impact of contaminants on groundwater quality in patcham, south east england

Journal of Environment and Earth Science

ISSN 2224-3216 (Paper) ISSN 2225

Vol. 3, No.4, 2013

Impact of contaminants on groundwater quality in Patcham,

Egbuna Chukwuemeka Kingsley

1. Department of Civil Engineering,

2. Department of Geology, University of Brig

* E-mail of the corresponding author:

Abstract

This paper investigated the impact o

groundwater in Patcham, South-East England. Data, obtained from the Campbell scientific weather station

installed in the Patcham catchment and Schlumberger Water Services (SWS), were used to i

mechanism and potential contaminant flow paths through the Chalk unsat

deployed in three boreholes present within the catchment. Laboratory and analytical techniques such as Raman

spectroscopy, Hach Spectrophotometer and YSI Multimeter equipped with Ion selective electrode were used to

investigate the influence of these contaminates on groundwater flow chemistry and quality from the seven

boreholes sites was studied. This research used the data obtained f

the field to analyse and examine the quality trend observing for major environmental pollutants. Results showed

that all the water parameters analysed were within the WHO guideline values, thus indicating that the

this area is quite safe for usage.

Keywords: Contaminants, groundwater, Chalk, water table, water chemistry

1. Introduction

Groundwater is a great natural resource. It is estimated that universally, over 2 billion people depend mainly on

groundwater for their daily need (Chaplin, 2001; Kemper, 2004: Egbuna and Duvbiama, 2013). Majority of the

world’s industries as well as large number of world’s agriculture and irrigation mostly depend on groundwater.

In regions like Tunisia, with prominent dry

agricultural development is widely considered (Ravi

groundwater to life. Groundwater is known to usually have a suitable quality (Nola

Egbuna, 2012) although depending on the hydrological condition it may also be of poor condition.

The Chalk aquifer is an important source of water in North West Europe, particularly in the United Kingdom,

Belgium, North of France and Germany. In south east of England, the Chalk aquifer provides about 40% of all

potable water and about 80% of total water (Pinault

of UK groundwater-abstracted drinking water (Howden

60% of the chalk aquifer recharge are extracted and used as water supply in the UK. However, the sustainability

of groundwater reduces by the day all over the world, problems of depletion due to use without

salinization and pollution or other human activities affects groundwater. In a study by Lunzhang (1994) in the

Henan province of China, results showed a decline of 0.75

monitoring the water table from 358 observation wells in approximately 2million hectares of irrigated lands.

Chalk aquifers are usually karstic in nature, which means that they contain holes otherwise known as swallow

(sink) holes that may allow infiltration of surface pollutants

factors such as increasing population and development, personal water consumption increase, impacts of

pollution (hydrocarbon) and climate change have put the groundwater from the English chalk aquifer under gre

pressure (Edmunds, 2008). Figure 1 shows the outcrop of the UK chalk aquifer

The chalk has proven to be a good aquifer due its porosity and permeability, but the karstic nature of it makes it

quite easy for surface contaminants to infiltrate into the a

in nature, this solubility makes possible the presence of features in a chalk such as solution pipes, swallow holes

and also sink holes. These are surface features that appear as subsidence sinkholes

extend to depths. Studies carried out have confirmed the existence of such features and are characterized by the

dry valley uplands rather than forming surface streams from rainwater (Edmonds, 2008). Thus, this paper aims to

investigate the impact of contaminants on groundwater flow chemistry and the quality of groundwater in the

Patcham Catchment, UK.

2. Study Area

Patcham, the study area is situated in the City of Brighton and Hove, East Sussex, South East England. Patcham


3216 (Paper) ISSN 2225-0948 (Online)

55


South East England.

Egbuna Chukwuemeka Kingsley1*

Musa Abba Jato2

Department of Civil Engineering, University of Bristol, United Kingdom

Department of Geology, University of Brighton, United Kingdom

mail of the corresponding author: [email protected]

This paper investigated the impact of contaminants on groundwater flow chemistry and the quality of

East England. Data, obtained from the Campbell scientific weather station

installed in the Patcham catchment and Schlumberger Water Services (SWS), were used to i

mechanism and potential contaminant flow paths through the Chalk unsaturated zone. CTD Divers were also


trophotometer and YSI Multimeter equipped with Ion selective electrode were used to


boreholes sites was studied. This research used the data obtained from the loggers and samples collected from


that all the water parameters analysed were within the WHO guideline values, thus indicating that the

Contaminants, groundwater, Chalk, water table, water chemistry


ater for their daily need (Chaplin, 2001; Kemper, 2004: Egbuna and Duvbiama, 2013). Majority of the


In regions like Tunisia, with prominent dry season, groundwater is used as a primary source of irrigation in

agricultural development is widely considered (Ravi et al., 2009). This further illustrates the necessity of

groundwater to life. Groundwater is known to usually have a suitable quality (Nola et al.



and Germany. In south east of England, the Chalk aquifer provides about 40% of all

potable water and about 80% of total water (Pinault et al., 2005; Brouyere, 2006). The Chalk also provides 55%

abstracted drinking water (Howden et al., 2004). Aldrich (2006) further expressed that about


of groundwater reduces by the day all over the world, problems of depletion due to use without


Henan province of China, results showed a decline of 0.75-3.68m from 1975-1987 of the water table, after

from 358 observation wells in approximately 2million hectares of irrigated lands.


