hydraulic fracturing and brook trout habitat in the marcellus shale region

7/28/2019 Hydraulic Fracturing and Brook Trout Habitat in the Marcellus Shale Region

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Hydraulic Fracturing and Brook Trout Habitat inthe Marcellus Shale Region Potential Impactsand Research Needs

ABSTRACT Expansion of natural gas drilling into the Mar-

cellus Shale formation is an emerging threat to the conserva-

tion and restoration of native brook trout ( alvelinus fontinalis ) populations. Improved drilling and extraction technologies

(horizontal drilling and hydraulic fracturing) have led to rapid

and extensive natural gas development in areas overlying the

Marcellus Shale. The expansion of hydraulic fracturing poses

multiple threats to surface waters, which can be tied to key eco-

logical attributes that limit brook trout populations. Here, we

expand current conceptual models to identify three potential

pathways of risk between surface water threats associated with

increased natural gas development and life history attributes of

brook trout: hydrological, physical, and chemical. Our goal is

to highlight research needs for fisheries scientists and work in

conjunction with resource managers to influence the develop-

ment of strategies that will preserve brook trout habitat and ad-dress Marcellus Shale gas development threats to eastern North

America’s only native stream salmonid.

Maya Weltman-Fahs

New York Cooperative Fish and Wildlife Research Unit and Department

of Natural Resources Bruckner Hall Cornell University Ithaca NY

E-mail mw@cornelledu

Jason M Taylor

New York Cooperative Fish and Wildlife Research Unit and Department

of Natural Resources Bruckner Hall Cornell University Ithaca NY

Ruptura hidráulica y el hábitat de latrucha de arrollo en la región de Mar-cellus Shale impactos potenciales ynecesidades de investigación

RESUMEN El crecimiento de las actividades de per-foración de gas natural en la formación Marcellus halees una amenaza emergente para la conservación y restau-ración de las poblaciones nativas de la trucha de arroyo(Salvelinus fontinalis. a perforación más eficiente y lastecnologías de extracción (perforación horizontal y rupturahidráulica han facilitado el rápido y extensivo desarrollode esta industria a las áreas que comprende la región Mar-cellus hale. a expansión de las rupturas hidráulicas rep-resenta múltiples amenazas a las aguas superficiales que

pueden estar asociadas a atributos ecológicos clave quelimitan las poblaciones de la trucha de arroyo. En la pre-sente contribución se expanden los modelos conceptualesactuales que sirven para identificar tres fuentes potencialesde riesgo entre las amenazas a las aguas superficiales aso-ciadas al creciente desarrollo del gas natural y los atributosde la historia de vida de la trucha de arroyo; atributos hi-drológicos físicos y químicos. El objetivo de este trabajo

es hacer notar las necesidades de investigación para loscientíficos pesqueros y trabajar junto con los manejadoresde recursos para influir en el desarrollo de estrategias ten-dientes a preservar el hábitat de la trucha de arroyo; asímismo se atienden las amenazas que representa el desar-rollo de la industria del gas natural para el único salmónidonativo de América del norte.

INTRODUCTION

Hydraulic Fracturing in the Marcellus Shale

Natural gas extraction from subterranean gas-rich shaledeposits has been underway in the northeastern nited tatesfor almost 200 years but has expanded rapidly over the pastdecade within the evonian Marcellus hale formation (.illiams 2008. This expansion has largely been driven bythe development and refinement of the horizontal hydraulicfracturing process (nited tates Energy nformation Admin-istration 2011a. orizontal gas drilling differs from the moretraditional vertical drilling process because the well is drilledto the depth of the shale stratum and then redirected laterallyallowing for access to a larger area of subterranean shale (ig-ure 1. rilling is followed by the hydraulic fracturing processwhich involves injecting a chemically treated water-based fluidinto the rock formation at high pressure to cause fissures inthe shale and permit the retrieval of gas held within the porespace of the shale. The fissures are kept open by sand and other

proppants which allow gas to be extracted (oeder and appel2009; argbo et al. 2010. The hydraulic fracturing process wasgranted exemptions to the Clean ater and the afe rinkingater Acts under the Energy olicy Act of 2005. rilling hassince expanded rapidly in the Marcellus hale deposit in por-tions of est irginia and ennsylvania (igure 2 is expectedto continue into Ohio and New York and will likely continueto expand within these states to include the gas-bearing ticahale formation.

