1 | P a g e

 Glossary:    Atom:   unit  of  matter  that  makes  up  a  chemical  element  Molecule:   the  combination  of  two  or  more  atoms  of  the  SAME  element,  e.g.  02  Compound:   the  combination  of  two  or  more  atoms  of  more  than  one  element,  e.g.  H20.  Atomic  number: number  of  protons  in  the  nucleus  of  an  atom  Atomic  weight: number  of  protons  +  number  of  neutrons  in  the  nucleus  of  an  atom.    Molecular  weight: the  sum  of  the  atomic  weights  of  the  molecule’s  atoms.  Ion: a  charged  atom,  either  a  cation  (positive)  or  an  anion  (negative)  Electrolyte: soluble  inorganic  molecules  whose  ions  will  conduct  an  electrical  current  in  solution  pH: the  [H+],  is  a  measure  of  acidity  or  alkalinity.    Acid:   a  proton  donor,  substance  below  pH  7    Alkali:   a  proton  acceptor,  substance  above  pH  7  Molar  concentration  

concentration  of  a  solute,  expressed  in  moles  per  litre.      

Mole    (in  grams)  quantity  of  equal  to  that  elements  atomic  weight  Buffer   A  substance  that  minimizes  change  in  the  acidity  of  a  solution  when  an  acid  or  base  

is  added  to  the  solution  Intracellular  fluid   fluid  within  cells  

o   Interstitial  fluid:  fluid  surrounding  most  tissues  o   Intra-­‐vascular  fluid:  blood  plasma  

Extracellular  fluid   Fluid  outside  cells  Differentiation:   is  the  process  whereby  some  genes  in  cells  switch  off,  limiting  the  cell’s  functional  

abilities,  so  that  the  cell  can  become  more  specialised.  Stem  cell   An  undifferentiated  cell  of  a  multicellular  organism  that  is  capable  of  giving  rise  to  

indefinitely  more  cells  of  the  same  type,  and  from  which  certain  other  kinds  of  cell  arise  by  differentiation  

Haematopoiesis:   the  formation  and  development  of  red  blood  cells  Meiosis:   A  type  of  cell  division  that  results  in  two  daughter  cells  each  with  half  the  

chromosome  number  of  the  parent  cell  Haemostasis     the  control  of  bleeding  (blood  clotting)  

Spermatogenesis:   the  process  of  sperm  cell  formation.  Infertility   the  inability  to  conceive  after  12  months  of  unprotected  sexual  intercourse.  Hypersensitivity:   excessive  immune  response  to  seemingly  harmless  antigens  such  as  pollen,  dust  or  

to  an  animal,  due  to  over-­‐activity  in  one  part  of  our  immune  defence,  severity  ranges  from  mild  allergy  to  severe  systemic  reactions  leading  to  anaphylactic  shock.  

Autoimmune  disease  

is  a  failure  of  self-­‐recognition,  thus  the  body  begins  fighting  itself  by  attacking  its  own  antigens.  

Coronary  circulation  

circulation  of  blood  in  the  blood  vessels  of  the  heart  muscle  (myocardium)  that  deliver,  oxygen-­‐rich  blood  to  the  heart  itself,  so  it  can  function.  

Electrocardiogram  (ECG)  

the  recording  of  the  electrical  signals  of  the  heart  through  an  electrocardiograph.    

Ventilation:   movement  of  air  into  and  out  of  lungs.  Respiration   the  cellular  exchange  of  oxygen  and  carbon  dioxide  between  the  capillaries  and  

alveoli.  Partial  pressure:   is  the  pressure  contributed  by  a  single  gas  in  a  mixture  of  gases.  

2 | P a g e

Hyperventilation:   Abnormally  fast  or  deep  respiration,  which  results  in  the  loss  of  carbon  dioxide  from  the  blood,  thereby  causing  a  fall  in  blood  pressure,  tingling  of  the  extremities,  and  sometimes  fainting.  

Metabolism   The  sum  of  chemical  and  physical  process,  consisting  of  anabolism  and  catabolism,  by  which  cells  produce  the  substances  and  energy  needed  to  sustain  life.  

Metabolic  rate:   The  overall  speed  at  which  an  organism  carries  out  its  metabolic  processes.  Anabolic  reactions:  

building  up  of  substances  from  simple  to  complex,  reactions  require  energy  input.    

Catabolic  reactions  

decomposition  of  complex  substance  to  simpler  substances,  these  reactions  release  energy.  

