How How Mediated SportsMediated Sports

have have Transformed JapanTransformed Japan

from a from a Hard-WorkingHard-Working

to a to a Hard-PlayingHard-Playing

NationNation

Empires of Empires of LeisureLeisure

Todd Joseph Miles Todd Joseph Miles HoldenHolden

ProfessorProfessor

Department of Multi-Cultural Department of Multi-Cultural StudiesStudies

Graduate School of Graduate School of International Cultural Studies International Cultural Studies (GSICS)(GSICS)

Tohoku UniversityTohoku University

Sendai, JapanSendai, Japan

Paper prepared for the Paper prepared for the

８８ th Asia Pacific Sociology Association th Asia Pacific Sociology Association (APSA) Conference(APSA) Conference

Hosted by: Maidol UniversityThailand

December 16th 19th, 2005

What this is Not…What this is Not… In a December 24, 1990, article in Time In a December 24, 1990, article in Time magazine, Carl Bernstein employed the magazine, Carl Bernstein employed the “The Leisure Empire”“The Leisure Empire” title to talk title to talk about the globalization of American about the globalization of American entertainment – entertainment –

He identified the usual suspects: He identified the usual suspects: Disneyland in TokyoDisneyland in Tokyo American pop music in BrazilAmerican pop music in Brazil American novels on the Italian best-seller American novels on the Italian best-seller listlist

But the title advanced by this panel and But the title advanced by this panel and in this paper means something in this paper means something completely differentcompletely different

In the Beginning… In the Beginning… IndicatorsIndicators

““The first game of the finals The first game of the finals between the Lakers and the between the Lakers and the Pistons… was the most-watched Pistons… was the most-watched show of that week, beating out show of that week, beating out competitors like ‘competitors like ‘CSICSI’ and the ’ and the season finale of ‘season finale of ‘The The SopranosSopranos’.”’.”

(Martin Miller, “Laker Loathing,” (Martin Miller, “Laker Loathing,” LA Times.comLA Times.com, June , June 12, 2004. url: 12, 2004. url:

http://www.latimes.com/features/lifestyle/la-et-http://www.latimes.com/features/lifestyle/la-et-miller12jun12,1,6116997.story?coll=la-home-style)miller12jun12,1,6116997.story?coll=la-home-style)

… … of Something… more thanof Something… more thana Sports Culturea Sports Culture

This paper, though, This paper, though, concerns something concerns something even deeper than a even deeper than a society in which society in which sports is the lead sports is the lead form of form of entertainment.entertainment.

It is the apparatus It is the apparatus that both lays the that both lays the foundation for, foundation for, then fuels the then fuels the phenomenonphenomenon

About this PaperAbout this Paper

Conceptualizes the term: Conceptualizes the term: Empire of LeisureEmpire of Leisure

Presents Japan as a prime Presents Japan as a prime exemplar of such an empireexemplar of such an empire

Focuses on three central Focuses on three central elements of this Empire:elements of this Empire:Sports Sports TVTVConsumersConsumers

Within the Context of the Within the Context of the Crossroads ConferenceCrossroads Conference

Asks the QuestionAsks the Question:: What is the meaning of an Empire What is the meaning of an Empire of Leisure in a time of crisisof Leisure in a time of crisisThe fact that it existsThe fact that it existsThe way that it operatesThe way that it operatesThe manner in which it is The manner in which it is sustainedsustained

The results that are engenderedThe results that are engendered

Within the Context of the Within the Context of the Crossroads ConferenceCrossroads Conference

Also asksAlso asks::

To what degree does an Empire of To what degree does an Empire of Leisure:Leisure: reflect,reflect, offer comment on, andoffer comment on, and help us understandhelp us understand

the time of crisisthe time of crisis

3 Basic Questions:3 Basic Questions:

1.1.Why Sports? Why Sports?

2.2.Why TV?Why TV?

3.3.Why Consumers?Why Consumers?

Why SportsWhy Sports??

Because athletics is one of the major Because athletics is one of the major components of leisure in contemporary components of leisure in contemporary society. Comprised of:society. Comprised of: Actors who fill markets Actors who fill markets ASAS leisure-related leisure-related goodsgoods

Actors who help create markets for leisure-Actors who help create markets for leisure-related goodsrelated goods

Actors who assist in the sale and consumption Actors who assist in the sale and consumption of other kinds of goods and servicesof other kinds of goods and services

Outlets for (vicarious) participation in Outlets for (vicarious) participation in sportssports

What could be called “audience engagement”What could be called “audience engagement” Staged events and organized activities that Staged events and organized activities that are consumed by audiencesare consumed by audiences

What amounts to leisure qua leisureWhat amounts to leisure qua leisure

Why TVWhy TV??

It is the most pervasive medium in It is the most pervasive medium in the focal context the focal context

It is the medium through which It is the medium through which leisure messages are communicated, leisure messages are communicated, and by which leisure is experiencedand by which leisure is experienced

It is through TV’s multiple genres It is through TV’s multiple genres – i.e. advertising, sports events, – i.e. advertising, sports events, news, “wide shows” – that the news, “wide shows” – that the empire is re/producedempire is re/produced

Why AudiencesWhy Audiences??It is the non-participant (the viewer, the It is the non-participant (the viewer, the purchaser) who helps elevate athletic purchaser) who helps elevate athletic exploits, players, events and goods at exploits, players, events and goods at the forefront of contemporary society. the forefront of contemporary society. They are the social group that infuses an They are the social group that infuses an empire of leisure with an economic baseempire of leisure with an economic base

They are the social group who receive and They are the social group who receive and respond to political, cultural and moral respond to political, cultural and moral messages flowing through the mediated sportsmessages flowing through the mediated sports

It is their activities which serves to It is their activities which serves to re/produce the working details – the form and re/produce the working details – the form and particularly the content -- of empires of particularly the content -- of empires of leisureleisure

The Triumvirate of The Triumvirate of Athletics, Media and Athletics, Media and

ConsumersConsumers

The intellectual, The intellectual, institutional, institutional, economic, and social economic, and social cornerstones upon cornerstones upon which the empire of which the empire of leisure is foundedleisure is founded

