Sports PsychologySports Psychology

Sports PsychologySports Psychology

It is the discipline with the integration of It is the discipline with the integration of mental, physical and emotional skills mental, physical and emotional skills leading to optimal or peak performance.leading to optimal or peak performance.

It is commonly known as a science, which It is commonly known as a science, which utilises strategies to improve utilises strategies to improve performance, especially in competitive performance, especially in competitive sports.sports.

(Macquarie Dictionary, 1992)(Macquarie Dictionary, 1992)

No matter how skilful someone may be No matter how skilful someone may be physically, in sport this can account physically, in sport this can account for nothing if he / she is not correctly for nothing if he / she is not correctly attuned mentally.attuned mentally.

A lack of preparation, worries over A lack of preparation, worries over performance, a loss of confidence performance, a loss of confidence can all be poison to a successful can all be poison to a successful performance. The world of sport is performance. The world of sport is littered with individuals who never littered with individuals who never gained the success that their talent gained the success that their talent suggested that they should have had.suggested that they should have had.

Peak PerformancePeak Performance

Performance is the execution or doing Performance is the execution or doing of work, acts or feats.of work, acts or feats.

Performance is associated with the Performance is associated with the way in which someone reacts under way in which someone reacts under particular conditions or fulfils an particular conditions or fulfils an intended purpose. This may be intended purpose. This may be sport, music, dance, drama or any sport, music, dance, drama or any activity performed before an activity performed before an audience.audience.

Performance is subject to evaluation.Performance is subject to evaluation.

Peak performance is the highest level Peak performance is the highest level or quality reached by an individual. or quality reached by an individual. It is when physical and mental skills It is when physical and mental skills come together and the performer come together and the performer transcends or reaches above transcends or reaches above ordinary levels.ordinary levels.

These performers have been defined These performers have been defined as ‘reaching their peak or optimal as ‘reaching their peak or optimal level in an episode of superior level in an episode of superior functioning’.functioning’.

(Williams and Krane, 1993)(Williams and Krane, 1993)

Characteristics of Peak PerformanceCharacteristics of Peak Performance

Many studies suggest that peak Many studies suggest that peak performances occur when the person performances occur when the person has mastered the skills at a high has mastered the skills at a high level, is in peak physical condition level, is in peak physical condition and has more potential control over and has more potential control over their performance.their performance.

Mental characteristics of peak performance include:Mental characteristics of peak performance include: Mentally relaxed and calm – an inner calm, a sense of time Mentally relaxed and calm – an inner calm, a sense of time

slowing down and a high level of focus.slowing down and a high level of focus. Physically relaxed – muscles are loose with fluid and sure Physically relaxed – muscles are loose with fluid and sure

movements, making the performance automatic and movements, making the performance automatic and effortless.effortless.

Confident and optimistic with no fear of negative Confident and optimistic with no fear of negative consequences – a positive attitude, are poised, feel strong consequences – a positive attitude, are poised, feel strong and are in control.and are in control.

Highly focused on the present and are immersed in the task Highly focused on the present and are immersed in the task at hand – have a sense of harmony with body / mind and at hand – have a sense of harmony with body / mind and are performing automatically without conscious effort.are performing automatically without conscious effort.

Highly energised – intensely ‘charged’ or ‘hot’ as they are Highly energised – intensely ‘charged’ or ‘hot’ as they are having fun.having fun.

Extraordinary awareness – an acute ability to respond in Extraordinary awareness – an acute ability to respond in harmony with their environment.harmony with their environment.

In control of themselves and their performance – body and In control of themselves and their performance – body and mind perform automatically and in unison.mind perform automatically and in unison.

‘‘In the zone’ or ‘In the cocoon’ with total commitment to In the zone’ or ‘In the cocoon’ with total commitment to the quality or their performance – the feeling of being in an the quality or their performance – the feeling of being in an envelope, completely detached from the external envelope, completely detached from the external environment and any potential distractions. It is a sense of environment and any potential distractions. It is a sense of complete access to all of one’s powers and skills.complete access to all of one’s powers and skills.

Psychological Skills TrainingPsychological Skills Training

The advantages of The advantages of psychological skills psychological skills training include:training include: Self awarenessSelf awareness Self worthSelf worth Self expressionSelf expression Personal growthPersonal growth Improved Improved

communicationcommunication Improved confidenceImproved confidence Improved concentrationImproved concentration

Increased self esteemIncreased self esteem Increased motivationIncreased motivation Increased emotional talkIncreased emotional talk Positive self talkPositive self talk Stress managementStress management Team cohesionTeam cohesion ConsistencyConsistency Leadership effectivenessLeadership effectiveness Appropriate goalsAppropriate goals Appropriate arousalAppropriate arousal Improved performanceImproved performance

The process of psychological skill development assists performers in transforming insight into performance effectiveness

There are five interrelated psychological skills, which affect There are five interrelated psychological skills, which affect performance. The lines of the diagram below demonstrate the performance. The lines of the diagram below demonstrate the

interrelationships of these skills and that mastery in one is necessary interrelationships of these skills and that mastery in one is necessary for maximising the other.for maximising the other.