Brook Trout Status within the Marcellus Shale

Eastern brook trout are native to the Eastern nited tateswith a historic range extending from the southern Appalachiansin Georgia north to Maine (MacCrimmon and Campbell 1969;igure 2. Brook trout require clean cold water (optimal tem-

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Twenty-six percent of the his-toric distribution of brook trouthabitat overlaps with the Marcellushale (igure 2. The ennsylvania

portion of the Marcellus hale hasexperienced the largest increase innatural gas development (igure 2.Between anuary 1 2005 and May31 2012 the cumulative number of

Marcellus hale well permits issuedin ennsylvania increased from 17 to11784 (ennsylvania epartment of Environmental rotection [AE]2012a. Of these permitted wells5514 were drilled during the sametime period (AE 2012b; igure3A. Trends in drilled well densi-ties among subwatersheds during therapid expansion of drilling activitysuggest that there have not been anyextra protections granted during the

well permitting process for subwa-tersheds that are expected to supportintact brook trout populations (igure3B. ifty-four of the 134 subwater-sheds categorized as having intact

brook trout populations within theMarcellus hale region have alreadyexperienced drilling activity (udy etal. 2008. Overall Marcellus drillingactivity has expanded to 377 subwa-tersheds (mean area = 94.8 ± 1.9 km2in ennsylvania (igure 4.ithin

these 377 subwatersheds patterns in well density over time

show similar trends among subwatersheds varying in their cur-rent brook trout population status (igure 3B. Though there isa significant difference in current well densities among the threesubwatershed types (one-way analysis of variance [Type ]

F 2 292

= 4.14 P = 0.02 mean well density does not differ be-tween subwatersheds where brook trout are extirpated/unknownand those with intact brook trout populations (Tukey’s multipleFRPSDULVRQWHVWĮ)LJXUH%,QIDFWWKHWZRKLJKHVWdrilling densities include an extirpated/unknown subwatershed(16.7 wells/10 km2 and a subwatershed expected to supportintact brook trout populations (15.1 wells/10 km2; igure 4.These trends highlight that increasing hydraulic fracturing de-velopment is occurring not only in degraded subwatersheds butalso in those that support an already vulnerable native speciesand valuable sport fish. This trend should be of concern to fish-eries scientists managers and conservationists who work tomaintain and improve the current status of this natural heritagespecies.

Linking Marcellus Shale Drilling Impacts toBrook Trout Population Health

ecent efforts to conceptualize horizontal hydraulic frac-turing impacts have focused on stream ecosystems and regional

igure 1. Conceptual diagram depicting the hydraulic fracturing process. A rig drills down into the gas-

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gas-bearing shale where holes are blasted through the steel casing and into the surrounding rock. and,

water, and chemicals are pumped into the shale to further fracture the rock and gas escapes through fis-

sures propped open by sand particles and back through the well up to the surface. upporting activities

include land clearing for well pads and supporting infrastructure, including pipelines and access roads.

Trucks use roads to haul in water extracted from local surface waters, chemicals, and sand. ecovered

water is stored in shallow holding ponds until it can be transported by truck to treatment facilities or

recycled to fracture another well. These activities may impact nearby streams through surface and sub-

surface pathways.

perature = 10–19°C intact habitat and supporting food webs

to maintain healthy populations making them excellent indict-ors of anthropogenic disturbance (okanson et al. 1973; yonset al. 1996; Marschall and Crowder 1996. Only 31 of sub-watersheds (sixth level 12-digit hydrological units [C12]as defined by the atershed Boundary ataset; .. epart-ment of Agriculture Natural esources Conservation ervice2012 within the historic range of brook trout are currentlyexpected to support intact populations (self-sustaining popula-tions greater than 50 of the historical population; udy et al.2008. ubstantial loss of brook trout populations within their native range is due to anthropogenic impacts that have resultedin habitat fragmentation and reduction water quality and tem-

perature changes and alteration of the biological environmentthrough introduction and removal of interacting species (udyet al. 2008. Conservation efforts including formation of theEastern Brook Trout enture (Eastern Brook Trout oint en-ture [EBT] 2007 2011 and a shift by organizations such asTrout nlimited (T to policies that oppose the stocking of nonnative hatchery-produced salmonids in native trout streams(T 2011 are focused on maintaining and restoring brook trout

populations in their native range. ith these growing concernsabout the future of native brook trout populations natural gaswell development within the Marcellus hale region presentsanother potential threat to native brook trout populations.