The Concept:The Concept:Empires of LeisureEmpires of Leisure::

Install “diversion” and “play” at Install “diversion” and “play” at the core of everyday existencethe core of everyday existence

Are consumer-drivenAre consumer-driven Are consumption-orientedAre consumption-oriented Are mediatedAre mediated

Most often, leisure is communicated Most often, leisure is communicated and/or experienced through forms such and/or experienced through forms such as TV, Movies, Internet, Cell phoneas TV, Movies, Internet, Cell phone

In important ways are socially, In important ways are socially, politically, economically, politically, economically, historically, and/or morally historically, and/or morally re/productivere/productive

The Importance of The Importance of ContextContext

No two contexts, obviously, are the No two contexts, obviously, are the samesame

They have their own histories and They have their own histories and rhythms, values and practices:rhythms, values and practices:

Institutionalized, embodied, codified Institutionalized, embodied, codified and visible as economic, political, and visible as economic, political, moral, social and culturalmoral, social and cultural

Leading to empires of various shapes Leading to empires of various shapes and behaviors and behaviors

The Importance of The Importance of ContextContext

In the case of a society like Japan, the emergence of In the case of a society like Japan, the emergence of a leisure empire constitutes a major societal changea leisure empire constitutes a major societal change

No more than 60 years ago this society was in physical, No more than 60 years ago this society was in physical, emotional and moral ruinemotional and moral ruin

Not 50 years ago it was struggling to right itself Not 50 years ago it was struggling to right itself economicallyeconomically

Not 40 years ago it was entering a cycle of rapid Not 40 years ago it was entering a cycle of rapid economic growtheconomic growth

Only 30 years ago did it begin experiencing high levels Only 30 years ago did it begin experiencing high levels of consumption and an increase in leisure timeof consumption and an increase in leisure time

Even 20 years ago its “Even 20 years ago its “sararimensararimen” were still routinely ” were still routinely putting in grueling 18 hour, 6-day work weeksputting in grueling 18 hour, 6-day work weeks

Only in the past 10 years has the work week been Only in the past 10 years has the work week been shortened and leisure time has begun to increase shortened and leisure time has begun to increase meaningfullymeaningfully

In short, Japan is a society which has known work In short, Japan is a society which has known work rather than pleasure, self-sacrifice rather than rather than pleasure, self-sacrifice rather than self-expression and selfishnessself-expression and selfishness

ImplicationsImplicationsThe mediated content of leisure empires are far from neutral. In the case of Japan, they are more than statements about a (playful, consumption-oriented, or “free”) way of life.

Moreover, the messages empire’s mediations convey are nation-centered.

The preponderance of leisure content emphasizes Japan’s contemporary place in the world of nations

It concentrates on competition between Japanese athletes and those from other countries

Or it emphasizes the exploits of domestic athletic exports in foreign lands

IN SHORT: Much of Japan’s televisual sports content is a form of cultural nationalism that has moved Japan beyond the status of empire of leisure, to de facto empire.

Concept Concept ComponentsComponents

An “Empire of Leisure”:An “Empire of Leisure”:Installs a particular lifestyle at Installs a particular lifestyle at its core:its core:One of relaxation, disposable time, One of relaxation, disposable time, disposable incomedisposable income

The Empire:The Empire:Is consumer-based (empire’s audience)Is consumer-based (empire’s audience)Also refers to and defines Also refers to and defines a limited a limited set of activitiesset of activities which is also which is also a way a way of lifeof lifeLeisure, is (by definition) “culture” Leisure, is (by definition) “culture” Daily activity is wrapped up in the Daily activity is wrapped up in the consumption and practice of entertainment consumption and practice of entertainment optionsoptions

MultipleMultipleMany of them are media-basedMany of them are media-based

The Media PrerequisiteThe Media Prerequisite

An empire of leisure places media at its coreAn empire of leisure places media at its core Thus, experience is mediatedThus, experience is mediated

Communication through consumable machines is primaryCommunication through consumable machines is primary Forms of communication include:Forms of communication include:

Inter-personalInter-personalExtra-personalExtra-personalGroupGroupMass Mass

Among the media most favored include:Among the media most favored include: TelevisionTelevision PCsPCs Cell phonesCell phones Fax MachinesFax Machines Film productionFilm production Video recording/rentalVideo recording/rental

One Measure:One Measure:Television Television ViewingViewing

According to a 2003 According to a 2003 poll, Japan ranks Number poll, Japan ranks Number 2 globally in terms of 2 globally in terms of TV hours watched per TV hours watched per

day.day.

Who is ranked First?: Who is ranked First?: BosniaBosnia

TV Viewing: Comparative TV Viewing: Comparative StatsStats

Bosnia: 287 minutesBosnia: 287 minutesMexico: 265 minutes Mexico: 265 minutes Japan: 261 minutesJapan: 261 minutesUnited States: 255 minutesUnited States: 255 minutes

Source: ‘2002’: Une Année de Télévision dans Le Monde: analyse les paysages télévisuels et les programmes préférés de 1.4 milliard de téléspectateurs dans 72 territoires audiovisuals,”

Mediametrie, URL: http://www.mediametrie.fr/show.php?rubrique=communiques&type=2&id=746

Empires of Leisure?Empires of Leisure?

Of course, the nations ahead of Japan and Of course, the nations ahead of Japan and America would hardly qualify as “nations America would hardly qualify as “nations of leisure” … of leisure” … Neither “empires” in the sense of economy or Neither “empires” in the sense of economy or politypolity

Nor “leisure-based” in the sense of free time Nor “leisure-based” in the sense of free time over and above time devoted to employment, over and above time devoted to employment, education, running a business, household education, running a business, household chores, and sleepingchores, and sleeping

So for conceptualization’s sake, So for conceptualization’s sake, something beyond mere TV viewing hours is something beyond mere TV viewing hours is required…required…

A Media Rich EnvironmentA Media Rich Environment

For instance, compared to other For instance, compared to other nations, Japan has: nations, Japan has: The The ThirdThird-most number of TVs per -most number of TVs per capitacapitaBehind China and the U.S.Behind China and the U.S.

The The SecondSecond-most number of PCs-most number of PCsBehind the U.S.Behind the U.S.