Glomerular  filtration  rate  (GFR)  

a  measure  of  how  much  blood  the  kidneys  are  filtering  per  minute.  Used  to  measure  how  well  the  kidneys  are  working.  

Kidney  failure   describes  a  medical  condition  in  which  the  kidneys  fail  to  adequately  filter  toxins  and  waste  products  from  the  blood.  

 

     

Word  prefixes   Suffixes   Wood  roots  Auto-­‐    self   -­‐ase    enzyme   Adreno-­‐  gland,  glandular  Brachy-­‐    short   -­‐cyst    bladder,  sac   Adipo-­‐  fat  Brady-­‐    slow   -­‐cyte    cell,  cellular   Angio-­‐  blood  vessel  Dys-­‐  difficult,  painful,  abnormal  

-­‐emia    blood   Fibro-­‐  connective  tissue  

Em-­‐,  en-­‐    in,  into,  inside     -­‐gram    record  information   Gluco-­‐,  glycol-­‐  sugar,  sweet  Endo-­‐    within,  inside   -­‐graph    instrument  for  recording   Haemo-­‐,  hemato-­‐,  hem-­‐,  

hemo-­‐  blood  Ento-­‐    within,  inner   -­‐graphy  the  process  of  recording   Histo-­‐  tissue  Epi-­‐    on,  above   -­‐itis  inflammation  of   Karyo-­‐  nucleus,  nut  Erythro-­‐      red   -­‐ium  membrane   Nephr-­‐  nephron-­‐,  kidney  Hetero-­‐    other,  unlike   -­‐meter  measure   Oste-­‐,  osteo-­‐  bone  Homeo-­‐    same,  like   -­‐metry  process  of  measuring   Path-­‐,  patho-­‐  disease,  suffering  Hyper-­‐    above,  increased,  over,  excessive  

-­‐oma  tumour   Phag-­‐,  phago-­‐  eating,  consuming,  swallowing  

Hypo-­‐    below,  under,  decreased  

-­‐osis  disease,  condition  of   Pulmon-­‐,  pulmono-­‐  lung  

Infra-­‐    beneath   -­‐ostomy  to  make  a  mouth,  opening  

Pyro-­‐  fever,  heat  

Inter-­‐    between,  among   -­‐otomy  incision,  surgical  cutting   Sacchar-­‐  sugar  Intra,  intro-­‐    into,  within,  during  

-­‐pathy  disease,  suffering   Thermo-­‐  heat  

Leuk-­‐    white   -­‐phagia,  -­‐page    eating  consuming,  swallowing  

Thrombo-­‐  blood  clot  

Macro-­‐    large,  long   -­‐pnea    breathing   Trach-­‐  trachea  Micro-­‐    small   -­‐poiesis    formation   Vaso-­‐  vessel  Poly-­‐    many,  much   -­‐sepsis    poisoning,  infection   Ven-­‐  vein  Tachy-­‐    fast     -­‐stasis  stoppage   Viser-­‐  organ    

3 | P a g e

 Week  2:  Molecules  of  Life  

 v Define  the  terms:  atomic  number,  atomic  weight,  molecular  weight,  ion,  electrolyte,  pH,  

acid,  alkali    Atom:  unit  of  matter  that  makes  up  a  chemical  element  Molecule:  the  combination  of  two  or  more  atoms  of  the  SAME  element,  e.g.  02  Compound:  the  combination  of  two  or  more  atoms  of  more  than  one  element,  e.g.  H20.    Atomic  number:  number  of  protons  in  the  nucleus  of  an  atom  

• Every  element  has  its  own  atomic  number,  e.g.  Atomic  weight:  number  of  protons  +  number  of  neutrons  in  the  nucleus  of  an  atom.    Molecular  weight:  the  sum  of  the  atomic  weights  of  the  molecule’s  atoms.    

• E.g.  H20  (H=1,  O=16)  =  1+1+16  =  18  amu    Ion:  a  charged  atom,  either  a  cation  (positive)  or  an  anion  (negative)  

• Cations  occur  when  atoms  lose  electrons,  e.g.  Na+,  Mg2+,  K+,  Ca2+  • Anions  occur  when  atoms  gain  electrons,  e.g.  Cl-­‐,  SO4

2-­‐,  HCO32-­‐,  CO3

2-­‐  • Cations  and  anions  are  electrically  attracted  through  ionic  bonding  (metal  and  non-­‐

metal)    

Electrolyte:  soluble  inorganic  molecules  whose  ions  will  conduct  an  electrical  current  in  solution.  