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water supplies but not on potential pathways to particular targetorganisms. erein we integrate two existing conceptual modelsof potential natural gas development impacts to surface watersand link them to different brook trout life history attributes (En-trekin et al. 2011; ahm and iha 2012. Entrekin et al.’s (2011conceptual model establishes connections between hydraulicfracturing activities and the ecological endpoint of stream eco-system structure and function by way of potential environmen-tal stressors from drilling activity sources. These stressors tostream ecosystems can be planned activities that must neces-sarily occur in the hydraulic fracturing process (deterministicevents or those that may occur unexpectedly (probabilisticevents; ahm and iha 2012. Brook trout have different envi-ronmental requirements at the various stages of their life cycleand may be sensitive to potential impacts associated with thecurrent expansion of hydraulic fracturing; thus understandingthe environmental stressors associated with hydraulic fracturinghas implications for fisheries conservation including mainte-nance and/or enhancement of native brook trout populations.

e delineated relationships between variousstream ecosystem attributes that are potentially im-

pacted by increased drilling activities and differentaspects of the brook trout life cycle (igure 5. A re-view of extant literature on the activities associatedwith natural gas drilling and other extractive industriesand of the environmental changes known to directlyinfluence brook trout at one or more of their life stagesidentified three primary pathways by which increased

drilling will likely impact brook trout populations. The primary pathways include (1 changes in hydrologyassociated with water withdrawals; (2 elevated sedi-ment inputs and loss of connectivity associated withsupporting infrastructure; and (3 water contaminationfrom introduced chemicals or wastewater (Entrekin etal. 2011; ahm and iha 2012. These three pathwaysmay be considered natural gas drilling threats to brook trout populations that require study and monitoring tofully understand minimize and abate potential im-

pacts.

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Two to seven million gallons of water are needed per hydraulic fracturing stimulation event; a singlenatural gas well can be fractured several times over its lifespan and a well pad site can host multiple wells(oeder and appel 2009; argbo et al. 2010. Thislarge volume of water needed per well multiplied bythe distributed nature of development across the re-gion suggests that hydraulic fracturing techniques for natural gas development can put substantial strain onregional water supplies. This level of water consump-

tion has sparked concern among hydrologists andaquatic biologists about the sourcing of the water aswell as the implications for available habitat and other

hydrologically influenced processes in adjacent freshwater eco-systems (Entrekin et al. 2011; Gregory et al. 2011; Baccante2012; ahm and iha 2012; igure 5. urface water is the pri-mary source for hydraulic fracturing–related water withdraw-als in at least one major basin intersecting the Marcellus haleregion (usquehanna iver Basin Commission [BC] 2010

but groundwater has been a major water source in other naturalgas deposits such as the Barnett hale region in Texas (oeder and appel 2009. The cumulative effects of multiple surfaceand/or groundwater withdrawals throughout a watershed havethe potential to effect downstream hydrology and connectivityof brook trout habitats (ahm and iha 2012; etty et al. 2012.

Aquatic habitat is particularly limited by low-flow peri-ods during the summer for fish and other aquatic organisms(igure 6. Changes in temperature and habitat volume duringsummer low-flow periods are primary factors limiting brook trout populations (Barton et al. 1985; ehrly et al. 2007; u etal. 2010. Brook trout rely on localized groundwater dischargeareas within pools and tributary confluences to lower body tem-

perature below that of the ambient stream temperature during

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warm periods and groundwater withdrawals can alter thesetemperature refugia. Additionally access to thermal refugiamay be limited by loss of connectivity associated with reducedflows between temperature refugia (headwater streams seepstributary confluences groundwater upwellings and larger stream habitats (etty et al. 2012. educed flows particularlycoldwater inputs may inhibit growth rates by reducing feed-ing activity of both juveniles and adults or inducing sublethalheat shock at temperatures above 23°C and lethal effects at

24–25°C (7-day upper lethal temperature limit; Cherry et al.1977; Tangiguchi et al. 1998; Baird and rueger 2003; undet al. 2003; ehrly et al. 2007. ecovery from thermal stressresponses (heat shock can be prolonged (24–48 h even if ex-

posure to high stream temperatures is relatively short (1 h butmay be more than 144 h when exposed to high temperatures for multiple days (und et al. 2003. Adult abundance and biomassof brook trout in run habitats declines with flow reduction andcarrying capacity is likely limited by available pool area dur-ing low-flow periods (raft 1972; akala and artman 2004;alters and ost 2008.

