how to replace oil with hydrogen in the transportation infrastructure

7/29/2019 How to Replace Oil With Hydrogen in the Transportation Infrastructure.

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How Hydrogen can replace Petrol as the primary source of

Transportation Fuel

Dan Cohen

April 22, 2012

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Contents

1 Motivation 3

2 Are we running out? 32.1 Crude oil formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

2.1.1 Reservoir Formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52.1.2 Crude Oil Extraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

2.2 Petroleum Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

3 Hydrogen 93.1 Hydrogen Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

3.1.1 Extrication from hydrocarbons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93.1.2 Photovoltaic electrolysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103.1.3 Biological production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

3.1.4 The Sulfur Iodine Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123.2 Hydrogen storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

3.2.1 Compression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133.2.2 Liquefaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133.2.3 Physisorption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133.2.4 Metalorganic frameworks (MOFs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143.2.5 Metal hydrides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143.2.6 Complex hydrides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

4 Analysis 16

5 Conclusion 17

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Abstract

In this document I first motivate that petrol is a non renewable resource. After which I will discuss hydrogenas a fuel source in relation to replacing petroleum in the transportation industry. I will first discuss productionmethods before moving onto storage methods including compression, liquefaction, physisorption in nanostructures& chemisorption in hydrides.

1 Motivation

We are living in a monumentally unhealthy society, where our primary concern is for monetary gain and minimis-ing discomfort. The fact that we cannot simply cut down on fuel usage is a testament to this. Why can we not simplyreplace our cars for bikes? Or improve the public transportation such that cars are a defunct memory? Regardless ofthe answers to these questions, the issues remain and this essay/minidissertation will survey the literature availableand draw conclusions as to whether or not our current society can survive after the depletion of fossil fuels.

The pillar of modern society is quick, cheap and easy transportation and at the core of this is petroleum.With a large proportion of a citys working population commuting and our food travelling to our supermarkets fromSpain, Indonesia and China etc. (globalisation), its easy to jump to the conclusion that if petrol (responsible for97% of transportation fuels[1]) were to someday run out, we would find ourselves in a difficult situation where arejigging of not only the infrastructure but our entire modern culture would be forced upon us.

2 Are we running out?

2.1 Crude oil formation

Petroleum is a derivative of crude oil, a fossil fuel. Fossil fuels include crude oil, coal and natural gas and areformed over geological timescales ( 108 years). Crude oil was formed during the carboniferous period[2] between

280 and 360 mya (million years ago). This was a period with a massive concentration of plant life in the oceans[4].When these algae(and plankton etc) died, they would sink to the bottom of the ocean. For oil to form, the buildup of organic matter on the seabed must be greater than the rate of decomposition[3]. Generally, this means thatthe waters must be stagnant to avoid dispersion of organic matter and the environment must be anoxic to slowdecomposition[3]. Both these conditions being met, the organic matter (biopolymers) would build up on the oceanfloor. Although decomposition is slowed, it is not halted and this microbial degradation converts the biopolymers togeopolymers. Now the geopolymers are covered with layers of sediment which build up in turn[5]. As the weightof sediment above the geopolymers increases, so does the temperature and pressure, causing the geopolymers toform kerogen[5], the precursor to crude oil and a major component of shale oil[3]. The kerogen undergoes thermaldegradation and finally forms crude oil, which is a disorganised mixture of hydrocarbons of different chain lengths.

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Figure 1: Diagrammatic representation of crude oil formation

The distinction between natural gas, crude oil and coal are sometimes blurred. On the surface, they representthe three state phases (with the perhaps erroneous inclusion of coal) of hydrocarbons (gas, liquid and solid) butshort chain components of crude oil at high temperature or pressure will be gaseous. Natural gas can be dissolvedor liquefied at low temperature and likewise coal can be liquefied in certain processes. Crude oil as I discuss itshall refer to the group of hydrocarbons that are in a liquid form at standard temperature and pressure.