The The ThirdThird-most mobile cellular phones-most mobile cellular phonesBehind the U.S. and ChinaBehind the U.S. and China

The The FirstFirst-most number of Fax Machines -most number of Fax Machines

Other Measures RequiredOther Measures Required

An Empire of An Empire of Leisure depends Leisure depends on more than on more than media-richness, media-richness, though.though. For instance:For instance:

economic economic dimensionsdimensions

political political dimensions dimensions

The Economic DimensionThe Economic DimensionUnderlying media and its consumption is a Underlying media and its consumption is a certain economic milieu and consumer certain economic milieu and consumer capability.capability.

For instance, Japan is:For instance, Japan is: Considered the Considered the second-most-technologically-second-most-technologically-powerful economy in the worldpowerful economy in the world after the U.S. after the U.S.

Listed as the Listed as the third-largest economythird-largest economy after after the U.S. and Chinathe U.S. and China

The The largest largest aid donor in the worldaid donor in the world SecondSecond (to U.S.) in per-capita national (to U.S.) in per-capita national income (2002)income (2002)

Third Third (to U.S. and Canada) in purchasing (to U.S. and Canada) in purchasing power by volume per capita (2002) power by volume per capita (2002)

ThirdThird in budget expenditures in budget expenditures FifthFifth in budget revenues in budget revenues TenthTenth in business efficiency in business efficiency

Work TimeWork TimeMost importantly, work time has Most importantly, work time has steadily decreased over the years.steadily decreased over the years.

From a society dubbed an “economic From a society dubbed an “economic empire” in the mid-1980s:empire” in the mid-1980s:

where work, alone, was the measure of successwhere work, alone, was the measure of success

Now work time is on the decline:Now work time is on the decline: A 2004 survey indicates that in the last A 2004 survey indicates that in the last decade, work time has declined across all decade, work time has declined across all industries, on average, 17.9 hoursindustries, on average, 17.9 hours

or roughly 3.58 hours per day, given a 5 day or roughly 3.58 hours per day, given a 5 day work week.work week.

-- -- Japan in Figures, 2004Japan in Figures, 2004

Statistic BureauStatistic BureauMinistry of Public Management, Home Affairs, Posts and TelecommnuicationsMinistry of Public Management, Home Affairs, Posts and Telecommnuications

http://www.stat.go.jp/english/data/figures/pdf/2004f.pdfhttp://www.stat.go.jp/english/data/figures/pdf/2004f.pdf

And Leisure TimeAnd Leisure Time

Concomitantly, leisure time has Concomitantly, leisure time has steadily increased over the years.steadily increased over the years.A 2001 Survey found that – as compared A 2001 Survey found that – as compared to 1996 – to 1996 – both males and females spent far less time on secondary activities – such as work – and more time on tertiary activities (free-time activities).

- - Ministry of Public Management, Home Affairs, Posts and Ministry of Public Management, Home Affairs, Posts and Telecommnuications Telecommnuications

- http://www.stat.go.jp/english/data/shakai/2001/jikan/yoyakuj.htm#A- http://www.stat.go.jp/english/data/shakai/2001/jikan/yoyakuj.htm#A

Leisure HoursLeisure Hours YearYear

ActivitActivityy

19761976 19911991 20012001

MaleMale FemalFemalee

MaleMale FemalFemalee

MaleMale FemalFemalee

PrimaryPrimary 10.410.411

10.4210.42 10.1910.19 10.3010.30 10.3010.30 10.4210.42

SecondarSecondaryy

7.387.38

8.048.04

7.337.33 7.467.46 6.416.41 7.017.01

TertiaryTertiary 5.415.41

5.145.14

6.086.08 5.445.44 6.396.39

6.176.17

In short: Over the past 3 decades:

• work hours have decreased by nearly an hour a day for both men and women;

• leisure time has increased for both nearly an hour;

• The disparity between the two in terms of leisure time is decreasing, though only marginally

Contemporary Japanese Contemporary Japanese Time UseTime Use

Not only is leisure increasing…Not only is leisure increasing… The primary leisure activity (consuming The primary leisure activity (consuming media) is third among all human media) is third among all human activitiesactivities At 2.24 hours/dayAt 2.24 hours/day

It trails only:It trails only: Sleep: 7.32 hours/daySleep: 7.32 hours/day Work: 4.34 hours/dayWork: 4.34 hours/day

NoteNote: other surveys place TV consumption, : other surveys place TV consumption, itself, at over 3.30 hours/dayitself, at over 3.30 hours/day I.e. well in excess of the leisure figures I.e. well in excess of the leisure figures listed above listed above

The Political DimensionThe Political Dimension

Political climate is also an important measurePolitical climate is also an important measure Beyond media availability, for instance, is the Beyond media availability, for instance, is the content that flows through mediacontent that flows through media

The lack of restrictions in expression, for instance, The lack of restrictions in expression, for instance, or access to communication tools is importantor access to communication tools is important

So, too, the assistance by government in monitoring So, too, the assistance by government in monitoring work conditionswork conditions

Enabling a minimum wage (and beyond)Enabling a minimum wage (and beyond) Policing payment schemesPolicing payment schemes Ensuring minimum levels of health care so that worker’s Ensuring minimum levels of health care so that worker’s have the physical ability to make use of any leisure timehave the physical ability to make use of any leisure time

Ensuring that there is leisure time available for workers Ensuring that there is leisure time available for workers – that they are not overworked– that they are not overworked

So, too, must a political climate ensure the freedom So, too, must a political climate ensure the freedom to pursue leisure activities as one sees fitto pursue leisure activities as one sees fit

Conceptualizing Empire:Conceptualizing Empire:Key StrataKey Strata

3 Strata:Leisure Supra-structureLeisure Infra-structure Leisure Consumer

Conceptualizing Empire:Conceptualizing Empire: the Leisure Supra-structure

Within the Leisure Supra-structure, 2 dimensions:Political Dimension: the philosophy, practices encouraging leisure production and consumption

Economic Dimension: the outlook and apparatus aimed at producing, delivering and consuming leisure