eduction in surface water discharge during summer months may also indirectly impact brook trout growth by de-creasing macroinvertebrate prey densities (alters and ost2011 in small streams and lowering macroinvertebrate driftencounter rates for drift-feeding salmonids (Cada et al. 1987;

Nislow et al. 2004; otiropoulos et al. 2006; igure 5. Other indirect effects may include increasing interspecific competitionthrough habitat crowding especially with more tolerant com-

petitor species such as brown trout (Salmo trutta and rainbowtrout (Oncorhynchus mykiss due to decreased habitat avail-ability and increased temperature during low-flow periods.ntroduced brown trout tend to out-compete brook trout for resources and have higher growth rates in all but the smallest

coldest headwater streams (Carlson et al. 2007; Öhlund et al.2008; igure 5. Additionally salmonids may be more suscep-tible to disease or infestation of parasites when the tempera-ture of their environment is not consistent and adequately cool(Cairns et al. 2005 a problem that could be exacerbated by thecrowding in pool habitats that can occur as a result of flow re-ductions (igure 5. ediment accrual in redds can limit recruit-ment (Alexander and ansen 1986; Argent and lebbe 1999and adequate summer base flows coupled with occasional highflow pulses are important for preparing sediment free spawningredds (akala and artman 2004. ehilip and Moberg (2010demonstrated that the magnitude of withdrawals proposed bydrilling companies in the usquehanna iver basin has the po-tential to impact summer and fall low flows and in some caseshigh-flow events (Q

10 in small streams.

ater withdrawals may also impact brook trout spawningactivities and recruitment during higher flow periods (igures5 and 6. Brook trout peak spawning activity typically occursat the beginning of November in gravel substrates immediatelydownstream from springs or in places where groundwater seep-age enters through the gravel (azzard 1932. ithdrawals dur-ing the fall may dewater and reduce available spawning habitat

particularly during low-flow years. Additionally stable base

flows after spawning are necessary for maintaining redds duringegg incubation throughout winter (igure 6. Maintaining baseflow in trout spawning habitats throughout the incubation pe-riod maintains shallow groundwater pathways chemistry andflow potentials in redds (Curry et al. 1994 1995 which protectdeveloping eggs from sedimentation (aters 1995; Curry andMacNeill 2004 and freezing (Curry et al. 1995; . . Baxter andMchail 1999. Thus insuring that water withdrawals requiredfor hydraulic fracturing do not interrupt stable winter base flowsin small coldwater streams is an important consideration in pro-tecting brook trout recruitment in the Marcellus hale region(igures 5 and 6.

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Natural gas extraction requires development of well padsites and infrastructure for transportation and gas conveyancewhich involves a set of activities that will likely have impacts onwater quality and habitat quality for brook trout unless proper

precautions and planning are implemented. These activities

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number of permitted and drilled wells over time. B Mean well density

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include but are not limited to construc-tion of well pads roadways streamcrossings and pipelines; increased useof existing rural roadways for transpor-tation of equipment source water re-cycled flow-back and wastes associatedwith hydraulic fracturing activities; andstorage of these same materials (igure1. ncreased sediment loads and loss

of stream connectivity are some of thestream impacts associated with these de-terministic activities which could reducehabitat quality and quantity needed for

brook trout spawning success egg devel-opment larval emergence and juvenileand adult growth and survival (igure 5.

Brook trout are particularly sensi-tive to the size and amount of sedimentin streams with coarse gravel providinga more suitable substrate than fine par-

ticles (itzel and MacCrimmon 1983;Marschall and Crowder 1996. ell padsite access road and pipeline corridor construction require land clearing whichcan mobilize from tens to hundreds of metric tons of soil per hectare (. il-liams et al. 2008; Adams et al. 2011.ipeline construction (eid et al. 2004and unpaved rural roadways (itmer etal. 2009 crossing streams can trigger additional sediment inputs to streams.oad and well pad densities have beenfound to be positively correlated with

fine sediment accumulation in streams(Opperman et al. 2005; Entrekin et al.2011 which disrupts fish reproductionand can lead to mortality (Taylor et al.2006. Overall trout populations have

been found to decline in abundanceeven with small increases in stream sedi-ment loads (Alexander and ansen 19831986. ediment can impact all stagesof trout life cycles because turbidity re-duces foraging success for adults and ju-veniles (weka and artman 2001 andsediment accumulation can cause oxygendeprivation in salmonid redds and reducesuccessful emergence of larvae from eggs(itzel and MacCrimmon 1983; aters1995; Argent and lebbe 1999; Curry andMacNeill 2004; igure 5.