(sink) holes that may allow infiltration of surface pollutants having contaminants in them. However, recent


pollution (hydrocarbon) and climate change have put the groundwater from the English chalk aquifer under gre

pressure (Edmunds, 2008). Figure 1 shows the outcrop of the UK chalk aquifer


quite easy for surface contaminants to infiltrate into the aquifer. Chalk is a carbonate rock and therefore soluble


and also sink holes. These are surface features that appear as subsidence sinkholes or pipe like features that



stigate the impact of contaminants on groundwater flow chemistry and the quality of groundwater in the


www.iiste.org


[email protected]

f contaminants on groundwater flow chemistry and the quality of

East England. Data, obtained from the Campbell scientific weather station

installed in the Patcham catchment and Schlumberger Water Services (SWS), were used to investigate recharge

urated zone. CTD Divers were also


trophotometer and YSI Multimeter equipped with Ion selective electrode were used to


rom the loggers and samples collected from


that all the water parameters analysed were within the WHO guideline values, thus indicating that the water in


ater for their daily need (Chaplin, 2001; Kemper, 2004: Egbuna and Duvbiama, 2013). Majority of the


season, groundwater is used as a primary source of irrigation in

., 2009). This further illustrates the necessity of

et al., 2008: Louis and



and Germany. In south east of England, the Chalk aquifer provides about 40% of all

., 2005; Brouyere, 2006). The Chalk also provides 55%

Aldrich (2006) further expressed that about


of groundwater reduces by the day all over the world, problems of depletion due to use without replacement,


1987 of the water table, after

from 358 observation wells in approximately 2million hectares of irrigated lands.


having contaminants in them. However, recent


pollution (hydrocarbon) and climate change have put the groundwater from the English chalk aquifer under great


quifer. Chalk is a carbonate rock and therefore soluble


or pipe like features that



stigate the impact of contaminants on groundwater flow chemistry and the quality of groundwater in the




Vol. 3, No.4, 2013

is approximately about 4.5km north of the city centre; the A27 road bounds it to the north, with Hollingbury to

the East, Withdean to the south and the Brighton mainline to the West. The A23 road passes through Patcham.

Figure 2 is a map of the Patcham catchme

where samples for this project work where collected.

The UK chalk aquifer is cretaceous in age and covers a wide extent of England. Starting from Yorkshire up north

moving down the east coast through Lincolnshire and to East Anglia, turning south westwards, forming the

Chiltern Hills and moving west to Wiltshire. Dipping in the direction south east, if forms the anticlinal flexure

with a simple rise through north Hampshire and North Down

the anticline. The chalk then continues to the west with a southward dip until Dorset (Edmonds, 2008).

2.1 Geology of the Area

A geological map of the study area (Patcham) displayed a complex geology (fol

3 shows the geologic map of the Patcham catchment.

The geology of South East England is characterized by Chalk forming its aquifer, which has a dual porosity

(matrix and fracture). Surface pollutants can easily be transp

Patcham, a highway (A23) passes through the borehole

possible for hydrocarbon runoff to the groundwater due to the nature of the aquifer.

3. Methodology

Records of evapotranspiration, conductivity, rainfall fluxes and water table depth all contributed to the

monitoring of the influence of these contaminates on groundwater. Data, obtained from a Campbell scientific

weather station installed in the study

investigate recharge mechanism and potential contaminant flow paths through the Chalk unsaturated zone. CTD

Divers were also deployed in three boreholes present within the catchment (i.e. North

and Pyecoomb East).

Using laboratory and analytical techniques such as Raman spectroscopy, Hach Spectrophotometer and YSI

Multimeter equipped with Ion selective electrode were used to investigate the influence of these contaminates

groundwater flow chemistry and quality from the seven boreholes sites was studied.

3.1 Data Collection and sampling

Data collection included visits to borehole monitoring sites where samples of water was collected from each of

the seven sites of monitoring boreholes available within the Patcham catchment area.

Pressure transducers are present within all the monitoring boreholes. They were used to monitor changes in the

water table of the boreholes; they were quite sensitive and also show rapid response

the variation levels in groundwater and the data obtained was stored using data logger for long periods of time.

The techniques used in sampling included; using a bladder pump and flow through a cell and a bailer. A bailer is

hollow equipment used for collecting water samples from monitoring wells. Water samples were collected in a

plastic container, using a marker to give each separate sample its label.

These borehole monitoring sites within the Patcham catchment are: Preston Pa

North Heath Barn, Casterbridge farm, Pyecomb old rec, and Pyecombe east. Data were collected on the 9

2012.

In three of the boreholes within Patcham, (North Heath Barn, Preston Park and Pyecoomb East), a CTD

data logger was placed which recorded data for conductivity, temperature and depth over long periods of time.

Penman-Monotieth equation and YSI multimeter amongst other methods was used in the process. The multimeter

is a hand-held field meter that measu

4. RESULTS

4.1 Water level and Conductivity of North Heath Barn borehole

Chalk of the North Heath Barn borehole is predominantly white in colour. It is a monitoring site with 70m

August unsaturated zone. The installed diver in the North Heath Barn borehole was used to generate data on the

conductivity and water depth (level). This was plotted against date (Figure 4) in order to identify depth of

recharge and plausible compositional change in

In Figure 4, it can be observed that the water depth gradually rose from mid

maximum value of 70.54m bgl. A steep decline is observed between ending December and mid

values as low as 68.51m bgl. Conductivity in the North Heath Barn borehole shows a rather uniform distribution



56

pproximately about 4.5km north of the city centre; the A27 road bounds it to the north, with Hollingbury to


Figure 2 is a map of the Patcham catchment showing locations of monitoring boreholes available within the area

where samples for this project work where collected.


coast through Lincolnshire and to East Anglia, turning south westwards, forming the


with a simple rise through north Hampshire and North Downs. South Downs is located on the southern limb of


A geological map of the study area (Patcham) displayed a complex geology (folds and faults) of the area. Figure

3 shows the geologic map of the Patcham catchment.