• Important  electrolytes  in  the  body:  NaCl,  KCl,  CaPO4,  NaHCO3  • Correct  concentration  must  be  maintained:  high  [K+]  =  weak  irregular  

heartbeat,  low  [K+]  =  general  muscular  paralysis.    pH:  the  [H+],  is  a  measure  of  acidity  or  alkalinity.    

• pH  >  7  =  alkaline,  more  OH+  than  H+  • pH  =  7  =  neutral,  equal  number  of  OH+  and  H+  ions  • pH  <  7  =  acidic,  more  H+  than  OH+  • 1  pH  unit  =  10-­‐fold  change  in  [H+]    

§ pH  5  contains  10x  more  H+  than  pH  6  • Normal  pH  of  blood  =  7.35-­‐7.45  

o pH  <7.35  =  acidosis,  CNS  &  cardiac  function  deteriorate,  pH<7  =coma  o pH  >7.45  =  alkalosis,  uncontrollable  skeletal  muscle  contractions,  leads  to  coma  

acid:  a  proton  donor,  substance  below  pH  7    akali:  a  proton  acceptor,  substance  above  pH  7    v Describe  the  structure  of  an  atom  

 Particle   Mass   Electric  charge   Location  Electron   ~0   Negative  (-­‐1)   Electron  shell  Neutron   1  unit   Neutral  (0)   Nucleus  Proton   1  unit   Positive  (+1)   Nucleus      

4 | P a g e

   v Understand  the  difference  between  ionic  and  covalent  bonds    Ø Atoms  ‘like’  to  be  stable  =  full  outer  shell,  they  achieve  this  through  bonding.    

• Group  8  =  most  stable  due  to  full  outer  shell  (inert  atoms),  e.g.  He,  Ne,  Ar  • Group  1  =  need  to  lose  1e-­‐  • Group  7  =  need  to  gain  1e-­‐  • Group  4  =  need  to  either  gain  or  lose  4e-­‐,  e.g.  [C]4-­‐  or  [C]4+  

Covalent  bonding     Ionic  bonding   Sharing  of  electrons  between  two  non-­‐metals  

Equal  sharing  of  electrons  =  nonpolar   Unequal  sharing  of  electron  =polar  

Transfer  of  electrons  between  a  non-­‐metal  and  a  metal  (oppositely  charged  atoms)  

   Na+  gives  away  1e-­‐  and  Cl-­‐  receive  e-­‐    and  they  bond  to  form  NaCl  =  stable  and  neutral  

 v Outline  the  concept  of  molar  concentration  

 Molar  concentration:  the  concentration  of  a  solute,  expressed  in  moles  per  litre.    Mole:  (in  grams)  quantity  of  equal  to  that  elements  atomic  weight  Calculation:          

 

Measuring  quantities:  E.g.  5g  of  oxygen    m  =  5/16  =  0.3125g    

Measuring  concentrations:  E.g.  m=  0.3125g  in  4L  M=  0.3125/4  =  0.078125molL-­‐1  

 v Explain  the  importance  of  buffers  in  regulation  of  pH  of  body  fluids  and  tissues    Buffers:  substances  that  minimizes  change  in  the  acidity  of  a  solution  when  an  acid  or  base  is  added  to  the  solution.  Ø Buffers  ensure  pH  stay  within  a  range  the  body  can  function  in,  if  there  were  no  buffers,  pH  

would  change  dramatically  and  enzymes  would  denature  because  metabolic  reactions  to  slow  to  a  speed  the  body  can’t  survive  at.  

Ø Example:  bicarbonate  buffer  system  • Increased  pH  levels  would  force  equilibrium  to  the  left  

o Some  excess  H+  ions  associate  with  the  bicarbonate  ions  o Converted  to  carbonic  acid,  then  disassociates  into  CO2  and  H2O  o CO2  then  removed  with  increased  ventilation.    

(VISE  VERSA)  

5 | P a g e

• Reversible  reaction  (equilibrium)    

 v Describe  in  simple  terms  the  chemical  nature  of  sugars,  proteins,  lipids,  nucleotides  and  

enzymes  v List  the  important  roles  that  sugars,  proteins,  lipids,  nucleotides  and  enzymes  play  in  the  

human  body    

Ø Organic  compounds  (substances  that  contain  covalently-­‐bonded  carbon  and  hydrogen  and  often  other  elements,  e.g.  lipids,  proteins.    

