a norm.

• Performing group members work as a team and try to complete the task assigned to them. Members are playing certain roles will be more prominent than others.

• Adjourning the task is completed and members will retire from the group.

TOPIC 9: ASSERTIVENESS IN COMMUNICATION Self-Test 1 1. If a superior is too aggressive when preparing himself to be assertive, he

might end up hurting others. Assertiveness that is being displayed through force and inflexibility may render the receiving party to act in a similar

ANSWERS

168

vein. This may lead us to conclude that assertiveness is not always necessary and by insisting on it would only cause us harm. Thus, in such situations, the best solution would be to promote the state of equilibrium between both parties.

2. The following strategies to overcome conflicts are:

• To Avoid

− Avoid creating a conflict.

− Do not turn a disagreement into a conflict.

− Avoid forming polarizing opinions.

− Always bear in mind that whatever steps decided upon must be beneficial to you and your workers.

• To Accommodate

− Accommodating is to find a middle path solution acceptable to both parties.

− Cooperate in order to solve problems.

− Each individual should contribute ideas when solving problems.

− Individuals should put into practise ideas that have been agreed upon.

Self-Test 2 1. Transactional Analysis also looks at how elements such as happiness, love,

tearfulness, anger and frustration functioning at different emotional levels, be it positive or negative. Most of the time, a leader will try to present themselves as a family man when communicating. In this way, he feels and thinks like a parent. Parents will certainly put their family first when making any decisions. We are on the level of an adult when we perceive a situation objectively and based on facts. But, when we react like a child to a situation, we are at the level of a child.

2. „Strokes‰ is an important part of Transactional Analysis. Most individuals

need recurring stimulation and encouragement to solve problems. Recurrent strokes are a form of confession from an individual to another individual. According to Transactional Analysis, this is a situation whereby one party will give and the other party will passively receive. This can lead to a healthy emotional feeling; feeling of confidence and comfortable for both individuals.

ANSWERS 169

TOPIC 10: LISTENING SKILLS Self-Test 1 1. • The environment is not conducive and does not permit an individual to

listen. For example, noisiness or weather.

• The listener is not well and he cannot concentrate on the conversation.

• The listener is only interested to get the information that is important to him. The rest of the conversation is not important for the listener.

• The listener is prejudiced towards the speaker and influenced the information that he is listening to.

• The listener has his own problem. 2. (a) To seek explanation

(b) Paraphrase

(c) Emotion reflection

(d) Guide question (To explore)

Self-Test 2 1. (i) Open A person who uses open questions expects a wide range of answers.

He probably wants the students to provide more information on the question.

(ii) Close This type of questions involves a person to answer „yes‰ or „no‰. (iii) Elaboration An elaboration will be used to seek further explaination.

2. • This question will help us as an interviewer to elicit the actual character of the students.

• Sometimes we might not be able to get proper information in the interview session.

• These behavioural questions will help us to make predictions of their future characters.

REFERENCES

170

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