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Figure 2: A hydrocarbon with a chain 8 carbon molecules long[3]

2.1.1 Reservoir FormationOil reservoirs are the primary source of crude oil and the origins of what is known as conventional oil. In order fora reservoir to form, three conditions must be met[3].

1. A source rock, rich in hydrocarbons and deep enough for subterranean heat to allow oil formation.

2. A porous and permeable reservoir rock for it to accumulate in.

3. A cap rock (seal) or other mechanism that prevents it escaping to the surface.

Figure 3: An oil reservoir. The yellow represents porous rock and the green is an impermeable cap rock.[3]

After formation, the oil will slowly migrate towards the surface(being less dense than rock) until either reachingfresh air or being blocked by a cap rock. Generally speaking a reservoir will form as a three layer cake with naturalgas on the top, crude oil in the centre and water on the bottom. The relative proportions will vary dependant onlocal conditions.

2.1.2 Crude Oil Extraction

Extraction of crude oil from a reservoir comes in three stages. Appropriately named as primary, secondary andtertiary extraction. After having located the reservoir (for which there are various methods whose improvementsand innovations therein will not save us from depleting our oil reserves) a well is drilled. Reservoir drive is themechanism forcing the oil up to the surface through the well bore and is a function of pressure and the viscosity

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of the oil in the reservoir. During primary recovery, reservoir drive comes from natural processes like the expansionof natural gas, movement of water and gravity drainage. Typically 5-15% of the oil can be extracted in this way.

Secondary extraction is used when natural reservoir driving mechanisms fail. Secondary recovery uses methods toincrease the pressure within the well and force more oil to the surface. The methods include water injection, naturalgas reinjection or even the installation of pumps in the well and will typically recover another 30% of the reservoirscontents. Tertiary recovery or enhanced recovery methods generally involve reducing the viscosity of the remainingoil. This can be achieved by heating the oil and is most commonly achieved by steam injection. This can allowanother 5-15% of the contents to be recovered however it is not always profitable to implement tertiary recoverymethods.Based on these figures, the most one is likely to extract from any given oil reservoir is 60% of the contents.

2.2 Petroleum Resources

Petroleum reserves are often quoted by the uninformed and the manipulative and it is imperative to know just whatthese people are claiming.

Table 1: Petroleum nomenclature[6]Resources A measure of concentrations of hydrocarbons

in the Earths crustReserves A measure of the oil that has been identified

and is producible with current technology andprices

Estimated Ultimate Recovery (EUR) An estimate of the total amount of con-ventional petroleum that will be able to beproduced economically over all time.

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Figure 4: World Oil Resources (1997)[6]

The United States Geological Survey claim with decent confidence that the earth has a total (including oil alreadyused) of approximately 3000Gbbl EUR (1Gbbl = 1 gigabarrel = 109 barrels), placing an upper limit at 4000Gbbl anda lower limit at 2000Gbbl [6]. Given that we had extracted approximately 1000Gbbl already by 2005 and taking theupper limit of 4000Gbbl and 2004s annual extraction rate of about 30Gbbl, we can see that with 0% growth rate,we will have exhausted our EUR by the year 2105. We can increase the upper limit to about 6000Gbbl by dippinginto extra heavy oil resources, tar sands and shale oil, but then it becomes a question of EROEI (energy return onenergy invested) and becomes an issue of economics rather than anything else.

I have been unable to find details of petrol usage per capita or otherwise but assuming in 2004 that it matched theextraction at 30Gbbl (=D0) per year. It can be shown that for steady growth at a percentage P, after a number ofyears t, the final demand D is equal to

D = D0 Pt (1)

Where P is greater than 1 (5% growth P = 1.05).

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Furthermore it can be shown that the cumulative usage U is equal to

U=t

i=0

Di = D0t

i=0

Pi =D01 + P1+t

1 + P(2)

and this can be used to estimate how long our fuel reserves will last.