Ø The  main  organic  compounds  in  the  body  include:    Carbohydrates   - any  of  a  large  group  of  organic  compounds,  including  sugars,  such  as  mono,  di-­‐  

and  poly-­‐saccharides,  e.g.  cellulose,  glycogen,  and  starch  - provide  fuel  for  energy  - Sugars  =  chief  source  of  energy  - Types  of  sugars  include:  

• Monosaccharides:  simple  sugars  that  cannot  be  broken  down  further.    E.g.  glucose  

• Disaccharides:  2  monosaccharide  molecules  combined.    E.g.  sucrose  (glucose  +  fructose)  

• Polysaccharides:  a  chain  of  monosaccharides,  can  be  straight  or  branched.  E.g.  glycogen  (chain  of  glucose-­‐  used  when  energy  demand  is  high)  

Proteins  

 

- Polypeptides  made  up  of  amino  acids,  major  functional  and  structural  components  of  body  cells.  (most  abundant  organic  components  in  body)  

Types  of  proteins  include:    • Hormonal  (act  as  chemical  messengers,  stimulate  actions)-­‐  e.g.  insulin  • Enzymatic  (catalyse  metabolic  reactions)  –    e.g.  catalase,  amylase  • Structural  (fibrous/structural  proteins)  e.g.  collagen,  keratin.  • Defensive  (core  part  of  immune  system)-­‐  e.g.  antibodies  • Storage  (store  minerals)-­‐  e.g.  ferritin  (iron)  • Transport  (carry  vital  substances  to  cells)  e.g.  haemoglobin,  lipoproteins  • Receptor  (control  entry/exit  of    cells,  activate  enzymes,  stimulate  endocrine  

glands)-­‐  e.g.    • Contractile  (regulate  strength  &  speed  of  heart  contractions)  e.g.  myosin,  

actin  - Amino  acids  consist  of:  C  atom,  amino  group,  carboxyl  groups,  side  chain  Enzymes:  special  proteins  that  catalyse  (speed  up)  chemical  reactions  within  the  body  by  attaching  themselves.  

o Every  enzyme  is  specific  (size,  shape,  type)  to  every  different  reaction  § E.g.  sucrose  breaks  down  sucrose,  amylase  (starch  to  glucose)  

o Remain  unchanged  at  the  end  of  chemical  reaction o Work  best  under  optimal  conditions  (different  for  some  enzymes).   o Sometime  require  co-­‐factor  to  help  in  reactions.  

6 | P a g e

Lipids   - insoluble  organic  fats,  fatty  acids  and  fatty  esters  - hydrophobic  Examples:    

• phospholipids  &  cholesterol  (part  of  cell  membrane),  • vitamins  (growth  and  body  maintenance)    • prostaglandins  (responsible  for  inflammation),  • fats  &  triglycerides  (energy  source,  insulation).  

Nucleic  acids   - Polymers  of  nucleotides  including  DNA  and  RNA  that  code  for  proteins  - Nucleotide:  made  up  of  a  nitrogenous  base  +  sugar  group  +  phosphate  group  

o Building  blocks  of  nucleic  acids  and  carry  ATP  o Also  important  in  metabolism,  cell  signalling  and  as  cofactors  in  

enzymatic  reactions.    High  energy  compounds  (ATP/ADP)  

- ATP:  used  to  store  energy,  powers  synthesis,  movement  and  transport    - Released  by  breaking  high  energy  phosphate  bond  forming  ADP  - ADP:  used  in  energy  metabolism    

 Inorganic  compounds:  Ø Water  Ø Carbon  dioxide  Ø Inorganic  Acids/bases  Ø Buffers  and  pH  control  Ø Salts  (ionic  compounds),  e.g.  NaCl  

 v Compare  and  contrast  the  processes  of  osmosis  and  diffusion    Process     Diffusion   Osmosis  Definition   the  movement  of  particles  from  a  

higher  concentration  to  a  lower  concentration  (down  the  concentration  gradient)  

the  diffusion  of  pure  solvents  (e.g.  water)  across  a  semipermeable  membrane  (not  permeable  to  solutes).    

Similarities   Passive  (no  energy  required)   [High]  to  [low]  

Differences   Transport  of  any  substance  but  water  

Transport  of  pure  solvents   Across  semipermeable  membrane  

Example   Diffusion  of  oxygen  from  lungs  into  deoxygenated  blood    

Water  moving  into  and  out  of  cells  to  regular  salt-­‐water  balance  

 v Use  your  knowledge  of  osmosis  and  diffusion  to  describe  how  molecules  move  within  and  

between  body  compartments    Body  compartments:    

• Intracellular  fluids  (ICF):  fluid  within  cells  • Extracellular  fluids  (ECF):  fluid  outside  cells  

o Interstitial  fluid:  fluid  surrounding  most  tissues  o Intra-­‐vascular  fluid:  blood  plasma  

 Ø Most  water  in  the  body  is  found  inside  cells  (intracellular).    Ø Molecules  move  into  and  out  of  body  compartments  through  diffusion  

7 | P a g e

Ø Movement  can  be  active  (requires  energy  because  against  [  ]  gradient)  or  passive  (no  energy  because  with  [  ]  gradient).    