The spatial and temporal extent of sediment impacts to streams is linkedto the scale and persistence of mobiliz-ing activities. or example localizedevents such as construction of culverts

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areas from atershed Boundary ataset; .. epartment of Agriculture, atural esources

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igure 5. Conceptual model of relationships between hydraulic fracturing drilling activities and the

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at stream road crossings can increase sediment loads for up to200 m downstream of the culvert over a 2- to 3-year period(achance et al. 2008. Conversely the sediment loads associ-ated with more diffuse land clearing activities and frequent andsustained access into rural areas by large vehicles can contributeto reductions in brook trout biomass and densities and shifts inmacroinvertebrate communities that last approximately 10 years(anusen et al. 2005.

edimentation from drilling infrastructure developmentcan further impact brook trout indirectly by reducing the avail-ability of prey (igure 5: high sediment levels reduce speciesrichness and abundance of some aquatic macroinvertebrates(aters 1995; ohl and Carline 1996; anusen et al. 2005;arsen et al. 2009 with high sediment environments generallyexperiencing a shift from communities rich in mayflies (Ephe-moptera stoneflies (lectoptera and caddisflies (Trichop-tera to those dominated by segmented worms (Oligochaetaand burrowing midges (iptera: Chironmidae; aters 1995.iparian clearing can also diminish food sources for brook trout

populations which tend to depend heavily on terrestrial macro-invertebrates (Allan 1981; tz and artman 2007. owevershifts in the prey base from shredder-dominated communitiesthat support higher brook trout abundance to grazer-dominatedcommunities have been observed in recently logged watershedsdue to higher primary productivity associated with increasedsunlight from sparser canopy cover (Nislow and owe 2006.Consequently land clearing and infrastructure developmentwill likely increase sediment loads culminating in changes incomposition and productivity of the invertebrate prey base for

brook trout although not all of these changes will necessarily be negative for brook trout (igure 5.

Conveyance of hydraulic fracturing equipment and fluidsand the extracted natural gas into and out of well pad sites oftennecessitates crossing streams with trucks and pipelines. Culvertconstruction for roadway and pipeline stream crossings if not

properly designed can create physical barriers that fragment brook trout habitat and disrupt their life cycle by preventingmovement of adult fish into upstream tributaries for spawn-ing and repopulation of downstream habitat by new juveniles(offord et al. 2005; etcher et al. 2007; oplar-effers et al.

2009; igure 5. Barriers to connectivity negatively impact fishspecies richness (Nislow et al. 2011 and habitat fragmenta-tion without repopulation can cause local population extinction(offord et al. 2005; etcher et al. 2007. Additionally connec-tivity between larger stream reaches that provide food resourcesduring growth periods and small headwater streams that mayserve as temperature refugia during warmer months is importantfor overall population health (tz and artman 2006; etty etal. 2012. or these reasons land clearing activities road densi-ties and culvert densities can have a negative impact on troutreproductive activity and overall population size (Eaglin andubert 1993; C. . Baxter et al. 1999.

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robabilistic events during the drilling process such asrunoff from well pads leaching of wastewater from holding

ponds or spills of hydraulic fracturing fluids during transporta-tion to processing sites can affect the chemical composition of streams (ahm and iha 2012. Although the specific chemicalcomposition of fracturing fluids is typically proprietary infor-mation voluntary reporting of the content of fracturing fluidsto the racocus Chemical isclosure egistry (a partnership

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between the Ground ater rotection Council [GC] andnterstate Oil and Gas Compact Commission [OGCC] sup-

ported the .. epartment of Energy [OE] has becomemore common (OE 2011. racturing fluids are generallya mix of water and sand with a range of additives that per-form particular roles in the fracturing process including frictionreducers acids biocides corrosion inhibitors iron controlscross-linkers breakers p-adjusting agents scale inhibitorsgelling agents and surfactants (GC and OGCC 2012. The

wastewater resulting from the hydraulic fracturing process ishigh in total dissolved solids (T metals technologically en-hanced naturally occurring radioactive materials (TENOMand fracturing fluid additives (.. Environmental rotectionAgency [EA] 2012. ncreased metals and elevated Tfrom probabilistic spill events or deterministic events includingdirect discharge of treated flow-back water into streams willlikely have negative effects on stream ecosystems that support

brook trout populations (igure 5.