Conceptualizing Empire:Conceptualizing Empire: the the Leisure Infra-

structure

Within the Leisure Infra-structure, 2 aspects:Means/Sites of Leisure ConsumptionIncluded here is media

Means/Goods of Leisure Production

Conceptualizing Empire:Conceptualizing Empire: the Leisure Consumer

Stratum

Within the Leisure Consumer Stratum, key factors include:Time (opportunities to consume)Disposable Income (ability to consume)

Access to media technologyActivities engaged in (actual kinds of consumption)

Styles of Discourse: Styles of Discourse: InfotainmentInfotainment

Within the milieu is a kind of Within the milieu is a kind of communication approach -- a rhythm communication approach -- a rhythm of that lifespace…of that lifespace… which assists which assists this leisure consumptionthis leisure consumption

In contemporary televisual In contemporary televisual communication this is often communication this is often referred to as “referred to as “infotainmentinfotainment””

Styles of Discourse: Styles of Discourse: InfotainmentInfotainment

In Japan, infotainment is a genre-In Japan, infotainment is a genre-spanning discourse (what Holden spanning discourse (what Holden and Ergul [2004] and Ergul [2004] and Ergul [2004] and Ergul [2004] have called a “have called a “supra-discoursesupra-discourse”) ”) it underpins consciousnessit underpins consciousnessprovides a logic for and style of provides a logic for and style of organizing and presenting mediated organizing and presenting mediated communication.communication.

ContentContent: a melding of : a melding of popular, information and popular, information and

entertainmententertainmentPopular culture has always provided Popular culture has always provided much of the stuff for leisure much of the stuff for leisure consumptionconsumption

Now, however, these are melded with Now, however, these are melded with the supra-discourse:the supra-discourse:the “popular” is loaded into and the “popular” is loaded into and located in everything from advertising located in everything from advertising to quiz shows to news to “wide-”, “wake to quiz shows to news to “wide-”, “wake up” and variety shows up” and variety shows

this is particularly true of athletes this is particularly true of athletes and their sports, as I have shown in and their sports, as I have shown in other research (Holden 2002, 2003).other research (Holden 2002, 2003).

ContentContent: a balance of : a balance of indigenous and exogenous indigenous and exogenous

elementselementsUnder contemporary conditions, Under contemporary conditions, globalization ensures that the stuff of globalization ensures that the stuff of leisure consumption may not all be leisure consumption may not all be indigenousindigenous

Usually we think of exogenous material as Usually we think of exogenous material as that which is imported – that enters the that which is imported – that enters the focal context from outsidefocal context from outside

However, in the case of Japanese sports However, in the case of Japanese sports and athletes, it is often the case that and athletes, it is often the case that indigenous material (local athletes and indigenous material (local athletes and teams) become exogenous (through their teams) become exogenous (through their play outside the country). They are re-play outside the country). They are re-imported by local media for consumption imported by local media for consumption by local viewers and fans.by local viewers and fans.

Media Re-import: EffectsMedia Re-import: EffectsAs a phenomenon, media re-imports are:

Pervasive Powerful

Re-imports: Constitute a daily, non-stop set of representations

Across the panoply of TV genres (primarily) Reflect a unified discourse: Offer windows into subterranean topics (culturally relevant societal myths), such as:

Cultural and political identityIndividual capacityGender identityNationalism

Some ExamplesSome Examples

1.1. Staged EventsStaged Events2.2. Late Evening NewsLate Evening News

Hodo StationHodo Station News 23: Chikushi in New News 23: Chikushi in New

YorkYork

3.3. Late Night SportsLate Night Sports Suporuto! Suporuto!

4.4. Morning ShowsMorning Shows Mezamashi TelebiMezamashi Telebi

1. Staged Events1. Staged Events

Japan is home to made-for TV Events which help build its physical and intellectual status as an Empire of Leisure

Examples:Examples: MarathonsMarathons World Cup VolleyballWorld Cup Volleyball Asian basketball ChampionshipsAsian basketball Championships NFL pre-season matchesNFL pre-season matches NBA and NHL regular season matchesNBA and NHL regular season matches Soccer (invitational) Club ChampionshipSoccer (invitational) Club Championship And many more… And many more…

An Example of Staging: An Example of Staging: VolleyballVolleyball

Japan played host to FIVA’s Japan played host to FIVA’s Olympic Qualifying TournamentOlympic Qualifying TournamentThe First Round (automatic The First Round (automatic placement)placement)

The Second Round (for the The Second Round (for the remaining slots)remaining slots)

Both men’s and women’s divisions Both men’s and women’s divisions held round-robin tournamentsheld round-robin tournaments

Volleyball: a made-for-TV Volleyball: a made-for-TV eventevent

The Japanese team played each day In a packed arena

Other matches were played in virtual empty gyms Last match of the day Broadcast on TVThe pre-match “opening” included a pop song written for the

event and performed by a J-Pop group, NEWS.Commercial breaks included staged interviews with

celebrities who urged “gambare Nippon” (fight hard Japan!)

Breaks between sets included musical interludes in which the performers urged the crowd to scream for their team (“Nippon” – clap, clap, clap – “Nippon” – clap, clap, clap…)

The final days – in which the women succeeded in qualifying – included so-called “Hero Interviews” with each player in front of the adoring audience in the gym and also on TV.

This was followed by the players and coaches making the rounds of all the (nation-wide) evening sports shows and morning wide shows for the next 2 days.

2. Late Evening News:2. Late Evening News:a. The Hodo Stationa. The Hodo Station

On their home page they list the “Sports Station” as a separate “site” within their website.