(matrix and fracture). Surface pollutants can easily be transported through the fracture to the water at ease. In

Patcham, a highway (A23) passes through the borehole-monitoring sites which are available, thus making it

possible for hydrocarbon runoff to the groundwater due to the nature of the aquifer.



weather station installed in the study catchment and Schlumberger Water Services (SWS), were used to


Divers were also deployed in three boreholes present within the catchment (i.e. North Heath Barn, Preston Park


Multimeter equipped with Ion selective electrode were used to investigate the influence of these contaminates

groundwater flow chemistry and quality from the seven boreholes sites was studied.


oring boreholes available within the Patcham catchment area.


water table of the boreholes; they were quite sensitive and also show rapid response. They were used to record



llow equipment used for collecting water samples from monitoring wells. Water samples were collected in a

plastic container, using a marker to give each separate sample its label.

These borehole monitoring sites within the Patcham catchment are: Preston Park, Lower Standean, North Bottom,

North Heath Barn, Casterbridge farm, Pyecomb old rec, and Pyecombe east. Data were collected on the 9

In three of the boreholes within Patcham, (North Heath Barn, Preston Park and Pyecoomb East), a CTD


Monotieth equation and YSI multimeter amongst other methods was used in the process. The multimeter

held field meter that measures oxygen, conductivity, salinity and temperature of the water.

4.1 Water level and Conductivity of North Heath Barn borehole


aturated zone. The installed diver in the North Heath Barn borehole was used to generate data on the


recharge and plausible compositional change in the water entering the Chalk aquifer.

In Figure 4, it can be observed that the water depth gradually rose from mid-June to mid

maximum value of 70.54m bgl. A steep decline is observed between ending December and mid

low as 68.51m bgl. Conductivity in the North Heath Barn borehole shows a rather uniform distribution

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pproximately about 4.5km north of the city centre; the A27 road bounds it to the north, with Hollingbury to


nt showing locations of monitoring boreholes available within the area


coast through Lincolnshire and to East Anglia, turning south westwards, forming the


s. South Downs is located on the southern limb of


ds and faults) of the area. Figure


orted through the fracture to the water at ease. In

monitoring sites which are available, thus making it



catchment and Schlumberger Water Services (SWS), were used to


Heath Barn, Preston Park


Multimeter equipped with Ion selective electrode were used to investigate the influence of these contaminates on



. They were used to record



llow equipment used for collecting water samples from monitoring wells. Water samples were collected in a

rk, Lower Standean, North Bottom,

North Heath Barn, Casterbridge farm, Pyecomb old rec, and Pyecombe east. Data were collected on the 9th

March

In three of the boreholes within Patcham, (North Heath Barn, Preston Park and Pyecoomb East), a CTD- Diver


Monotieth equation and YSI multimeter amongst other methods was used in the process. The multimeter

res oxygen, conductivity, salinity and temperature of the water.


aturated zone. The installed diver in the North Heath Barn borehole was used to generate data on the


June to mid-October reaching a

maximum value of 70.54m bgl. A steep decline is observed between ending December and mid-January to

low as 68.51m bgl. Conductivity in the North Heath Barn borehole shows a rather uniform distribution



Vol. 3, No.4, 2013

all year round with a few peaks of about 0.398 msie/cm in early August and mid

observed that this value declines to a low of 0

4.2 Water level and Conductivity of Preston Park borehole

Preston Park is an urban site, with the aquifer characterised by white chalk. The borehole monitoring site located

in Preston Park has depth of about 18

divers installed in the borehole of the site (Preston Park) was used to generate data on the conductivity and water

depth (level). This was plotted against date (Figure 5) in order to identify de

composition of the water entering the Chalk aquifer.

From figure 5, it can be seen that the water level has been more or less stable almost all through the year

although there were some major decline from December

Results further showed that conductivity showed abrupt changes, falling rapidly from 0.71msie/cm from ending

June to 0.648msie/cm in the beginning of July. The rise and fall in conductivity continued up until the

August where it fell to o.648msie/cm and had a uniform distribution till the mid of December, where it raised

again to 0.7msie/cm.

4.3 Water level and Conductivity of Pyecoomb East borehole

The pyecoomb east is an effluent dispersal site, dominated

site with 60m August, unsaturated zone.

Figure 6 was plot against date in order to identify depth of recharge and possible compositional change in the

water entering the Chalk aquifer, using data collec

plotted in the Figure 6 above shows a continuous increase throughout the year from 56.82m bgl in June to about

57.1m bgl in March. The conductivity in the borehole shows an irregular distributi

from June at (0.73msie/cm) through to mid

mid-august (0.73msie/cm) to September (0.78msie/cm), thereafter a uniform distribution is being observed

throughout the rest of the year.

4.4 Evapotranspiration and Rainfall influx of the boreholes

The new climatic station installed at the North Heath Barn borehole allowed for accurate calculation of the

evapotranspiration, while the rainfall data collected from the borehole a

three boreholes as they are within the same area. A plot of evapotranspiration and rainfall influx against date

(Figure 7) is important in establishing the rate of contaminant movement from CUZ to CSZ (i.e. groundwat

Also aquifer recharge rate can also be postulated from this plot.