Elevated concentration of metals causes decreased growthfecundity and survival in brook trout. n particular aluminum

has been shown to cause growth retardation and persistentmortality across life stages (Cleveland et al. 1991; Gagen etal. 1993; Baldigo et al. 2007 chromium reduces successfulemergence of larvae and growth of juveniles (Benoit 1976 andcadmium can diminish reproductive success by causing deathof adult trout prior to successful spawning (Benoit et al. 1976;arper et al. 2008. Trout normally exhibit avoidance behav-iors to escape stream reaches that are overly contaminated withheavy metals; however because brook trout are so heavily reli-ant on low-temperature environs they seek out refugia of coldgroundwater outflow even if the water quality is prohibitivelylow (arper et al. 2009. Thus if groundwater is contaminatedand the groundwater-fed portions of a stream are receiving a

significant contaminant load brook trout might be recipients of high concentrations of those contaminants.

Total dissolved solids represent an integrative measure of common ions or inorganic salts (sodium potassium calciummagnesium chloride sulfate and bicarbonate that are commoncomponents of effluent in freshwaters (Chapman et al. 2000.Elevated T and salinity may have negative effects on spawn-ing and recruitment of salmonids by decreasing egg fertiliza-tion rates and embryo water absorption altering osmoregulationcapacity and increasing posthatch mortality (hen and eath-erland 1978; i et al. 1989; Morgan et al. 1992; tekoll et al.2009; Brix et al. 2010. There is also evidence from western.. lakes with increasing T concentrations that growth andsurvival of later life stages may be negatively impacted as well(ickerson and inyard 1999. Elevated salinities can lower salmonid resistance to thermal stress (Craigie 1963; igg andoch 1980 which may influence competition between brook trout and more tolerant brown trout (Öhlund et al. 2008. Thereis a growing body of evidence supporting associations betweendeclines in macroinvertebrate abundance particularly mayfliesand increased T or surrogate specific conductivity related tomining activities within the Marcellus hale region (ennedy etal. 2004; artman et al. 2005; ond et al. 2008; ond 2010; Ber-

nhardt and almer 2011. Overall changes in T associatedwith improper handling or discharge of flow-back water willlikely impact brook trout through direct and indirect pathwaysincluding changes in macroinvertebrate communities that serveas the prey base and/or the alteration of environmental condi-tions to those more favorable for harmful invasive species (i.e.Golden algae; enner 2009; igure 5.

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RESEARCH NEEDS

Our examination of potential impacts of hydraulic fractur-ing for natural gas extraction in the Marcellus hale on brook trout populations reveals three key pathways of influence: hy-drological physical and chemical. These pathways originatefrom the various activities associated with the hydraulic frac-turing method of natural gas extraction and may affect brook trout at one or more stages of their life cycle through direct andindirect mechanisms (igure 5. The hydrological pathway isthe broadest in that it is influenced by events at both the surfaceand groundwater levels and subsequently it influences brook

trout both directly through flow regimes and indirectly by alsoinfluencing physical and chemical pathways. The primary drill-ing activity driving the hydrological pathway is the need for source water for the hydraulic fracturing process. The physicalhabitat pathway originates from the infrastructural requirementsof the natural gas extraction industry which can be expectedto increase stream sedimentation and impede brook trout at alllife phases. The consequences of infrastructural developmentfurther impact brook trout populations if road-building activi-ties and poorly designed road-crossing culverts reduce con-nectivity between spawning areas temperature refugia anddownstream habitats. inally the chemical pathway addressesthe potential for contamination of streams by the hydraulic

fracturing fluids and wastewater. This contamination can havedirect consequences for brook trout and their food resources.The hydrological and physical pathways are expected to resultfrom planned (deterministic hydraulic fracturing activities andthe chemical pathway may be triggered by both unplanned spilland leak (probabilistic events as well as planned discharge of treated wastewater into streams or spreading of brines on road-ways.