Its own graphic is centered on the web page

A Week of Sports NewsA Week of Sports NewsHodo Station (Information Station): Monday-Friday Hodo Station (Information Station): Monday-Friday

21:54 - 23:2421:54 - 23:24 DateDate ContentContentMonday, June 7 Monday, June 7 Japanese Baseball (Pacific League: 3 games)Japanese Baseball (Pacific League: 3 games)

Major League HighlightsMajor League Highlights World Cup Soccer (Preliminary round preparations)World Cup Soccer (Preliminary round preparations) Women’s Olympic Volleyball (Selection)Women’s Olympic Volleyball (Selection) Interview with International Footballer Hidetoshi NakataInterview with International Footballer Hidetoshi Nakata

Tuesday, June 8 Tuesday, June 8

Japanese Baseball (Pacific League: 3 games; Central League 3 Japanese Baseball (Pacific League: 3 games; Central League 3 games)games)

Major League HighlightsMajor League Highlights Soccer World Cup qualifier versus IndiaSoccer World Cup qualifier versus India National Team Soccer Coach Jico InterviewNational Team Soccer Coach Jico Interview Match Analysis by Fukuda (former World Cup member)Match Analysis by Fukuda (former World Cup member)

Wednesday, June 9 Wednesday, June 9 Japanese Baseball (Pacific League: 3 games; Central League 3 Japanese Baseball (Pacific League: 3 games; Central League 3 games)games)

Soccer World Cup qualifier versus India (recap)Soccer World Cup qualifier versus India (recap) Major League HighlightsMajor League Highlights

Thursday, June 10 Thursday, June 10 Japanese Baseball (Central League 1 games)Japanese Baseball (Central League 1 games) Major League HighlightsMajor League Highlights Suntory Ladies Golf TourneySuntory Ladies Golf Tourney U.S. Open GolfU.S. Open Golf Special Interview with International Footballer Shinji OnoSpecial Interview with International Footballer Shinji Ono

Friday, June 11 Friday, June 11 Japanese Baseball (Central League: 3 games; Pacific League 3 Japanese Baseball (Central League: 3 games; Pacific League 3 games)games)

Major League HighlightsMajor League Highlights Suntory Ladies Golf TourneySuntory Ladies Golf Tourney

Emphasizing NationEmphasizing Nation

This week is typical of This week is typical of ALL nationally-ALL nationally-televised news shows in televised news shows in JapanJapan a steady diet of:a steady diet of:

national teams:national teams: For instance, Olympic For instance, Olympic volleyball, World Cup volleyball, World Cup soccersoccer

International performersInternational performers Interviews with overseas Interviews with overseas soccer playerssoccer players

Daily capsule summaries of Daily capsule summaries of Japanese baseball players Japanese baseball players in (American) baseball or in (American) baseball or (European) soccer leagues(European) soccer leagues

Japan’s Women’s Soccer Japan’s Women’s Soccer Success Success

In qualifying In qualifying action, Japan were action, Japan were grouped with Viet grouped with Viet Nam, North Korea Nam, North Korea and China.and China.

Hodo StationHodo Station visited visited their training camp their training camp and showed segments and showed segments on their on their preparations.preparations.

Japan’s Women’s Soccer Japan’s Women’s Soccer Success Success

When the tournament When the tournament began, they began, they emphasized the 7-0 emphasized the 7-0 pounding of Viet pounding of Viet NamNam

Japan’s Women’s Soccer Japan’s Women’s Soccer Success Success Then the stunning 3-0 victory Then the stunning 3-0 victory

over bitter rival North over bitter rival North Korea.Korea. Japan had lost seven Japan had lost seven

straight to North Koreastraight to North Korea There has been an There has been an

acrimonious history – based acrimonious history – based on North Korea kidnapping on North Korea kidnapping Japanese citizens, as well Japanese citizens, as well as sending a test missile as sending a test missile over the Japanese peninsulaover the Japanese peninsula

Japan’s Women’s Soccer Japan’s Women’s Soccer Success Success

For the media, the 1-0 For the media, the 1-0 loss to China in the loss to China in the Final was an Final was an afterthought.afterthought.

The fact that Japan had The fact that Japan had qualified for the qualified for the Olympics was all that Olympics was all that mattered.mattered.

The frame was of The frame was of National SuccessNational Success

These were NOT images shown on most news stations

The Daily Major League The Daily Major League CapsulesCapsules

I have reported this extensively in I have reported this extensively in other research (Holden 2002, 2003, other research (Holden 2002, 2003, forthcoming).forthcoming).

A news A news conventionconvention has become the has become the summary of the key Japanese summary of the key Japanese performers in American baseball.performers in American baseball. Thus, there is a daily 5 to 10 second Thus, there is a daily 5 to 10 second clip of Hideki Matsui (Yankees), Kazuo clip of Hideki Matsui (Yankees), Kazuo Matsui (Mets), Ichiro Suzuki (Mariners)Matsui (Mets), Ichiro Suzuki (Mariners)

And, depending on the day, summaries And, depending on the day, summaries also of pitchers Hideo Nomo (Dodgers), also of pitchers Hideo Nomo (Dodgers), Kazuhisa Ishii (Dodgers), Shingo Takatsu Kazuhisa Ishii (Dodgers), Shingo Takatsu (White Sox), Akinori Ohtsuka (Padres), (White Sox), Akinori Ohtsuka (Padres), Tomokazu Ohka (Montreal) Tomokazu Ohka (Montreal)

A Typical CapsuleA Typical Capsule

Typically, the capsules:Show footage of the offensive or defensive highlight for each player that day

A “line” report also appears:how many hits for the day out of how many at-batsThe player’s current batting average

Less often there is a sound bite: a post-game interview with the player

Only in the final frame is there a superimposed image of the score of the game

Offered as an afterthought

A Typical Capsule:A Typical Capsule:

IchiroIchiro: moved from the lead-off to the third : moved from the lead-off to the third position. He got a double. His batting average is position. He got a double. His batting average is at .330at .330

Matsui HidekiMatsui Hideki: 7 straight games now he has not been : 7 straight games now he has not been on base; his batting average has once again on base; his batting average has once again fallen from .300 to .280 in that span. fallen from .300 to .280 in that span.

Matsui KazuoMatsui Kazuo: 4 strike-outs in one game. The first : 4 strike-outs in one game. The first time this has ever happened to him. His average time this has ever happened to him. His average now at .262now at .262

Shingo TakatsuShingo Takatsu: the reliever in his first year with the Chicago White Sox, pitched a scoreless 9th inning, for his second save. He has 3 wins to go with his 2 saves and his ERA is at a very low 1.11

In each case, the result of the games is reported, if In each case, the result of the games is reported, if at all, in a superimposed inset above the footage. It at all, in a superimposed inset above the footage. It is often not commented upon by the newsreader.is often not commented upon by the newsreader.