Table 2: How long from 2005 our fuel will last based on a remaining EUR of 3000Gbbl.Annual Percentage Growth Time until depletion

0% 100 years1% 68.7 years2% 54.5 years3% 45.9 years

4% 40.0 years5% 35.7 years6% 32.4 years7% 29.7 years8% 27.5 years

As bleak as these prospects look, it is not yet the end of the bad news. If we take into account the logisticscurve considered by M. King Hubbert [Figure 5], we can see that as we reach exhaustion, extraction becomes slowerand slower and thus the number of years for which petrol alone can satisfy the demand for transportation fuelsis necessarily less than our depletion projections. We will also see the cost of petrol increasing as the methods ofextraction necessarily become more energy intensive.

Figure 5: Generic features of the extraction of a finite resource. [2]

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So although we are not going to run out of petroleum tomorrow, we can see it is going to become an increasinglyapparent issue with prices skyrocketing in the foreseeable future due to the depletion of the easily attainable oil

which has supported us through the past 150 years.

3 Hydrogen

As the prices of petroleum begin to climb, we shall see a transition from crude oil derivatives to alternate fuels.

Hydrogen is shown to be the future fuel from the point of view of human fuel evolution. The fuel evolutionexperienced the history from coal through petroleum to natural gas following the direction of increasingthe content of hydrogen, therefore it must finally reach the destination of pure hydrogen.[7]

The two problems associated with hydrogen as a fuel source are hydrogen production and storage. Until both theseissues are resolved, hydrogen cannot take the place of petroleum.

3.1 Hydrogen Production

Currently, educated men scoff when you suggest hydrogen as a modern alternative fuel because of the costs ofproduction anThe two production methods I will look at for hydrogen is the splitting of water and the extractionfrom hydrocarbons. The primary method for hydrogen production is currently steam reforming, boasting the vastmajority of industrial hydrogen production but the process is unclean producing 1 CO2 for every 4 H2 and requiringfossil fuels as a feedstock. In the future may we leave behind our dependence upon fossil based fuels and inso-far as hydrogen is concerned, this means finding a new method of production. Historically, electrolysis has beenwell known as a production mechanism but with limited industrial application. Now, more sophisticated methodsare being developed. The two forerunners are biophotolysis and photolysis utilising semiconductors (PVelectrolysis).

3.1.1 Extrication from hydrocarbonsThis is currently the premiere method of hydrogen production. Of course relying on fossil fuels is only going to endin tears, as we have demonstrated, but it is worth discussing nonetheless. The most common method within thiscategory is steam reforming.Steam reforming takes place in two stages. Stage one is performed in the temperature range 1000-1400K. Steam isreacted with methane to produce carbon monoxide and hydrogen.

CH4 + H2O CO + 3H2 + 191.7kJ/mol[11]

The second stage is done at around 500K where the carbon monoxide reacts with the steam to give carbon dioxideand more hydrogen.

CO + H2O CO2 + H2 40.4kJ/mol[11]

This process can be carried out with 80% efficiency using natural gas and less for other hydrocarbons.[11].

Gasification of coal Similar to steam reforming, oxygen and steam is blown through the coal as it is heated[18].

3C+ O2 + H2O H2 + 3CO

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and likewise further treatment of the carbon monoxide can liberate yet more hydrogen.

CO + H2O CO2 + H2

Forming 4 moles of hydrogen from 3 moles of carbon

3.1.2 Photovoltaic electrolysis

In PVelectrolysis, the semiconductor is submerged in a sample of water and is irradiated. If a photon striking hasenough energy, it will knock an electron from the valence band into the conductance band which is then pushed awayfrom the ohmic contact, creating a hole in the semiconductor which is drawn towards the ohmic contact. The freeelectrons of the conductance band split the H2O into H2 and O2.