Psychic Energy

Goal setting Stress Management

Attention skills Imagery skills

Excellence in any sport or in any task Excellence in any sport or in any task depends on:depends on:

How well you know where you want to How well you know where you want to gogo

How much you really want to get thereHow much you really want to get there How strongly you believe in your ability How strongly you believe in your ability

to arrive at your desired destination.to arrive at your desired destination.

Performance is largely a function of your Performance is largely a function of your experience of yourself.experience of yourself.

MotivationMotivation The definition of motivation – ‘is all the causes of The definition of motivation – ‘is all the causes of

initiation, maintenance and intensity of behaviour’ initiation, maintenance and intensity of behaviour’ (Mogill)(Mogill)

- ‘energisation and direction of behaviour’ - ‘energisation and direction of behaviour’ (Roberts)(Roberts)

Motivation is a complex topic that involves Motivation is a complex topic that involves identifying a number of personal and social factors identifying a number of personal and social factors that reflect some form of valued reward or that reflect some form of valued reward or incentive.incentive.

The concept of motivation includes such ideas as:The concept of motivation includes such ideas as: Innate desireInnate desire Desire to achieveDesire to achieve Level of aspirationLevel of aspiration

This level of motivation influences:This level of motivation influences: Your selection of and preference for an activityYour selection of and preference for an activity PersistencePersistence How well you perform relative to your abilityHow well you perform relative to your ability How much effortHow much effort

There are many theories which try and There are many theories which try and explain the relationship between motivation explain the relationship between motivation and sport.and sport. Freud (1920) – believed people were driven by Freud (1920) – believed people were driven by

sexual and aggressive impulses struggling for sexual and aggressive impulses struggling for expression (sport deemed more appropriate for expression (sport deemed more appropriate for men as an expression of innate aggressive men as an expression of innate aggressive impulses)impulses)

Rogers (1963) – saw within us a striving for self Rogers (1963) – saw within us a striving for self enhancement and growth ie motivational forces enhancement and growth ie motivational forces resulted from a need for positive regard (sport resulted from a need for positive regard (sport provides an environment where successful provides an environment where successful participation is rewarded with admiration and participation is rewarded with admiration and acceptance from others)acceptance from others)

Skinner (1971) – believed rewards and Skinner (1971) – believed rewards and punishment directed behaviour and identified punishment directed behaviour and identified factors outside the individual to motivatefactors outside the individual to motivate

Contemporary research suggests motivation in Contemporary research suggests motivation in sport is dependent on the multidimensional sport is dependent on the multidimensional nature of the individuals personality and social / nature of the individuals personality and social / cultural environment.cultural environment. Personal qualities – physical / mental maturity, gender, Personal qualities – physical / mental maturity, gender,

affiliation, fitness, achievement orientation, self affiliation, fitness, achievement orientation, self actualisation and personal improvementactualisation and personal improvement

Social reinforcers – social status, recognition, rewards, Social reinforcers – social status, recognition, rewards, social approval (peers, parents, coaches)social approval (peers, parents, coaches)

Both individual and social reinforcers impact upon the Both individual and social reinforcers impact upon the choices we make, the intensity by which we play and our choices we make, the intensity by which we play and our desire to remain involved or withdraw from the sportdesire to remain involved or withdraw from the sport

DirectionDirectionMotivationMotivation IntensityIntensity

Duration / PersistanceDuration / Persistance

MotivationMotivationMotivation is the heightened state of arousal directed to Motivation is the heightened state of arousal directed to

improving performance.improving performance.Motivation can be:Motivation can be:

Intrinsic – from within the athlete and pushes them to achieveIntrinsic – from within the athlete and pushes them to achieve Occurs when you are motivated by such factors as – satisfaction, Occurs when you are motivated by such factors as – satisfaction,

sense of competency, enjoyment/pleasure/fun, friendship, positive sense of competency, enjoyment/pleasure/fun, friendship, positive self regard, personal mastery/self improvementself regard, personal mastery/self improvement

An athlete intrinsically motivated is competent, self determined An athlete intrinsically motivated is competent, self determined and driven from withinand driven from within

Extrinsic – from outside the athlete, generally people through Extrinsic – from outside the athlete, generally people through positive and negative reinforcementpositive and negative reinforcement

Involves participation for material gain from external sources – Involves participation for material gain from external sources – social approval from adults/peers, money/trophies, glory and social approval from adults/peers, money/trophies, glory and recognition, winning, social statusrecognition, winning, social status

Extrinsic rewards by a good coach can lead to intrinsic motivation Extrinsic rewards by a good coach can lead to intrinsic motivation of an individualof an individual

Some professional athletes can lose intrinsic motivation. Why?Some professional athletes can lose intrinsic motivation. Why?