Ø Types  of  diffusion:  o Simple  diffusion:  diffusion  through  lipid  membranes  (lipid  soluble  substances)  o Channel-­‐mediated  diffusion:  through  membrane  channels  o Facilitated  diffusion:  specific  carrier  proteins  transport  lipid  insoluble  substances  such  

as  glucose  and  amino  acids  through  protein  by  changing  shape.        v Apply  your  knowledge  of  chemistry,  diffusion  and  osmosis  to  situations  which  are  critical  to  

health  care    Ø Blood  transfusions  Ø Intravenous  cannulation  Ø Dialysis  machine  filtering  blood  

                   

         

                         

8 | P a g e

Week  3:  Cells    Ø Cells  are  the  building  blocks  of  plants  and  animals.  Ø All  cells  come  from  division  of  pre-­‐existing  cells    v Describe  the  structure  of  the  plasma  membrane  

 Ø Cell  membrane,  also  called  Plasma  membrane  Ø The  cell  membrane  is  made  up  of:    

o Lipid  bilayer,  containing:  § Phospholipids  (hydrophobic  tails  

inward,  hydrophilic  heads  outward).    § Steroids  (cholesterol)      § Proteins  (attached  to  carbohydrate  chains)  

Ø Membrane  proteins:    o Give  cell  an  immunological  identity  o Act  as  specific  receptors  for  hormones  and  other  chemical  messengers  o Some  are  enzymes  and  some  are  involved  in  transport  across  membrane  (for  lipid-­‐

insoluble  substances  and  larger  substances).    Ø The  membranes  functions  includes:  

o Physical  isolation  o Regulating  exchange  of  ions  and  nutrients  between  the  cell  and  its  environment  o Detecting  stimuli  in  the  environment  before  it  enter  cells  o Structural  support.    

 v Explain  the  functions  of  the  nucleus,  mitochondria,  ribosomes,  endoplasmic  reticulum,  Golgi  

apparatus,  lysosomes  and  cytoskeleton  

Appearance   Structure   Function  Contains:  nucleoplasm  with  

nucleotides,  enzymes,  nucleoproteins  and  

chromatin,  surrounded  by  double  membrane  (nuclear  

envelope)    

Nucleus   § “control  centre”  § Control  of  metabolism  § Storage  and  processing  of  

genetic  information  § Control  of  protein  synthesis    

Contains:  double  membrane  with  inner  membrane  folds  (cristae)  enclosing  important  metabolic  enzymes.  

Mitochondria   § “power  house”  § Produce  95%  of  the  ATP  

required  for  the  cell    

Ribosomes  consist  of:  protein  +  RNA  § RNA  template  provides  instructions  for  

protein  synthesis  § Protein  is  assembled  from  amino  acids  

according  the  RNA  coding.    

Ribosomes   § “protein  factories”  § Makes  all  proteins  needed  by  

the  cell  Endoplasmic  reticulum    

§ Synthesis  of  secretory  products  

9 | P a g e

Ø    

 

 (smooth  &  rough)    

§ Intracellular  storage  and  transport  

Two  types:  § Rough  ER:  “protein  

packaging  factory”-­‐  contains  ribosomes  and  modifies  and  packages  newly  synthesized  proteins  

§ Smooth  ER:  “fat  and  sugar  factory”-­‐  lipid  and  carbohydrate  synthesis,  detoxify  some  drugs.    

 

Golgi  apparatus      Consists  of:  stacks  of  flattened  membranes  (cisternae)  containing  chambers.    

§ “post  office”  § Processes,  packages  &  ships  

secretory  products  § Also  stores  and  alters  

secretory  products  and  lysosomal  enzymes  

§ Products  released  by  exocytosis  

Consists  of:  vesicles  containing  powerful  digestive  enzymes  that  break  down  large  organic  molecules,  organelles  and  bacteria.      

Lysosomes      

§ “waste  disposal  and  cleaner”  

§ Intracellular  removal  of  damaged  organelles  and  pathogens  

§ Provides  isolated  environment  for  potentially  dangerous  reactions.