The delineation of these pathways identifies an array of immediate research priorities. The potential relationships identi-fied in the conceptual model (igure 5 provide a framework of empirical relationships between Marcellus hale drilling activi-ties deterministic pathways and brook trout populations thatneed to be tested and verified. There is currently variation inhydraulic fracturing density within the Marcellus hale rangingfrom extensive operations in ennsylvania and est irginia toa moratorium on the process in New York. Opportunities existfor researchers to develop studies that verify potential relation-ships between drilling activities and brook trout populationssuch as examining sediment impacts and brook trout responsesacross watersheds representing a range of well densities (En-trekin et al. 2011 or over time in watersheds with increasinglevels of drilling activity. Correlative studies should also be



confirmed through experimental approaches that take advantageof paired watershed or before–after control-impact (ownes etal. 2002 designs. Tiered spatial analysis techniques can be usedto assess the cumulative impacts of persistent drilling activitywithin nested drainage areas at a range of spatial scales (Bolstadand wank 1997; Maconald 2000; trager et al. 2009. Addi-tionally risk assessment analyses based on biological endpointsare needed to characterize impacts of probabilistic events suchas chemical spills and leaks (EA 1998; arr and Chu 1997.

MOVING FROM RESEARCH TO

MANAGEMENT AND CONSERVATION

POLICY

Management of hydraulic fracturing activities in the Mar-cellus hale is the responsibility of various permitting regulatoryagencies with various scales of influence including statewide(departments of environmental conservation/protection depart-ments of transportation fish and game commissions etc. andregional (conservation districts river basin commissions etc.entities. Though the individual policies are too numerous to de-scribe in depth here it is apparent that policies can be devel-oped and refined with the support of research and monitoring

programs that provide crucial data such as a geographicallyfiner scale understanding of brook trout distribution and popula-tion status seasonal flow requirements for brook trout at their various life stages (igure 6 identification and prioritizationof high-quality habitat and verification of the potential drill-ing impacts within the Marcellus hale. These types of dataare necessary for revising existing policies and developing new

policies that are protective of brook trout populations and thestream ecosystems that support them in the face of increasedMarcellus hale drilling activities.

An example of science influencing policy that is protectiveof brook trout habitat is the current and proposed water with-drawal policies for the usquehanna iver Basin. The BCgoverns water withdrawal permitting for the usquehanna iver Basin region and its policies have the potential to influence thedegree to which hydrologic impacts of Marcellus hale drill-ing may influence brook trout populations (BC 2002. TheBC currently enforces minimum flow criteria for water with-drawals for hydraulic fracturing in coldwater trout streams to

prevent low-flow impacts (ahm and iha 2012. The BCrequires that water withdrawals must stop when stream flow atwithdrawal sites falls below predetermined passby flows andcease until acceptable flow returns for 48 h. or small streams(<100 mile2 passby flows are determined based on instreamflow models (enslinger et al. 1998 and are designed to pre-vent more than 5 to 15 change in trout habitat depending onthe amount of trout biomass the stream supports. A more gen-eral 25 average daily flow requirement is used as the passbyflow for larger coldwater trout streams (BC 2002. This

policy is expected to prevent water withdrawals from impact-ing habitats during low flows in summer. owever analyses of hypothetical withdrawals within the range of proposed water withdrawal permits suggest that water needs associated withMarcellus hale drilling will impact seasonal flow needs (not

just summer low flow of small streams likely to support brook trout (ehilip and Moberg 2010; ahm and iha 2012. Addi-tionally multiple upstream withdrawal events occurring on thesame day within the same catchment may culminate in streamflows falling below the passby flow requirement. Though thereis considerable uncertainty around water withdrawal estimatesaccounting for cumulative withdrawal-induced low-flow effectscan increase the number of days that are expected to fall below

passby requirements for smaller streams by as much as approxi-

mately 100 days within an average year (ahm and iha 2012.Consequently the BC has released new proposed low-flow

protection regulations for public comment (BC 2012b2012c based primarily on recommendations from a coopera-tive project between The Nature Conservancy staff from theBC and its member jurisdictions (ehillip and Moberg2010. The proposed BC flow policy uses a tiered approachto flow protection that prevents withdrawals or puts more strin-gent requirements in extremely sensitive or exceptional qualitystreams such as small headwater streams that support reproduc-ing brook trout populations (BC 2012b 2012c. This pro-

posed policy would also provide significant flow protection for

trout streams by incorporating seasonal or monthly flow vari-ability into passby flow criteria rather than based on a singleaverage daily flow criterion (ichter et al. 2011; igure 6 andassessing proposed withdrawal impacts within the context of cumulative flow reductions associated with existing upstreamwithdrawals (ahm and iha 2012. owever the BC’s

proposed policy has received considerable critique from stake-holders including the natural gas industry (BC 2012a. t isunclear what protections a revised water withdrawal policy will

provide to streams that support brook trout habitat.