The intrinsic and extrinsic motivational changes that The intrinsic and extrinsic motivational changes that individuals experience have a substantial effect on their individuals experience have a substantial effect on their perceived confidence, control and tendencies to approach or perceived confidence, control and tendencies to approach or avoid achievement avoid achievement

Forms of motivationForms of motivation

There are two ways for developing There are two ways for developing motivated behaviours:motivated behaviours:

Positive motivation – this occurs when Positive motivation – this occurs when individuals behave because of the positive, individuals behave because of the positive, rewarding, or reinforcing eventsrewarding, or reinforcing events

Negative motivation – in this form of Negative motivation – in this form of control, individuals behave to avoid or control, individuals behave to avoid or escape negative, punishing or aversive escape negative, punishing or aversive consequences of behaviour.consequences of behaviour.

Positive motivation is the best form of Positive motivation is the best form of coaching controlcoaching control

ReinforcementReinforcement It is a form of reward or punishment that It is a form of reward or punishment that

influences the probability that an action or influences the probability that an action or behaviour will or will not re-occur.behaviour will or will not re-occur.

There are three types of reinforcement:There are three types of reinforcement: Social reinforcement is from coaches, players, Social reinforcement is from coaches, players,

parents and others. It is needed to gain parents and others. It is needed to gain recognition. This is usually accomplished recognition. This is usually accomplished through comments.through comments.

Material reinforcement is something that is Material reinforcement is something that is tangible. For example medals and trophies.tangible. For example medals and trophies.

Internal reinforcement is from within, the drive Internal reinforcement is from within, the drive or desire to succeed. For example increasing or desire to succeed. For example increasing self confidence.self confidence.

Behaviour modificationBehaviour modification

1.1. Extrinsic Rewards – The Law of EffectsExtrinsic Rewards – The Law of Effects

Rewarding behaviour will increase the Rewarding behaviour will increase the probability that the behaviour will be probability that the behaviour will be repeated, and punishing behaviour repeated, and punishing behaviour decreases the probability that the behaviour decreases the probability that the behaviour will be repeated.will be repeated.

Problems occur if:Problems occur if: Appropriate reinforcers are not used.Appropriate reinforcers are not used. Reinforcers are not made for a particular Reinforcers are not made for a particular

behaviourbehaviour Reinforcers are not given at the right time.Reinforcers are not given at the right time.

2.2. Continuous Positive ReinforcementContinuous Positive Reinforcement

If an athlete is performing at a certain level and the If an athlete is performing at a certain level and the level of performance needs to be increased, then level of performance needs to be increased, then the coach must ensure the occurrence of positive the coach must ensure the occurrence of positive consequences following each performance.consequences following each performance.It is a constant supply of rewarding or reinforcing It is a constant supply of rewarding or reinforcing every performance instead of just the desired ones.every performance instead of just the desired ones.Implementation of continuous positive Implementation of continuous positive reinforcement can be achieved by the following:reinforcement can be achieved by the following:

If the coach is to be the source of the positive If the coach is to be the source of the positive reinforcement then he/she must devote blocks of time to reinforcement then he/she must devote blocks of time to individuals or small homogenous groups to the exclusion of individuals or small homogenous groups to the exclusion of others in the team.others in the team.

Educate athletes how to evaluate and reinforce their own Educate athletes how to evaluate and reinforce their own behaviours and that of others.behaviours and that of others.

Have every member evaluate each other and themselves Have every member evaluate each other and themselves on the same behavioural content.on the same behavioural content.

Devices, which supply performance information and Devices, which supply performance information and monitors mental attitude. For example, diaries and goal monitors mental attitude. For example, diaries and goal setting.setting.