Figure 6: PVelectrolysis with a GalliumArsenide semiconductor[8]

There are a few limits surrounding the physics of PVelectrolysis.Firstly, the most effective photovoltaic cell will have the greatest absorption of solar light and the materials we canuse are limited by this. The peak of the solar spectrum is approximately 550nm. Using E= hc

, where h = Plancks

constant, c = the speed of light and = the wavelength, the energy of a photon with = 550nm E 2.3eV. If the

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bandedge energy (energy needed to kick an electron from the valence band to the conduction band) is greater thanthis then the majority of the solar spectrum will go unabsorbed. However if the band edge energy is much less than

this, the result is absorbing most of the light incident but getting little energy payoff for it. The optimal band edgeenergy is approximately 2eV[8].

Table 3: Band edge energies of various semiconductor materials.[9]

Material Symbol Band Gap(eV at T = 302K)Silicon Si 1.11Selenium Se 1.74Germanium Ge 0.67Diamond C 5.5Aluminium Arsenide AlAs 2.16Gallium(III) Arsenide GaAs 1.43Gallium Antimonide GaSb 0.7Indium(III) Phosphide InP 1.35Cadmium Sulfide CdS 2.42

The energy required to electrolyse 1 H2O molecule is approximately 1.23eV & this must also be taken intoaccount when selecting an appropriate material as the bandedge energy defines the energy distribution of theelectrons liberated & the energy distribution of the electrons liberated defines the frequency with which the wateris split. However the major technical issue is the corrosion of the semiconductor when submerged. One method ofcircumventing this issue is by taking the photovoltaic cell out of the water and attaching it to an anode and cathodewhich then electrolyses the water but this method is purportedly less efficient than direct photovoltaic electrolysis.

3.1.3 Biological production

The other option is to take advantage of biological mechanisms for photolysis. Most biological mechanisms arerelatively good at producing hydrogen but often produce it in conjunction with O2 and CO2 and require well controlledenvironments in order to maintain production. Fermentative and decompositive microbes can take advantage ofwaste products of industrial processes to produce hydrogen, but it seems the main contender will be biophotolysis,if only because it is nonpolluting. Green algae, for example, in a controlled environment at ambient temperature canproduce pure hydrogen in large quantities using only water. These methods (both PVelectrolysis and biophotolysis)are not yet at the stage where industrial production could begin and unless there is a reliable renewable and scalablemethod for production, hydrogen will never step up and become the fuel of the present.

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Table 4: Merits and demerits of different biological processes for hydrogen production[10]

Type of Mi-croorganism

Merits Demerits

Green Al-gae (bio-photolysis)

Can produce hydrogen fromwater.

Solar conversion energy in-creased by 10 fold as com-pared to trees or crops

Requires light for hydrogenproduction

O2 has inhibitory effect onhydrogen production

Cyanobacteria(bio-photolysis)

Can produce hydrogen fromwater

Nitrogenase enzyme mainly

produces H2

Requires sun light

about 30% O2 present in thegas mixture with H2

O2 has inhibitory effect on ni-trogenase

CO2 present in the gas.

Photosyntheticbacteria(photo-decomposition)

Can use different waste mate-rials like: whey, distillery ef-fluents etc.

Can use wide spectrum oflight

Requires light for the hydro-gen production

Fermented broth will causewater pollution problem


Fermentative

bacteria (fer-mentation)

It can produce hydrogen allday long without light.

It can utilize different carbonbased raw resources.

It is an anaerobic process sothere is no oxygen limitationproblems.

The fermented broth isrequired to undergo furthertreatment before disposalotherwise it will create waterpollution problems.


3.1.4 The Sulfur Iodine Cycle

This is a thermochemical cycle which can produce hydrogen from water

I2 + SO2 + 2H2O 2HI+ H2SO4(120C)

2H2SO4 2SO2 + 2H2O + O2(830C)

2HI I2 + H2(450C)

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The net reaction is2H2O 2H2 + O2[20]

This process is well suited to continuous operation but it is not yet developed enough to be used on an industrialscale.