From figure 7, it can be observed that the distribution of evapotranspiration is highly inconsistent. The

evapotranspiration initially peaked at about 4.7mm and falls to a minimum valu

increasing to a late peak value of 2.5mm. Unlike evapotranspiration, rainfall influx within the same period as

recorded from the borehole showed a more even distribution characterised with series of sharp peaks. The

maximum-recorded rainfall data over the distribution is 25mm with a record low of 0.5mm. Clearly, it can be

observed that rainfall influx rate is predominantly greater in quantity than evapotranspiration rate in the

borehole.

4.5 Subsurface Element Concentration data

To effectively categorise the type and extent of contamination of groundwater within the study areas,

concentration of some contaminants measured in the three boreholes are plotted against date. This is necessary in

an attempt to determine the trend of contamination in the boreholes as regards to seasonal variation. Firstly, we

present World Health Organisation (WHO) standard for element concentration in groundwater (Table 1).

4.5.1 Contaminants concentration in the North Heath Barn borehole

Concentration of contaminants in the groundwater of the North Heath Barn borehole was plotted against the date

to ascertain whether these limits are within the specified WHO specification presented in table 1.

From the graph, it can be observed that ammoniu

the given period. Chlorine concentration in the borehole was first recorded in June and can be seen to be evenly

distributed hereafter. Average Cl concentration is 13 mg/L, this is within the WHO spe

groundwater (see Table 1). Nitrate concentration in January of 2011 begins at 3 mg/L. However, a steady

increase in nitrate concentration is observed as we approach April, until a record high of 23.5 mg/L (figure 8).

This projection begins to decline steeply to almost 3 mg/L in early June. Hereafter, nitrate concentration



57

all year round with a few peaks of about 0.398 msie/cm in early August and mid-January. However, it can be

observed that this value declines to a low of 0.377msie/cm in February and March.

4.2 Water level and Conductivity of Preston Park borehole


in Preston Park has depth of about 18-20m August unsaturated zone. A plot made from data collected by the


depth (level). This was plotted against date (Figure 5) in order to identify depth of recharge and likely change in

composition of the water entering the Chalk aquifer.


although there were some major decline from December- February dropping from 23m to about 18m bgl.


June to 0.648msie/cm in the beginning of July. The rise and fall in conductivity continued up until the


4.3 Water level and Conductivity of Pyecoomb East borehole

The pyecoomb east is an effluent dispersal site, dominated by Grey Chalk formation. It is a borehole monitoring

site with 60m August, unsaturated zone.


water entering the Chalk aquifer, using data collecting from installed divers. The water level in the borehole as


57.1m bgl in March. The conductivity in the borehole shows an irregular distribution, displaying a drop starting

from June at (0.73msie/cm) through to mid-August (0.71msie/cm). A steady increase is observed between

august (0.73msie/cm) to September (0.78msie/cm), thereafter a uniform distribution is being observed

4.4 Evapotranspiration and Rainfall influx of the boreholes


evapotranspiration, while the rainfall data collected from the borehole at North Heath Barn was used for all the


(Figure 7) is important in establishing the rate of contaminant movement from CUZ to CSZ (i.e. groundwat

Also aquifer recharge rate can also be postulated from this plot.


evapotranspiration initially peaked at about 4.7mm and falls to a minimum value of 0.3mm before gradually



rded rainfall data over the distribution is 25mm with a record low of 0.5mm. Clearly, it can be


4.5 Subsurface Element Concentration data on the Chalk



e trend of contamination in the boreholes as regards to seasonal variation. Firstly, we


4.5.1 Contaminants concentration in the North Heath Barn borehole

oncentration of contaminants in the groundwater of the North Heath Barn borehole was plotted against the date


From the graph, it can be observed that ammonium concentration was very low and unpronounced throughout


distributed hereafter. Average Cl concentration is 13 mg/L, this is within the WHO spe



egins to decline steeply to almost 3 mg/L in early June. Hereafter, nitrate concentration

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January. However, it can be


ust unsaturated zone. A plot made from data collected by the


pth of recharge and likely change in


uary dropping from 23m to about 18m bgl.


June to 0.648msie/cm in the beginning of July. The rise and fall in conductivity continued up until the mid of


by Grey Chalk formation. It is a borehole monitoring


ting from installed divers. The water level in the borehole as


on, displaying a drop starting

August (0.71msie/cm). A steady increase is observed between

august (0.73msie/cm) to September (0.78msie/cm), thereafter a uniform distribution is being observed


t North Heath Barn was used for all the


(Figure 7) is important in establishing the rate of contaminant movement from CUZ to CSZ (i.e. groundwater).


e of 0.3mm before gradually



rded rainfall data over the distribution is 25mm with a record low of 0.5mm. Clearly, it can be




e trend of contamination in the boreholes as regards to seasonal variation. Firstly, we


oncentration of contaminants in the groundwater of the North Heath Barn borehole was plotted against the date


m concentration was very low and unpronounced throughout


distributed hereafter. Average Cl concentration is 13 mg/L, this is within the WHO specified limit of Cl in



egins to decline steeply to almost 3 mg/L in early June. Hereafter, nitrate concentration



Vol. 3, No.4, 2013

increases again to about 9 mg/L in early October before a gradual decline is seen to occur.

Dissolved oxygen concentration can be said to be averagely distributed thr

slightly above 10 mg/L. Nitrite concentration begins at 14.5 mg/L (this is it highest value throughout the given

period). A sharp decline is seen until a recorded value of 6 mg/L in mid

fluctuates until a steady concentration of 5 mg/L is reached through September to January before a gradually

declines to 3 mg/L is finally observed (figure 8). Phosphate, Sulfate and TOC concentrations all occur below 2

mg/L, with the TOC showing more of irregular distribution than phosphate and sulphate (which are generally

below 0.6 mg/L).