Sources of reinforcementSources of reinforcement

TypeType PositivePositive NegativeNegative

SocialSocial Approval, esteem, recognition, Approval, esteem, recognition, congratulations, attention, congratulations, attention, adoration, courtesy, adoration, courtesy, considerationconsideration

Disapproval, hate, reproof, Disapproval, hate, reproof, scolding, degradation, scolding, degradation, sarcasm, rebuke, chidingsarcasm, rebuke, chiding

MaterialMaterial Badges, trophies, medals, Badges, trophies, medals, records, money, rewards, records, money, rewards, progress chartsprogress charts

Demonstration in grades or Demonstration in grades or levelslevels

PerformancPerformance e

InformatioInformationn

Intrinsic – ball in basket, target Intrinsic – ball in basket, target accuracy, length of driveaccuracy, length of drive

Extrinsic – coach saying ‘leg is at Extrinsic – coach saying ‘leg is at right height, videotape showing right height, videotape showing good formgood form

Intrinsic – missed target, Intrinsic – missed target, failure to stop opponent, failure to stop opponent, missed puttmissed putt

Extrinsic – peer commenting Extrinsic – peer commenting ‘leg is too low’, film shows ‘leg is too low’, film shows form error, fitness test results form error, fitness test results indicate poor statusindicate poor status

InternalInternal Self control – ‘That felt good’, Self control – ‘That felt good’, ‘You did it’‘You did it’

Vicarious – watching a gold Vicarious – watching a gold medal performance, seeing a medal performance, seeing a dive performed for the first time, dive performed for the first time, a race winner holding his/her a race winner holding his/her hands up in a jubilant fashionhands up in a jubilant fashion

Self control – ‘Miserable’, ‘I Self control – ‘Miserable’, ‘I am not going to let myself am not going to let myself down next time’down next time’

Vicarious – watching a missed Vicarious – watching a missed tackle, seeing a game tackle, seeing a game strategy fail, seeing someone strategy fail, seeing someone sent from the field for fightingsent from the field for fighting

Reinforcers are available from a wide variety of origins within the sport Reinforcers are available from a wide variety of origins within the sport setting.setting.

Factors Affecting MotivationFactors Affecting Motivation

State of the game – winning or losingState of the game – winning or losing Self esteemSelf esteem Spectator supportSpectator support Standard of the competitionStandard of the competition Ability of the coach to motivate and Ability of the coach to motivate and

encourageencourage Expectation – own and what we think Expectation – own and what we think

others think of usothers think of us Environment Environment Self improvement in a skill or techniqueSelf improvement in a skill or technique

Mental EnergyMental Energy All athletes need a certain level of mental All athletes need a certain level of mental

energy to perform successfullyenergy to perform successfully Arousal is the level of anxiety before or Arousal is the level of anxiety before or

during a performanceduring a performance In sport, it refers to the degree of energy In sport, it refers to the degree of energy

released and the intensity or readiness of released and the intensity or readiness of the performerthe performer

The level of arousal can be measured in The level of arousal can be measured in relation to performancerelation to performance

If a set level of arousal is not achieved an If a set level of arousal is not achieved an athlete will lack motivationathlete will lack motivation

This is illustrated in the Inverted U HypothesisThis is illustrated in the Inverted U Hypothesis

Good

Poor

Low HighArousaArousall

Perfo

rman

Perfo

rman

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OptimalPerformance will increase in proportion to arousal up to a certain point. Above the optimal level of arousal, performance will begin to decrease.

An under aroused athlete has difficulty in ‘getting into the game’ and are not focused enough

An over aroused athlete is nervous, anxious, rushed, fatigue sets in early and the athlete feels ‘tight’.

1.1. Under Aroused State (Social Under Aroused State (Social loafing)loafing)

SymptomsSymptoms Haven’t given much though to the gameHaven’t given much though to the game Reduced personal effort / lack of interestReduced personal effort / lack of interest LethargicLethargic Communication is poor (none, bad, negative)Communication is poor (none, bad, negative) Performance downPerformance down

In this situation the athlete generally does not In this situation the athlete generally does not take responsibility to prepare for the match – take responsibility to prepare for the match – and will tend to blame anyone but and will tend to blame anyone but themselves.themselves.

1.1. Over Aroused State Over Aroused State

SymptomsSymptoms Worrying ideas occupy thought space eg ‘whether Worrying ideas occupy thought space eg ‘whether

they have what it takes’they have what it takes’ Expectations are high (sometimes unrealistic)Expectations are high (sometimes unrealistic) ‘‘Top response’ from excessive tension and Top response’ from excessive tension and

nervousness leads to increased HR, body temp and nervousness leads to increased HR, body temp and muscle tensionmuscle tension

Performance dropsPerformance drops

SolutionSolution Need to concentrate on what information is going to Need to concentrate on what information is going to

help you do a particular task successfully – preferably help you do a particular task successfully – preferably action information not self talk that is negative, action information not self talk that is negative, worrying, criticising or questioning yourselfworrying, criticising or questioning yourself

Get athletes to use internal dialogue that is positiveGet athletes to use internal dialogue that is positive

Variations in ArousalVariations in Arousal

Poor performance

Arousal levels fluctuate before and during a performance and vary between individuals.