3.2 Hydrogen storage

Even assuming we can devise a method which will allow for phenomenally safe, reliable and cheap hydrogen, withoutan appropriate storage mechanism and infrastructure, all the ingenuity in the world will be worthless.The US department of energy has set various limitations on hydrogen storage technologies.

1. A capacity of 40 g H2 per L

2. A refuelling time of 10 min or less

3. A lifetime of 1000 refueling cycles

4. An ability to operate within the temperature range 30 to 50 C.[13]

Progress is being made and though the end is not yet in sight, some innovations are currently enjoying the limelight.

3.2.1 Compression

Compression is not a method being given much credence in the transportation industry. The canisters are expensive,heavy and dangerous. If there were a motoring accident, a compressed cylinder of hydrogen would be the last thingI would want sat with me in the car. More impartially speaking, a hydrogen cylinder would need to withstandpressure of 80MPa in order to achieve the energy density required for driving a car[7]. This is difficult without anextraordinarily heavy canister. Though it seems the main limitations will be the cost of compression (to compresshydrogen from 0.1 to 80MPa consumes 2.21kW h/kg[7]), the cost of the cylinder itself and, of course, safety concerns.

The industry is looking towards manufacturing cylinders capable of withstanding up to 70MPa and weigh-ing 110kg to reach a gravimetric density 6% and a volumetric density 30kg/m3[7]

3.2.2 Liquefaction

Liquefaction holds a much more tenable position than compression, although it is a method not without difficulties.The work required to liquefy hydrogen is about 15.2kW h/kg, almost half the lower heating value of hydrogen. Liquidhydrogen should not be stored in a sealed container. If it were the container would need to withstand a pressure inexcess of 1000MPa[7]. Storing hydrogen in an open system allows the liquid hydrogen to boil off. These three factorslimit the usage of liquefied hydrogen such that it does not have a place in the commercial transportation industry.

3.2.3 Physisorption

Physisorption is a form of adsorption in which the electronic structure of an atom or molecule is barely perturbed.It is a result of van der Waals force: a very weak electromagnetic force caused by interactions between induced,permanent or transient electric dipoles.[12]. Van der Waals force is an effect of two surfaces being in close proximityand therefore the greater the surface area available for physisorption, the larger the carrying capacity.For hydrogen physisorption, three avenues have been explored. Nanotubes, nanofibres and activated carbon eachchosen by virtue of their large. surface areas.

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Figure 7:

(a) Activated Carbon (b) Nanotubes (c) Nanofibres

Super activated carbon boasts 10.8wt% and 41kg/m3 when cryoadsorbing hydrogen (60K < T < 150K) whichcompares favourably to compressed hydrogen.

There is a lot of contention surrounding the use of carbon nanotubes as a massive variety of results claiminganywhere between 0 and 70 wt% hydrogen storage. Many of these results are likely erroneous and GM & Sonydisrepute any claims greater than 1 wt% [7]. Carbon nanotubes can only adsorb hydrogen to the outer surface, theinner surface being inaccessible to hydrogen as a result of the ratio of the surface area to the opening area[7]. Thislimits the specific surface area of nanotubes.

Polyaniline fibres both physisorb and chemisorb hydrogen. They can offer a storage capacity of 5 wt% at ambienttemperatures [16] and can undergo many loadoffload cycles.

3.2.4 Metalorganic frameworks (MOFs)

MOFs have been raised as possibilities for adsorption because of their extraordinary specific surface area (surfacearea to which hydrogen can be adsorbed). They currently show a lot of potential in that they can achieve 32.1 g/Lbut the problem with MOFs is that the operating temperature is around 77K. This fits in quite badly with thecurrent infrastructure as we would have to install some sort of cryogenic cooling system within our cars and enginesin order to utilise MOFs. The hydrogen is physisorbed onto the MOF and this means that liberating the storedhydrogen requires no great energy input. So perhaps this method holds great promise if we can somehow meet thenecessity of cryogenics.