The BC policy is only one example of a regulatory bodyusing scientific data to improve and refine a management policy

that directly relates to potential drilling impacts on trout popula-tions. t is crucial that policies governing hydraulic fracturingactivities be likewise dynamic and subject to adaptation basedon updated scientific knowledge. or example the ennsylva-nia Oil and Gas Operators Manual provides technical guidancefor infrastructure development by identifying best management

practices for sediment and erosion control and well pad road pipeline and stream-crossing designs and delineates preventa-tive waste-handling procedures to avoid unexpected probabilis-tic events like spills and runoff (AE 2001. These practicesshould be amended and updated as new studies refine methodsto minimize impacts (e.g. eid et al. 2004 and strategically

protect or restore habitat quality or connectivity (e.g. oplar-effers et al. 2009. urthermore water quality data from moni-toring efforts like T’s Coldwater Conservation Corps (one of many stream survey programs that train and equip volunteersto conduct water quality testing in local streams; T 2012 canalert regulatory agencies to failures in the probabilistic event

prevention strategies that may help better characterize risksand improve waste transport and disposal procedures. or ex-

pansion of drilling in new areas such as into New York tateregulatory agencies including the New York tate epartmentof Environmental Conservation (NYEC which is currentlyevaluating potential impacts of hydrologic fracturing activities



and developing a corresponding set of proposed regulations(NYEC 2011 should utilize the most up-to-date and com-

plete scientific data possible from active monitoring efforts todevelop best management practices that are optimally protectiveof natural flow regimes habitat conditions and water quality inhigh-quality streams.

patial analysis and visualization of well density (igure4 can be combined with refined understanding of brook trout

habitat and population status from stream surveys and ground-truthing to prioritize and geographically focus conservation ef-forts. Currently the ennsylvania ish and Boat Commission’snassessed aters rogram in conjunction with Trout nlim-ited and other partner organizations is conducting intensive as-sessments of streams with unknown brook trout status: to datethis program has identified an additional 99 streams that sup-

port wild populations (eisberg 2011. imilar efforts are beingspearheaded in New York by the NYEC and T (2011.urthermore the efficacy of regulatory policy can be bolstered

by data from monitoring and research efforts that define high-est priority watersheds for conservation of brook trout. ari-

ous trout-focused organizations have identified key watershedsfor protection and restoration. Trout nlimited has updatedtheir existing Conservation uccess ndex (. E. illiams et al.2007 with a targeted analysis for ennsylvania to integrate newdata on brook trout streams and natural gas drilling threats (T2011b. ikewise the EBT has identified an extensive set of action strategies that identify priorities on a state-by-state basis(EBT 2011. esults from these types of analyses can be usedto identify and direct conservation efforts to key areas whereMarcellus hale drilling activities are likely to have the greatestimpacts by disturbing habitat for the highest quality remaining

brook trout populations.

n summary expedient efforts to develop strategies thatminimize negative impacts of Marcellus hale drilling activi-ties on brook trout habitat are needed. orizontal drilling andhydraulic fracturing for natural gas extraction is likely to in-crease and expand from ennsylvania and est irginia intounexploited areas with growing pressure related to economicincentives from the oil and gas industry and the need for cheapdomestic energy sources. Natural gas drilling is expected to per-sist in the region for several decades due to the extent of theMarcellus hale natural gas resource and the presence of thegas-rich tica hale below it (. illiams 2008. Consequentlydevelopment of adequate management and conservation strate-gies based on science and enforcement of policies that conserveand protect stream ecosystems supporting brook trout popula-tions and other aquatic organisms are needed to balance energyneeds and economic incentives with environmental and brook trout conservation concerns.

$&.12:/('*0(176

e thank Bill isher for his encouragement and support for this project. Alex Alexiades Christian erry T. . oss ellyobinson and Geoff Groocock reviewed earlier versions of themanuscript and provided comments on the conceptual model.

Tara Moberg provided helpful comments on the hydrology sec-tion. arah ox and three anonymous reviewers provided help-ful suggestions that greatly improved this article. Mark udygraciously supplied G coverages of predicted brook trout pop-ulation status. Alessandro arsi and Miles uo took the cover

photographs.

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