In general, a high level of arousal is required for Gross Body Skills and a low level for Fine Motor Skills.

Sport Specific Optimal Levels of ArousalGoo

d

Poor

Low High

ArousaArousall

Perfo

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Perfo

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Moderate

Archery

Football

Drive TheoryDrive Theory

ArousalArousal

High

Low

Low High

Perfo

rman

Perfo

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Performance will increase directly as a function of increasing arousal.

A coach delivering a pre-match address is an example of this.

This theory is often too simplistic and will not work well for complex sporting performance.

ConcentrationConcentration Concentration is referred to as attentionConcentration is referred to as attention It is the ability to focus on the right thing at the It is the ability to focus on the right thing at the

right timeright time Every athlete has an optimal level of arousal Every athlete has an optimal level of arousal

called our Ideal Performing State (IPS)called our Ideal Performing State (IPS) During IPS an athlete efficiently matches the During IPS an athlete efficiently matches the

attentional demands of a situation with the use of attentional demands of a situation with the use of the appropriate types of concentrationthe appropriate types of concentration

When arousal shifts away from the IPS the use of When arousal shifts away from the IPS the use of appropriate types of concentration and appropriate types of concentration and attentional focus becomes mismatchedattentional focus becomes mismatched

Due to pressure during a performance the ability Due to pressure during a performance the ability to concentrate properly decreases markedlyto concentrate properly decreases markedly

Classification of Attentional FocusClassification of Attentional Focus

Certain athletes do well in situations, which Certain athletes do well in situations, which require the use of particular types of require the use of particular types of attentional focus.attentional focus.

These include:These include:1.1. Width of ConcentrationWidth of Concentration

Broad – focusing on a wide range of cuesBroad – focusing on a wide range of cues Narrow – focusing on a limited range of cuesNarrow – focusing on a limited range of cues

2.2. Direction of ConcentrationDirection of Concentration Internal – focusing on one’s own thoughts and feelingsInternal – focusing on one’s own thoughts and feelings External – focusing on objects and events outside the External – focusing on objects and events outside the

bodybody

Classifications of Attentional FocusClassifications of Attentional Focus

Broad

External

Narrow

Internal

Broad External

Awareness of everything that is going on around them – seeing, hearing and feeling. Necessary for good court or field vision. More critical in team sports than individual sports.

Narrow External

Ability to concentrate in a focused way, to focus on one thing, to narrow onto the relevant aspects of a task. Very useful in target skills and as a way of blocking out distractions.

Broad Internal

Needed to analyse, organise and plan. The ability to recall information, mix it with what is going on and draw some logical conclusions. Being able to deal with a large number of ideas at the one time.

Narrow Internal

Ability to focus on a single thought or idea and stay with it. Need to enhance awareness of aspects of body reactions to stress (tight muscles, high HR). Usually indicates extreme dedication and capacity to follow instructions and to stick to a performance plan.

Errors in PerformanceErrors in PerformanceAs pressure increases an athlete will return to their As pressure increases an athlete will return to their concentrational strength subconsciously.concentrational strength subconsciously.If this does not match the focus required for the activity an error If this does not match the focus required for the activity an error will occur.will occur.Errors in performance occur due to:Errors in performance occur due to: ConfusionConfusion Overload – this can be internal or externalOverload – this can be internal or external

Internal OverloadInternal Overload This occurs when there are too many thoughts running through the This occurs when there are too many thoughts running through the

athlete’s headathlete’s headExternal OverloadExternal Overload

This occurs when there is too much noise (crowd, coach, team), too This occurs when there is too much noise (crowd, coach, team), too much movement around or too many complex thing to watch or much movement around or too many complex thing to watch or listen to.listen to.

To overcome the overload the athlete needs to have clear and well To overcome the overload the athlete needs to have clear and well learned performance plans.learned performance plans.

The athlete can then maintain a concentration focus on appropriate The athlete can then maintain a concentration focus on appropriate aspects of the performance and not be distracted.aspects of the performance and not be distracted.

To control concentration fluctuations athletes need to practise self To control concentration fluctuations athletes need to practise self regulation skills.regulation skills.

Example Example - arousal skills- arousal skills- attention control training- attention control training- performance planning- performance planning