3.2.5 Metal hydrides

Metal hydrides are formed by the metallic bonding of a hydrogen atom with certain metals or alloys. e.g. Palladium.Many metallic hydrides can absorb and desorb hydrogen at ambient temperature and pressure and therefore presentan attractive prospect. The gravimetric density of metal hydrides is invariably low ( 3wt%[7]) due to the weight ofa transition metals nucleus compared to the mass of a hydrogen nucleus but the volumetric densities are outstandinge.g. LaNi5H6 can achieve volumetric densities of up to 115kg/m

3. In order to desorb the hydrogen a lot of energymust be put in e.g. MgH2 requires an energy 25% greater than the heating value of hydrogen[7]. There are catalysts

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Figure 8: Multiple examples of a) IRMOFs (Isoreticular metalorganic frameworks and b) MOF177. The large void

regions are illustrated by spheres with diameters equal to the distance of separation between the frameworks Vander Waals surfaces.[24]

Figure 9: Hydrogen absorption in a metal hydride from hydrogen molecules on the left hand side and from waterdissociation on the left[14].

which can be employed to make metal hydrides a more practical proposal and it becomes a matter of finding optimalmaterials for storage and offloading of hydrogen to ensure the practicality of metal hydrides.

3.2.6 Complex hydrides

The difference between metal and complex hydrides is that a complex hydride forms a covalent or ionic bond withhydrogen. Complex hydrides seem to offer a better alternative to metal hydrides because higher gravimetric densities(18wt%) can be achieved (LiBH4[7]) and comparable volumetric densities (150kg/m

3 for Mg2FeH6[7]). Howevercomplex hydrides offload their hydrogen via cascade decompositions[7] and the dynamics of this process mean thatthere is a large difference between the theoretically attainable hydrogen capacities and the practical[7].

Zn(BH4)2 Zn + 2B + 4H2[15] (3)

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Equation [3] shows the thermal decomposition of a borohydride. The reason that research into complex hydridesas a storage media has been limited is the reported lack of reversible storage due to the alteration of the particle

morphology by desorption of hydrogen.

4 Analysis

Figure 10: Gravimetric and volumetric densities of various hydrogen couriers

Red representsmetal hydrides, green is carbon based couriers, orange is complex hydrides and blue is pure.

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Table 5: Comparing hydrogen in various storage media to petrol for a given amount of energy (5.53275 GJ)[19]

Energy Storage Method Mass/kg* Volume /L or 103m3*Petrol 125 159 (1 bbl)Liquid Hydrogen 38.96 547.80Compressed Hydrogen 38.96 (+110**) 1299Super Activated Carbon 360.74 8,799Carbon Nanotubes 12,987 Polyaniline Fibres 779.2 MetalOrganic Frameworks(Zn4O(BDC)3) 389.6 5,903Metal Hydrides(LaNi5H6) 1,298.7 11,293Complex Hydrides 216.4 1,443* Rough calculations based upon gravimetric and volumetric density** including the mass of the canister requiring subzero temperatures requiring superatmospheric pressures

5 Conclusion

Currently the only methods for hydrogen production which could feasibly produce enough hydrogen to meetdemands is gas reforming or coal gasification. These methods could happily be used during the transition years(in conjunction with tertiary recovery methods & unconventional fuel sources) before a reasonable substitute canbe found but eventually we shall have to revolutionise hydrogen production. I personally believe that it shall bebiological production mechanisms which reign supreme due to the renewable nature of the bacteria, the relativelysimple operation conditions and modern advancements in genetic engineering.