The Exceptional CaseThe Exceptional CaseNomo versus Matsui: 6/19/04Nomo versus Matsui: 6/19/04When these 2 squared off for When these 2 squared off for

the first time (never having the first time (never having done so in Japan) it was big done so in Japan) it was big news. news.

Not only was the game broadcast Not only was the game broadcast in Japan live via satellite, in Japan live via satellite, it also was the top story in it also was the top story in the evening sports reports.the evening sports reports.

The story line was that Matsui The story line was that Matsui homered off Nomo in his first homered off Nomo in his first at-bat. at-bat.

Nomo, himself homered, the Nomo, himself homered, the first time 2 rival Japanese first time 2 rival Japanese had done that in one U.S. had done that in one U.S. gamegame

Nomo struck out Matsui the Nomo struck out Matsui the other 2 at-batsother 2 at-bats

Still, Nomo lostStill, Nomo lost

In this case the action was In this case the action was told as an unfolding story.told as an unfolding story.

Contrasted with the Contrasted with the Domestic GameDomestic Game

This stands in contrast with the reports from Japan on the Japanese gameIn this case, game reports are told in story-form. Inning by inning, we view the lead changes, the key hits, the momentum-changing errors and managerial decisions

Every game, in short, has a frameAfter all the reports are finished, the domestic standings are shown on-screen (unlike the American game)

Soccer: The Same PatternSoccer: The Same Pattern

Foreign soccer tends to focus on Foreign soccer tends to focus on Japanese player highlightsJapanese player highlightsAlthough, there is also a tendency Although, there is also a tendency to spotlight key plays from Italy, to spotlight key plays from Italy, England and Spain (primarily) England and Spain (primarily) Often (but not always) announcing the Often (but not always) announcing the world-renowned players (and their world-renowned players (and their country of origin)country of origin)

Domestic action is more often Domestic action is more often story-line, frame and standings.story-line, frame and standings.

2. Late Evening News:2. Late Evening News:b. News 23 b. News 23

June 14June 14thth, 2004. , 2004. “News 23” (“News 23” (Nyuzu Nyuzu tsu suri tsu suri ) ) includes an includes an extended segment extended segment with their with their editor-in-chief editor-in-chief and lead anchor, and lead anchor, Chikuchi Tetsuya, Chikuchi Tetsuya, reporting from reporting from New York.New York.

An ExampleAn Example

Following a week in which he covered the G8 Summit in Georgia and the Reagan funeral in Washington, he visited New York to interview Hideki Matsui, the left fielder for the baseball team, New York Yankees.

The Matsui segment included: riding on the subway to the stadium showing (and purchasing) Matsui goods from vendors fan Interviews about Matsui entering the stadium grounds and having a brief chat with Tomo Ohtsuka, the San Diego Padre pitcher who would (possibly) be playing in the game against the Yankees

some game highlights of both Ohtsuka and Matsui and then an extended interview with Matsui on a roof garden in N.Y. City after the game

The Fan SegmentThe Fan Segment

““My Mom just loves him. Of all the My Mom just loves him. Of all the Yanks he’s her favorite”Yanks he’s her favorite”

-- A twenty year old male fan standing next -- A twenty year old male fan standing next to a quiet older womanto a quiet older woman

““I like him too. I mean… he’s just I like him too. I mean… he’s just so fundamentally sound. Of all so fundamentally sound. Of all the players, he can do more the players, he can do more things right.”things right.”

-- the same 20 year old fan-- the same 20 year old fan

IN SHORT: this segment serves as a reflection of respect for Matsui, the Japanese import, in the estimation of fans.

It is one interpretation available for the audience back home

The Ohtsuka SegmentThe Ohtsuka Segment

Common (for interviews with Common (for interviews with Japanese players) because the Japanese players) because the American lifestyle was discussed:American lifestyle was discussed:Basically how easy was it to live and Basically how easy was it to live and play in Americaplay in America

In Ohtsuka’s case, the pitching mound In Ohtsuka’s case, the pitching mound suited him better than in Japan; he suited him better than in Japan; he also found American life easy to also found American life easy to handle – from food to living handle – from food to living conditions to peopleconditions to peopleA contrast, perhaps, to views asserted A contrast, perhaps, to views asserted for so many years by Japanese that only for so many years by Japanese that only Japan is hospitable for them to live Japan is hospitable for them to live comfortably.comfortably.

The Matsui SegmentThe Matsui SegmentIn an extended, roof-garden interview (with the Empire State Building in the background), Matsui answered questions about life in the Majors and also in America. One important point that Matsui made is that there is no player that he wishes he could be; or that he would model himself after…

only certain parts of various players that he respects and thinks: “those are strong (good) qualities”.

Viewed in historical context, such a comment amounts to a revelation: Japanese, known in the past to be self-effacing, would not generally express such implicit confidence.

It is subtle, but Matsui is basically saying: “I’m me. Happy to be who I am. In no need of modeling myself after anyone else.”

This is a quite confidence now the dominant perspective among all Japanese sports imports.

4. Late Night Sports: 4. Late Night Sports: Suporuto!Suporuto!

A show that runs every day of the week (Monday – A show that runs every day of the week (Monday – Sunday)Sunday)

Shows at Mid-nightShows at Mid-nightHas daily, fixed corners:Has daily, fixed corners:

Yakyuu (Japanese baseball)Yakyuu (Japanese baseball) MLBMLB F-1F-1 (Domestic) Soccer (Division 1 and 2)(Domestic) Soccer (Division 1 and 2) ““Regular Corner”: NBA corner, European SoccerRegular Corner”: NBA corner, European Soccer

And features, based on the eventsAnd features, based on the events NBA finals, Golf, K-1NBA finals, Golf, K-1

Additionally:Additionally: Periodic reports from an embedded journalist in New Periodic reports from an embedded journalist in New

York, with profiles on the Matsuis (primarily).York, with profiles on the Matsuis (primarily). Interviews with soccer and baseball playersInterviews with soccer and baseball players Profiles of Japanese Women’s Volleyball Profiles of Japanese Women’s Volleyball