From the above analysis, it could be seen that all the parameters analysed for were within the WHO guideline

values, thus indicating that the water in this area

4.5.2 Contaminants concentration in the Preston Park borehole

Contaminants concentration in the groundwater within the Preston Park borehole is plotted against date to obtain

whether these limits are within the specified WHO speci

From figure 9, it could be seen that chlorine concentration was not detected throughout the whole year. It was

detected starting from May with concentration of about 9 mg/l, with maximum concentrations of Chlorine seen

in the month of August and September both at 15 mg/l which falls below the WHO specified limit of Cl in

groundwater. Nitrate concentration displays a low concentration from the beginning with the lowest at 0.2 mg/L

in February, with a sharp rise reaching the hi

Dissolved oxygen, sulphate, phosphate and TOC all have concentration lower than the WHO specified limit,

although TOC shows a sudden rise in January of 2012 to about 16 mg/L.

It could also be seen from the above analysis, that all the parameters analysed for were within the WHO

guideline values, thus indicating that the water in this area is quite safe for usage.

4.5.3 Contaminants concentration in Pyecoomb East Borehole

Contaminants concentration in the groundwater within the Pyecoomb East borehole is plotted against date to

obtain whether these limits are within the specified WHO specification presented in table 4.1 above. The graph is

shown in figure 10.

Ammonium shows a steady raise reaching a hi

until reaching an average point. Nitrate, dissolved oxygen, chlorine, SO

distribution except for PO4 which shows an inconsistency from the beginning and then a steep

November reaching as high as 9 mg/L before falling to continue at initial level.

From the above analysis of water in this site, it could be seen that all the parameters analysed for were within the

WHO guideline values, thus indicating tha

4.6 Raman Spectroscopy results

This graph shows a plot of intensity against Raman shift in the samples. The Raman spectroscopy results showed

almost similar results but at different peaks. The Raman spectr

to overlap with plastic container lines, giving similar spectra for all the seven samples (Figure 11).

5. DISCUSSIONS

5.1 Hydraulic conductivity

Hydraulic conductivity in the North Heath Barn is relative

monitoring site of about 70m August unsaturated zone. Groundwater depth (level) decreases to a minimum

during winter months of December through to January. Rainfall influx was as well predominantly greater i

quantity and showed less inconsistency than evapotranspiration rate in the borehole. Uniformity of the hydraulic

conductivity is thought to be due to its thick unsaturated zone. In which case the soil and weathered chalk of the

area damped out of the normal recharge signal, storing water and releasing it gradually to the unweathered chalk.

Matric potential increased with depth for unsaturated zone, especially in summer months (Price

Base recharge of the weathered zone is thought to be great

potential sufficiently high that water was not absorbed straight back into the matrix but reached the water table

without being absorbed by the matrix. Hence, explaining the even distribution of conductivity a

recharge even in summer periods (of less rainfall influx). Fracture flow may also contribute to groundwater

recharge but this is rare, since drainage to water table continues year round.

Gallagher et al. (2012) reported that the unsaturated

part of the year. The data from the hydrograph and matric potential showed that the water table responds rapidly

following sudden increases in matric potential above the air entry pressure of fractur

are separated by faults, fractures and marls and are close to saturation, even during summer months. They



58


Dissolved oxygen concentration can be said to be averagely distributed throughout given period, with limits


period). A sharp decline is seen until a recorded value of 6 mg/L in mid-February. Hereafter, nitrite concent



re of irregular distribution than phosphate and sulphate (which are generally


values, thus indicating that the water in this area is quite safe for usage.

4.5.2 Contaminants concentration in the Preston Park borehole


whether these limits are within the specified WHO specification presented in table 1.



e month of August and September both at 15 mg/l which falls below the WHO specified limit of Cl in


in February, with a sharp rise reaching the highest concentrations in 16 mg/L in the month of September.


although TOC shows a sudden rise in January of 2012 to about 16 mg/L.

from the above analysis, that all the parameters analysed for were within the WHO

guideline values, thus indicating that the water in this area is quite safe for usage.

4.5.3 Contaminants concentration in Pyecoomb East Borehole

n the groundwater within the Pyecoomb East borehole is plotted against date to


Ammonium shows a steady raise reaching a high of 83mg/L with a more or insistent up and down movement

until reaching an average point. Nitrate, dissolved oxygen, chlorine, SO4, TOC, NO

which shows an inconsistency from the beginning and then a steep

November reaching as high as 9 mg/L before falling to continue at initial level.


WHO guideline values, thus indicating that the water in this area is quite safe for usage.


almost similar results but at different peaks. The Raman spectroscopy results could not be further interpreted due


Hydraulic conductivity in the North Heath Barn is relatively uniformly distributed all year round. It is a


during winter months of December through to January. Rainfall influx was as well predominantly greater i



mal recharge signal, storing water and releasing it gradually to the unweathered chalk.

Matric potential increased with depth for unsaturated zone, especially in summer months (Price

Base recharge of the weathered zone is thought to be greater than the matric permeability and the matric


without being absorbed by the matrix. Hence, explaining the even distribution of conductivity a


recharge but this is rare, since drainage to water table continues year round.