Demonstrably, most of the aforementioned storage methods are as yet incomparable to petroleum in terms ofenergy density, the closest perhaps being liquid hydrogen(expensive) or complex hydrides(irreversible). The fact isliquid hydrogen could readily replace petrol in terms of the infrastructure and in terms of mass density, if only it werecheaper to produce. Although the boiloff could also be a problem, it is not insurmountable and certainly doesntcount it out from more specialist applications involving rapid consumption of large amounts of fuel (air and spacetravel).Though for the most part complex hydrides are impractical, there is hope (NaAlH4 is reversible and loads and un-loads hydrogen at moderate temperatures (200C[25])[7]). Metalorganic frameworks are a budding area of researchand perhaps promises the most advancement into the future.There is a company called cella energy, working out of Rutherford Appleton Labs in conjunction with NASA[22],who perhaps have already found the hydrogen storage method of the future. They use coaxial electrospinning toproduce nanofibres impregnated with complex hydrides. They claim it can be produced cheaply and safely and can

be implemented into the modern infrastructure and modern internal combustion engines with little modification[22].

Although there is hope on the horizon, it seems unlikely that we will all be driving hydrogen powered carswithin the next 20 years and the dwindling fossil fuel supply will have to struggle onwards (with battery powered

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vehicles as a crutch) until such a time as we can effectively produce and store hydrogen.

The task falls onto the shoulders of energy specialists, chemical engineers and condensed matter physicists to pushonwards with the research and refine the modern possibilities, or perhaps discover new methods.

The international energy agency plans to have fully instigated a hydrogen economy by 2030, this fits in rathernicely with my predictions for the depletion of fossil fuels & hopefully these things will unfold in a timely manner.

But little Mouse, you are not alone, In proving foresight may be vain: The best laid schemes of mice andmen Go often awry,[21]

References

[1] A Crude Awakening (2006) Documentary Basil Gelpke & Raymond McCormack

[2] Brian Cowan, Fossil Fuels, February 1, 2012

[3] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petroleum

[4] Uncertain

[5] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kerogen

[6] Scraping the bottom of the barrel: greenhouse gas emission consequences of a transition to low-quality andsynthetic petroleum resources. Adam R. Brandt & Alexander E. Farrell. Climatic Change (2007) 84:241-263 DOI 10.1007/s105840079275y

[7] Progress and problems in hydrogen storage methods Li Zhou, Tianjin University Renewable and sustainable

energy reviews 9 (2005) 395408

[8] A monolithic PhotovoltaicPhotoelectrochemical Device for Hydrogen Production via Water Splitting OscarKhaselev & John A. Turner Science 280,425 (1998) DOI: 10.1126/science.280.5362.425

[9] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Band gap

[10] Hydrogen production by biological processes: a survey of literature Debabrata Das, T. Nejat Veziroglu.International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 26 (2001) 13-28

[11] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen production

[12] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physisorption

[13] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metalorganic framework#MOFs for hydrogen storage

[14] Hydrogen storage materials for mobile applications Louis Schlapbach & Andreas Zuttel http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v414/n6861/pdf/414353a0.pdf

[15] Escobar, Diego, Investigation of ZrNi, ZrMn2 and Zn(BH4)2 metal/complex hydrides for hydrogen storage(2007). Theses and Dissertations. Paper 701. http://scholarcommons.usf.edu/etd/701

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[16] S.S. Srinivasan, R. Ratnadurai, M.U. Niemann, A.R. Phani, D.Y. Goswami, E.K. Stefanakos Reversiblehydrogen storage in electrospun polyaniline fibers. International journal of hydrogen energy 35 (2010) 225-230

[17] The Age of Stupid (2009) Franny Armstrong

[18] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coal gasification

[19] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gasoline#Appendix

[20] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfuriodine cycle

[21] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/To a Mouse

[22] http://www.cellaenergy.com/index.php?page=technology

[23] http://www.youtube.com/watch?feature=player embedded&v=XqJJv5dBjx0#!

[24] http://students.chem.tue.nl/ifp14/mofs.htm

[25] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium aluminium hydride

Dear Daniel Cohen,This receipt acknowledges that TurnitinUK received your paper. Below you will find the receipt information

regarding your submission:Paper ID: 16359526 Paper Title: To replace petrol with hydrogen Assignment Title: Dissertation II Author:

Daniel Cohen E-mail: [email protected] BODY

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how to replace oil with hydrogen in the transportation infrastructure

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