Examples from theExamples from theSuporuto!Suporuto! Web Site Web Site

The The top page top page The The Weekly News ScheduleWeekly News ScheduleThe Volleyball InterviewsThe Volleyball Interviews

SugiyamaSugiyamaNaritaNaritaTakehitaTakehitaTakahashiTakahashi

A Nakata (soccer) InterviewA Nakata (soccer) Interview

Suporuto!’s Suporuto!’s Nihon-centric Nihon-centric FocusFocus

June 21, 2004: F-1 Extra!June 21, 2004: F-1 Extra! First 20 minutes devoted to an F-1 Race in which First 20 minutes devoted to an F-1 Race in which

a Japanese finished in 3a Japanese finished in 3rdrd place place First top-3 finish by a Japanese in 14 yearsFirst top-3 finish by a Japanese in 14 years A curve-by-curve accounting of how he moved A curve-by-curve accounting of how he moved

through the fieldthrough the field Images of fans waving Japanese flagsImages of fans waving Japanese flags Interviews with the driver (in English, with Interviews with the driver (in English, with

subtitles) about how it feels to “be the first subtitles) about how it feels to “be the first Japanese to be on the podium in 14 yearsJapanese to be on the podium in 14 years

Interviews with the sponsors: Bridgestone (tires) Interviews with the sponsors: Bridgestone (tires) and Honda (engine)and Honda (engine)

Bridgestone is a loaded signifier because of Bridgestone is a loaded signifier because of recent corporate malfeasancerecent corporate malfeasance

The Honda pit chief broke down and cried, saying: The Honda pit chief broke down and cried, saying: “It’s the culmination of years of effort…. And we “It’s the culmination of years of effort…. And we couldn’t have succeeded without the support of the couldn’t have succeeded without the support of the Japanese people.”Japanese people.”

5. The Morning Shows:5. The Morning Shows:Mezamashi Terebi (Alarm Clock Mezamashi Terebi (Alarm Clock

Television):Television):5:255:25 ～～ 8:00 a.m.8:00 a.m.

Capsules RepeatedCapsules Repeated

A different day, a different station.A different day, a different station.The very same capsule summaries are The very same capsule summaries are repeated.repeated. Baseball and soccerBaseball and soccer In baseball, the player’s daily line and In baseball, the player’s daily line and key plays (hits, fielding, errors, outs) key plays (hits, fielding, errors, outs) are detailed.are detailed.

In soccer, the goals, assists, shots on In soccer, the goals, assists, shots on goals and/or substitutions (in which the goals and/or substitutions (in which the player came onto or off the pitch) are player came onto or off the pitch) are shownshown

Only in exceptional cases are foreign Only in exceptional cases are foreign highlights shown:highlights shown:

Barry Bonds 72Barry Bonds 72ndnd home run home runKen Griffey’s 500Ken Griffey’s 500thth home run home runEuro 2004 goals in crucial matchesEuro 2004 goals in crucial matches

Occasional Occasional Departures from Departures from

NationNationGrowing indicators of an interest in the world of sport and leisure, in general

• Example: Euro 2004.

• A fascination with a major tournament without Japanese players is a major break from the general pattern of sports coverage in TV media.

It suggests that more than political-cultural empire, there is a leisure empire effect at work

Nihon-Centrism ReduxNihon-Centrism Redux

Still, such a focus is still not Still, such a focus is still not predominantpredominant At most, there tends to be snippets At most, there tends to be snippets of foreign action: NBA Finals or a of foreign action: NBA Finals or a Super Bowl or World SeriesSuper Bowl or World Series

And the reality is: if Tiger Woods And the reality is: if Tiger Woods wins a tournament, that’s 20 wins a tournament, that’s 20 seconds of news; if Shige Maruyama seconds of news; if Shige Maruyama is in contention and ends up in 4is in contention and ends up in 4th th

(as he did in the U.S. Open), (as he did in the U.S. Open), that’s 3 minutes of air time. that’s 3 minutes of air time.

Analysis: InterpretationsAnalysis: Interpretations

An analysis of the Empire of An analysis of the Empire of Leisure phenomenon can easily Leisure phenomenon can easily draw on the writings or ideas by:draw on the writings or ideas by: The Frankfurt SchoolThe Frankfurt School Douglas Kellner’s “Media Culture” Douglas Kellner’s “Media Culture” (1995)(1995)

Media FramesMedia Frames Bourdieu’s notion of Bourdieu’s notion of Habitas Habitas (1980)(1980) Barthes “mythologies” (1957) Barthes “mythologies” (1957)

The Frankfurt SchoolThe Frankfurt SchoolApplicable TenetsApplicable Tenets

The notion of a universalized, The notion of a universalized, commercialized, mass culturecommercialized, mass culture

Technological rationalityTechnological rationality Messages of ConsumerismMessages of Consumerism Emphasis on short-term gratification by Emphasis on short-term gratification by a consuming audiencea consuming audience

The myth of classlessnessThe myth of classlessnessHere in the performance and consumption of Here in the performance and consumption of these cultural products these cultural products

All inspired, stoked and reproduced by a All inspired, stoked and reproduced by a “Culture Industry” “Culture Industry”

Kellner: Media CultureKellner: Media CultureApplicable TenetsApplicable Tenets

The notion that: “we live in a culture The notion that: “we live in a culture in which the media dominate leisure and in which the media dominate leisure and culture.” (1995:35).culture.” (1995:35).