(2012) reported that the unsaturated zone of North Heath Barn was closely saturated for most


following sudden increases in matric potential above the air entry pressure of fractures and that aquifer blocks


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oughout given period, with limits


February. Hereafter, nitrite concentration



re of irregular distribution than phosphate and sulphate (which are generally





e month of August and September both at 15 mg/l which falls below the WHO specified limit of Cl in


ghest concentrations in 16 mg/L in the month of September.


from the above analysis, that all the parameters analysed for were within the WHO

n the groundwater within the Pyecoomb East borehole is plotted against date to


gh of 83mg/L with a more or insistent up and down movement

2 all display a normal

which shows an inconsistency from the beginning and then a steep raise from 25th



oscopy results could not be further interpreted due


ly uniformly distributed all year round. It is a


during winter months of December through to January. Rainfall influx was as well predominantly greater in



mal recharge signal, storing water and releasing it gradually to the unweathered chalk.

Matric potential increased with depth for unsaturated zone, especially in summer months (Price et al., 1976).

er than the matric permeability and the matric


without being absorbed by the matrix. Hence, explaining the even distribution of conductivity and groundwater


zone of North Heath Barn was closely saturated for most


es and that aquifer blocks




Vol. 3, No.4, 2013

suggested connectivity between the faults, fractures and marl may occur when matric potentials are high and

there is sufficient rainfall input. Hence, water then starts to fill faults and large fractures, allowing rapid

movement of water through the unsaturated zone, maintaining the groundwater recharge year round.

In Preston Park, the borehole is characterized by a slim unsa

the possibility of water rapidly reaching the water table compared to the other two boreholes with a thicker

unsaturated zone. Exertion of pressure from the matric potential is low (as the zone of unsatu

hence mobility of surface water in the unsaturation zone to the saturate zone may occur readily. In summer

months when recharge is less, the matric potential increases causing absorbed water on the Chalk matrix to

percolate further below the water table, maintaining recharge. Due to the thin unsaturation zone, it was believed

that in period of intense and sustained rainfall, flash flooding may occur as depth to water table may become

almost at the surface but this was not anticipated to las

within the aquifer formation may diminish the effect. Zaidman

steeply inclined normal faults approximately every 20 m, including one fault that conta

iron-stained breccia zone, which indicates the movement of water through it.

Pyecoomb East borehole has an unsaturated zone of about 60m. Effluent release and farmland irrigation

contributed to the groundwater recharge, explaining the r

This site had high concentration of nitrate and chlorine when compared to the North Heath Barn. The high

concentration of nitrate and chlorine also further fortify the possibility of groundwater recharg

discharge and farmland washout from irrigation activities.

5.2 Chemical Variation

Several plots were made (Nitrate –

Nitrate – TOC, and Nitrate – Sulphate) to study t

hence infer plausible trend to the source and movement of contaminants. Of the studied boreholes, Pyecombe

East had the highest concentration of Nitrate, Phosphate, Chlorine and Sulphate but the

Total Organic Content (TOC). The borehole at Pyecombe East is an effluent dispersal site with 60m of August

unsaturated zone. Therefore increased mixing of surface effluent recharge with groundwater is thought to be

responsible for the high concentration of these elements in the Chalk aquifer. These concentrations, in most cases,

show steady consistent increase pattern likely arising from seasonal variation.

Organic content concentration of effluent recharge to the groundwater at Pyec

the low TOC concentration in the areas.

The concentration of Nitrate and Chlorine is higher in the Preston park borehole compared to the North Heath

Barn. Preston Park borehole is urban recharge with thin August unsaturat

movement of these elements without having to be absorbed on the weathered chalk matrix. The high

concentrations of these elements suggest an artificial recharge to groundwater from surface urban run

farmland irrigation practices.

Concentration of Phosphate, Sulphate and TOC is higher in the North Heath Barn borehole compared to

observed Preston park borehole. As already mentioned earlier, North Heath Barn is monitoring site with the

thickest August unsaturation zone of

unsaturated zone may dissolve the marl formation causing an increase in the phosphate and sulphate

concentration as groundwater is recharged. Evenly distributed hydraulic conductivi

gradual release of stored water from unweathered Chalk (to sustain the year round recharge) may carry along

organic matter from the Chalk formation, hence describing the high TOC concentration in the North Heath Barn

borehole compared to other studied borehole locations.

Of all the three studied boreholes, Pyecombe East (an effluent dispersal site) show high concentration of all

contaminants except TOC, highest in the North Heath Barn. Artificial recharge in the Preston park boreh

(Urban site) may be responsible for the high concentrations of Chlorine and Nitrate.

6. Conclusion


groundwater in Patcham, South-East England. Groundwa

months of December through to January. Rainfall influx is as well predominantly greater in quantity and shows

less inconsistency than evapotranspiration rate in the borehole. The uniformity of the hydr

thought to be due to the thickness of the unsaturated zone at North Heath Barn and Pyecoomb East. Except for

Preston Park, this has a much thinner unsaturated zone, which may influence the rapid water movement to the

water table.

Chemical variation of the boreholes studied showed the borehole at Pyecoomb East to be more of an effluent



59


ient rainfall input. Hence, water then starts to fill faults and large fractures, allowing rapid


In Preston Park, the borehole is characterized by a slim unsaturated zone of about 20m thick, which may result in


unsaturated zone. Exertion of pressure from the matric potential is low (as the zone of unsatu



he water table, maintaining recharge. Due to the thin unsaturation zone, it was believed


almost at the surface but this was not anticipated to last for a long period, as fracture flow or lateral movement

within the aquifer formation may diminish the effect. Zaidman et al., (1999) working in Yorkshire, identified

steeply inclined normal faults approximately every 20 m, including one fault that conta

stained breccia zone, which indicates the movement of water through it.


contributed to the groundwater recharge, explaining the recharge occurring even period of low rainfall influx.


concentration of nitrate and chlorine also further fortify the possibility of groundwater recharg

discharge and farmland washout from irrigation activities.

Phosphate, Nitrate – Chlorine, Sulphate – Phosphate, Sulphate

Sulphate) to study the chemical variation of elements within the catchment area,


East had the highest concentration of Nitrate, Phosphate, Chlorine and Sulphate but the



e high concentration of these elements in the Chalk aquifer. These concentrations, in most cases,

show steady consistent increase pattern likely arising from seasonal variation.

Organic content concentration of effluent recharge to the groundwater at Pyecombe east was low, thus reflecting

the low TOC concentration in the areas.


Barn. Preston Park borehole is urban recharge with thin August unsaturated zone enhancing more rapid


concentrations of these elements suggest an artificial recharge to groundwater from surface urban run



thickest August unsaturation zone of the three borehole sites. Pyrite oxidation as bypass flow within the thick


concentration as groundwater is recharged. Evenly distributed hydraulic conductivity throughout the year and



pared to other studied borehole locations.


contaminants except TOC, highest in the North Heath Barn. Artificial recharge in the Preston park boreh

(Urban site) may be responsible for the high concentrations of Chlorine and Nitrate.


East England. Groundwater depth (level) decreases to a minimum during winter


less inconsistency than evapotranspiration rate in the borehole. The uniformity of the hydr



ical variation of the boreholes studied showed the borehole at Pyecoomb East to be more of an effluent

www.iiste.org


ient rainfall input. Hence, water then starts to fill faults and large fractures, allowing rapid


turated zone of about 20m thick, which may result in


unsaturated zone. Exertion of pressure from the matric potential is low (as the zone of unsaturation is thin);



he water table, maintaining recharge. Due to the thin unsaturation zone, it was believed


t for a long period, as fracture flow or lateral movement

(1999) working in Yorkshire, identified

steeply inclined normal faults approximately every 20 m, including one fault that contained a 0.5 m thick,


echarge occurring even period of low rainfall influx.


concentration of nitrate and chlorine also further fortify the possibility of groundwater recharge from effluent

Phosphate, Sulphate – Chlorine,

he chemical variation of elements within the catchment area,


East had the highest concentration of Nitrate, Phosphate, Chlorine and Sulphate but the low concentrations of



e high concentration of these elements in the Chalk aquifer. These concentrations, in most cases,

ombe east was low, thus reflecting


ed zone enhancing more rapid


concentrations of these elements suggest an artificial recharge to groundwater from surface urban run-off and



the three borehole sites. Pyrite oxidation as bypass flow within the thick


ty throughout the year and




contaminants except TOC, highest in the North Heath Barn. Artificial recharge in the Preston park borehole


ter depth (level) decreases to a minimum during winter


less inconsistency than evapotranspiration rate in the borehole. The uniformity of the hydraulic conductivity is



ical variation of the boreholes studied showed the borehole at Pyecoomb East to be more of an effluent



Vol. 3, No.4, 2013

dispersal site due to the distribution of nitrate, Sulphate, chloride and Phosphate that has mixed with the

groundwater in the site. Distribution of Phos

derived from farming irrigation carried out in the area, which may have reached the water table through bypass

flow dissolving the marl formation. Artificial recharge of groundwater in the area ma

and Chloride concentrations in the Preston Park borehole.

Results from analysis using Raman Spectroscopy did not in this case yield any useful results but rather

ambiguous. The use of other techniques may yield results of hydroca

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Zaidman, M.D., Middleton, R.T., West

the Chalk in Yorkshire. Quarterly Journal of Engineering Geology,



60


groundwater in the site. Distribution of Phosphate, Sulphate and TOC in the North Heath Barn borehole is


flow dissolving the marl formation. Artificial recharge of groundwater in the area may be the result of Nitrate

and Chloride concentrations in the Preston Park borehole.


ambiguous. The use of other techniques may yield results of hydrocarbon traces from highway runoff.


ndwater Forum meeting “Planning for sustainable groundwater resources: something got to give”. Natur

History Museum, London, 30 March 2006.

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, 2008. Improved groundwater vulnerability mapping for the Karstic Chalk aquifer of south

, 99:95-108.

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. Journal. Civil Eng. Urban. 3(1): 25-28. 2013


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the underground water in an equatorial area in Cameroun (Central Africa): The importance of some

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phate, Sulphate and TOC in the North Heath Barn borehole is


y be the result of Nitrate


rbon traces from highway runoff.


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East of England. J. Civil


a): The importance of some

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size measurements and their significance Water Services,


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water quality: Water Sanitation Health. World Health Organization. Fourth

Geophysical Investigation of unsaturated zone transport in



Vol. 3, No.4, 2013

Table 1: The World Health Organisation

Substance

Chloride

Total Dissolved Solids

Nitrate

Nitrite

Sulfate

Ammonium

Phosphate

Figure 1: Showing outcrop of the UK chalk aquifer (Edmonds, 2008)



61

World Health Organisation guideline value standard for various elements

WHO guideline values

250 mg/L

Total Dissolved Solids 500 mg/L

50 mg/L

1 mg/L

250 mg/L

Ammonium 0.1 mg/L

0.015 mg/L


www.iiste.org

standard for various elements (WHO, 2011)

WHO guideline values




Vol. 3, No.4, 2013

Figure 2: Map showing monitoring boreholes within Patcham catchment (CLIMAWAT 2011)

Figure 3



62

: Map showing monitoring boreholes within Patcham catchment (CLIMAWAT 2011)

Figure 3: Geologic map of Patcham (CLIMAWAT, 2011)

www.iiste.org

: Map showing monitoring boreholes within Patcham catchment (CLIMAWAT 2011)



Vol. 3, No.4, 2013

Figure 4: Conductivity –

Figure 5: Conductivity

67

67.5

68

68.5

69

69.5

70

70.5

71

Wa

ter

Lev

el

(m b

gl)

Water Level (m bgl) and Conductivity (msie/cm) plot

0

5

10

15

20

25

Wa

ter

Lev

el

(m b

gl)

Water level (m bgl) and Coductivity (msie/com) against time (days)



63

– Water depth plot against date in the North Heath Barn borehole.