The media:The media: Have replaced forms of high cultureHave replaced forms of high culture Have become the dominant form of Have become the dominant form of socializationsocialization

Are arbiters of taste, values and thoughtAre arbiters of taste, values and thought Present new models of identificationPresent new models of identification Transmit images of style, fashion and Transmit images of style, fashion and behaviorbehavior

(1995: 17)(1995: 17)

Media Frames: The Power of Directivity and Selectivity In my work on advertising I distinguish between:“directivity” (the ability to move viewers toward particular values, ideas, practices or away from others)

And:“selectivity” (the tendency to single out particular elements or angles of viewing)

This agenda-setting is similar to “Framing Research”A line that began with GoffmanAnd was adapted by News Researchers, such as Gitlin (1980), Entman (1991), and Gamson (1992)

Bourdieu’s Bourdieu’s Habitas Habitas (1980)(1980)

Defined: systems of durable, transposable dispositions

structured structures predisposed to function as structuring structures

principles which generate and organize practices and representations that can be objectively adapted to their outcomes

The structures of habitas are products of history

Which produce historyThey are the basis of the perception and appreciation of all subsequent experiences

Similar in this way, then, to FramesAlso quite amenable with Barthes’ notion of “Mythologies”

Barthes’ Mythologies Barthes’ Mythologies (1957/1972)(1957/1972)

News stories/media products communicate in News stories/media products communicate in codecode

The code are significations that reach to The code are significations that reach to (and emanate from) the deepest values (and emanate from) the deepest values underlying a societyunderlying a society

Thus, the news frames tend to encode Thus, the news frames tend to encode messages that pertain to the implicit, long-messages that pertain to the implicit, long-standing question of Japan’s competencestanding question of Japan’s competence A remnant of the Pacific War demise and A remnant of the Pacific War demise and reconstruction in the shadow of U.S. stewardshipreconstruction in the shadow of U.S. stewardship

The frame, as well, of Japanese ability to The frame, as well, of Japanese ability to live in a world beyond insular shoreslive in a world beyond insular shores The “Nihonjinron” claim that Japanese are The “Nihonjinron” claim that Japanese are different than (unique from) the rest of humanitydifferent than (unique from) the rest of humanity

Codes and EmpireCodes and EmpireSuch codes help build empireSuch codes help build empire

As in the case of the constant national frameAs in the case of the constant national frame But also an empire in which consumer-citizens engage But also an empire in which consumer-citizens engage in leisure part and parcel of their consuming itin leisure part and parcel of their consuming it

Such codes can also unbuild or reconfigure Such codes can also unbuild or reconfigure empireempire As in the case of a media frame that identifies an As in the case of a media frame that identifies an “old boys network” or the stratified “seniority “old boys network” or the stratified “seniority system” (for attack)system” (for attack)

This was the case of the widely-publicized story This was the case of the widely-publicized story (in news, morning and “wide” show genres) of Naoko (in news, morning and “wide” show genres) of Naoko Takahashi being left off the Olympic marathon Takahashi being left off the Olympic marathon team.team.

An Olympic gold medalist in 2000, a world An Olympic gold medalist in 2000, a world record holder, she had not run in the minimum record holder, she had not run in the minimum required races for the year.required races for the year.

This decision orning almost all TV “genres”)This decision orning almost all TV “genres”)The case also of the recent decision to downsize The case also of the recent decision to downsize professional baseballprofessional baseball

Concern about the destruction of their national Concern about the destruction of their national game for the sake of moneygame for the sake of money

ConclusionsConclusions

Contemporary Japan is at least three Contemporary Japan is at least three interrelated elements:interrelated elements:

1.1. A “consumtopia”A “consumtopia” – an everyday space – an everyday space saturated with goods and services; an saturated with goods and services; an environment whose lifestyle is predicated on environment whose lifestyle is predicated on the production and consumption of things;the production and consumption of things;

2.2. A mediated worldA mediated world in which what is in which what is increasingly consumed is information and the increasingly consumed is information and the technologies that produce it; technologies that produce it;

3.3. The information is both manifestation of and The information is both manifestation of and spur to leisure; its aggregation forming an spur to leisure; its aggregation forming an “empire of leisure” – in which play, “empire of leisure” – in which play, competition, and physical performance has competition, and physical performance has been elevated to a status superior to nearly been elevated to a status superior to nearly all other activities in society.all other activities in society.

Media’s RoleMedia’s Role

To transmit messages of leisure and To transmit messages of leisure and consumption to audience membersconsumption to audience members

In doing so, it works:In doing so, it works: to provide a frame for everyday existenceto provide a frame for everyday existence a “habitas” for daily lifea “habitas” for daily life a structural logic of mythic values by a structural logic of mythic values by which surrounding life is decoded and which surrounding life is decoded and understoodunderstood

Some but not all of this is nationalism Some but not all of this is nationalism (cultural or political)(cultural or political)

The rest of it are messages of play The rest of it are messages of play versus work versus work

At the Same Time…At the Same Time…

We have observed:We have observed: Not simply media frames;Not simply media frames; Not only the existence of a cultural Not only the existence of a cultural

industry;industry; Not only a pervasiveness of media…Not only a pervasiveness of media… But an ubiquity and expression of But an ubiquity and expression of

leisure:leisure:1.1. interest by audiences;interest by audiences;2.2. their (political) ability to pursue their (political) ability to pursue

leisureleisure3.3. their (economic) availability to pursue ittheir (economic) availability to pursue it4.4. their experience of it via a range of their experience of it via a range of

media media

Serious ImplicationsSerious Implications

Leisure -- the emphasis on play -- Leisure -- the emphasis on play -- means that:means that:

Sports are centered in daily lifeSports are centered in daily life Sports are not only:Sports are not only:

A means of consumption;A means of consumption; Outlets for competition;Outlets for competition; Modes of entertainment;Modes of entertainment; Streams of revenueStreams of revenue

Sports also serve as vehicles for Sports also serve as vehicles for centering nation and communicating centering nation and communicating group identificationgroup identification

The Rise of (a new) The Rise of (a new) Japanese EmpireJapanese Empire

This form of cultural nationalism has moved Japan:Beyond the status of “empire of leisure”

To de facto empire

Juxtaposed or Read in Juxtaposed or Read in Conjunction with Cultural Conjunction with Cultural

StudiesStudiesThe Empire of Leisure (in the Japanese The Empire of Leisure (in the Japanese incarnation):incarnation): Is a cultural structureIs a cultural structure Sustained via economic, political and Sustained via economic, political and moral structures and practices moral structures and practices

Fails to acknowledge a time of crisisFails to acknowledge a time of crisis And even if/when crisis is recognized, it And even if/when crisis is recognized, it is most often done in the supra-ordinate is most often done in the supra-ordinate discursive style of “infotainment”discursive style of “infotainment”

Its results are culturally, morally, Its results are culturally, morally, politically and economically politically and economically reproductive, rather than disjunctive or reproductive, rather than disjunctive or contestationalcontestational