: Conductivity – Water depth plot against date in the Preston Park borehole.

0.365

0.37

0.375

0.38

0.385

0.39

0.395

0.4

Co

nd

uct

ivit

y (

msi

e/c

m)

Days

Water Level (m bgl) and Conductivity (msie/cm) plot

0.6

0.62

0.64

0.66

0.68

0.7

0.72

Co

nd

uct

ivit

y (

msi

e/c

m)

Time (days)


plot

www.iiste.org

Water depth plot against date in the North Heath Barn borehole.

ter depth plot against date in the Preston Park borehole.

Water Level

Conductivity


Water Level

Conductivity



Vol. 3, No.4, 2013

Figure 6: Conductivity

Figure 7: Evapotranspiration

56.6556.7

56.7556.8

56.8556.9

56.9557

57.0557.1

57.15

Wa

ter

Lev

el

(m b

gl)

Water Level (m bgl) and Conductivity (msie/cm) against Time

0

1

2

3

4

5

40

70

8.5

40

71

9

40

73

0

40

74

1

40

75

2

40

76

3

40

77

4

40

78

5

Ev

ap

otr

an

spir

ati

on

(m

m)

Evapotranspiration (mm) and Rainfall (mm) against date (days)



64

Figure 6: Conductivity – Water depth plot against date in Pyecoomb East borehole.

: Evapotranspiration – Rainfall influx plot against date

0.64

0.66

0.68

0.7

0.72

0.74

0.76

0.78

0.8

Co

nd

uct

ivit

y (

msi

e/c

m)

Time (days)


(days) plot

40

79

6

40

80

7

40

81

8

40

82

9

40

84

0

40

85

1

40

86

2

40

87

3

40

88

4

40

89

5

40

90

6

40

91

7

40

92

8

40

93

9

40

95

0

40

96

1

40

97

2

Date (days)


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Water depth plot against date in Pyecoomb East borehole.


Water level

Conductivity

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

40

97

2

40

98

3

40

99

4

41

00

5

Ra

infa

ll (

mm

)




Vol. 3, No.4, 2013

Figure 8: Element concentration


0

5

10

15

20

25

20

/01

/20

11

00

:00

20

/02

/20

11

00

:00

20

/03

/20

11

00

:00

20

/04

/20

11

00

:00

20

/05

/20

11

00

:00

20

/06

/20

11

00

:00

Co

nce

ntr

ati

on

(m

g/l

)Concentration (mg/l)

05

101520253035404550

Co

nce

ntr

ati

on

(m

g/l

)

Concentration (mg/l) against Time (days) plot



65

: Element concentration – date plot of North Heath Barn Borehole

Figure 9: Element concentration – date plot of Preston Park Borehole.

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

18

20

/06

/20

11

00

:00

20

/07

/20

11

00

:00

20

/08

/20

11

00

:00

20

/09

/20

11

00

:00

20

/10

/20

11

00

:00

20

/11

/20

11

00

:00

20

/12

/20

11

00

:00

20

/01

/20

12

00

:00

20

/02

/20

12

00

:00

Co

nce

ntr

ati

on

(m

g/l

)

Time (days)

Concentration (mg/l) - Time (days) plot

Ammonium

Chlorine

Nitrate

Dissolved Oxygen

NO2

PO4

SO4

TOC

024681012141618

Co

nce

ntr

ati

on

(m

g/l

)

Time (days)

Concentration (mg/l) against Time (days) plot

Chlorine

NO2

SO4

TOC

Ammonium

Nitrate

Dissolved Oxygen

PO4

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of North Heath Barn Borehole

date plot of Preston Park Borehole.

Ammonium

Chlorine

Nitrate

Dissolved Oxygen

NO2

PO4

SO4

TOC

Chlorine

NO2

SO4

TOC

Ammonium

Nitrate

Dissolved Oxygen

PO4



Vol. 3, No.4, 2013


Figure 11: Raman spectra for samples from Patcham catchment.

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

20

/11

/20

10

…

21

/11

/20

10

…

22

/11

/20

10

…

23

/11

/20

10

…

24

/11

/20

10

…

25

/11

/20

10

…

Co

nce

ntr

ati

on

(m

g/l

)Concentration (mg/l) against Time (Days) plot



66

: Element concentration – date plot of Pyecoomb East Borehole

Figure 11: Raman spectra for samples from Patcham catchment.

0

2

4

6

8

10

25

/11

/20

10

…

26

/11

/20

10

…

27

/11

/20

10

…

28

/11

/20

10

…

29

/11

/20

10

…

30

/11

/20

10

…

01

/12

/20

10

…

02

/12

/20

10

…

03

/12

/20

10

…

04

/12

/20

10

…

Co

nce

ntr

ati

on

(m

g/l

)

Time (days)

Concentration (mg/l) against Time (Days) plot

www.iiste.org

date plot of Pyecoomb East Borehole

Ammonium

Nitrate

Dissolved Oxygen

Chlorine

PO4

SO4

NO2

TOC

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