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This chapter provides knowledge items for the following NFPA Standard 472 requirements. For more detail, see the Knowledge Correlations on p. xxxvi.

Operations

5.2.3

5.3.4

5.4.1

5.4.4

5.5.1

5.5.2

PPE

6.2.3

6.2.4

6.2.5

6.6.1

6.6.3

6.6.4

6.8.3

Edited by Jason Emery

Implementing the Planned Response to a Hazmat/WMD Incident

FirEFightEr iImplementing the Planned Response to a Hazmat/W

MD Incident

OBJECtiVESUpon completion of the chapter, you should be able to do the following:

■ Identify the items that should be addressed in a safety briefing for personnel operating at the scene of a hazmat/WMD incident.

■ Describe the safety precautions the entry team should take during a hazmat/WMD incident.

■ Identify the limitations of personnel operating in personal protective equipment (PPE).

■ Demonstrate the ability to don and doff PPE as issued by the authority having jurisdiction (AHJ).

■ Describe and demonstrate the different types of defensive control operations available to operations-level personnel.

■ Identify the most appropriate defensive control operation for a hazmat/WMD situation.

■ Describe how to properly evaluate the progress of the planned response. ■ Identify the different ways that a responder can become contaminated at

an incident. ■ Demonstrate the ability to perform emergency decontamination on

an individual.

iNtrODUCtiON

The final phase of the hazmat incident involves implementing the response objec-tives outlined in the planning phase. As these operations are taking place, scene

safety and the safety of response personnel are both of the utmost importance. Operations-level responders should never conduct operations that exceed their level of training and available equipment. During this phase, the incident commander (IC) needs to constantly evaluate the progress of ongoing operations and determine if the response objectives are being met. If the response is not successful, tactics must be modified accordingly. In addition, decontamination procedures must be imple-mented to prevent contamination outside of the hot zone.

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784 FirE ENgiNEEriNg’S hANDBOOK FOr FirEFightEr i & ii

SCENE SAFEtYScene safety is a critical aspect to any emergency response, and a hazardous materials incident is no excep-tion. It is crucial that the response plan include measures that promote the safety of all response personnel. All responders should be advised of these measures to ensure compliance.

Safety briefingThe initial safety briefing should evaluate what has occurred thus far as well as assess current conditions and what is likely to occur (fig. 25–1). The briefing should list the associated hazards, such as mechanical, respira-tory, or skin absorption dangers.

Fig. 25–1. The initial safety briefing should evaluate what has occurred thus far and assess current conditions and what is likely to occur.

Following the incident, each responder should be briefed on the hazards involved with the product and give the information in a written format after the response is completed. Included should be any signs or symptoms of exposure to the product. The information should be maintained in each responder’s medical records.

The safety briefing should include the following descrip-tion of the site:

• Containers involved

• Topographical information

• Potential exposures

• Location of the control zones

• Location of the decontamination area

• Location of the command post

• Location of medical assistance area

Responders should utilize a map or sketch of the area to gain a better knowledge of the area’s layout.

The safety briefing should review the tasks to be performed at the scene. This includes identifying the goal of the operation, describing each responder’s duties, and determining task completion times. The briefing should also identify PPE requirements, including the requirements for entry, backup, and rescue teams, as well as decon personnel. Additionally, identification of monitoring requirements should also be presented. Communication protocols and contacts for emergency situations, escape routes, and precautions at incidents involving criminal or terrorist activities are also covered.

In the event of a terrorist incident or other criminal activities, responders should be reminded of the poten-tial for secondary devices, armed resistance, booby traps, the use of weapons, and secondary contamination from the treatment of patients.

Entry team safetyThe entry team is responsible for carrying out the response objectives as previously determined by the IC. They can be assigned to duties such as information gathering or defensive or offensive operations, depending on their level of training, available equipment, and the needs of the IC.

Buddy system and backup personnel. First responders should always use the buddy system when operating at a hazmat incident (fig. 25–2). In-depth or time-consuming tasks may require additional assistance to complete.

Fig. 25–2. First responders should always use the buddy system when operating at a hazmat incident.

The buddy system keeps an accurate count of responders operating at the scene. In addition, chemical protective suits reduce mobility and visibility, requiring multiple personnel to complete necessary tasks.

Chapter 25 — implementing the Planned response to a hazmat/WMD incident 785FirEFightEr i

Chapter 25Implementing the Planned Response to a Hazmat/W

MD Incident

Backup personnel are crucial for emergencies involving entry personnel, especially because conditions can deteriorate quickly and unexpectedly. According to the two-in/two-out requirement found in the Occupational Health and Safety Administration’s (OSHA) 1910.134 standard, there must be a backup team standing by whenever a team makes an entry. Backup teams should have identical PPE to the initial team’s and should be suited up to the point where all they have to do is go on air. Backup teams must be in place before the primary team begins operations, and the team must be available for immediate response (fig. 25–3).

Fig. 25–3. The backup team must be available for immediate response.

Safety precautions to consider. When approaching the scene, the first responder at a hazmat incident must remember that the approach should be from the uphill/upwind side. Use binoculars and metering equipment (fig. 25–4) to assess the situation from a safe distance. The first responder should also be familiar with the topography before entry and should avoid all contact with the material.

Fig. 25–4. Use metering equipment to assess the situation.

During the initial response to the scene, consider the following:

• Response routes

• Potential human exposures and their proximity to the incident

• Water supply locations

• Access to the scene

• Wind direction

While working at the scene, additional factors to consider are current and expected weather conditions, the location of utilities, container integrity, behavior of the material, and appropriate PPE for the material. Also, if the product is venting or on fire, look to see if the conditions are getting worse, maintaining, or improving. In addition, responders should observe potential sources of ignition such as:

• Lighting equipment

• Chemical reactions

• Electric motors and controllers

• Open flames

• Cutting or welding operations

• Smoking materials

• Portable heating equipment

• Radios, flashlights, personal alert safety system (PASS) devices

• Fuel-powered equipment

• Sparks caused by static electricity or friction

• Flares

• Heated metal surfaces

• Internal combustion engines

• Lightning

• Radiant heat

In addition to the concepts discussed above, while using PPE, hazmat responders should also do the following:

• Complete a full safety check on the responder’s PPE and SCBA prior to making entry.

• While working in PPE, avoid contact with hazardous material. Operations-level personnel


should not be operating in an environment where contact with the material could potentially occur, since they are only allowed to conduct defensive operations.

• Maintain a strict situational awareness and avoid contact with sharp objects and other hazards that could cause a tear or breach in the PPE.

As mentioned previously, the use of the buddy system and a backup team is also a key component in ensuring the safety of entry personnel.

EMErgENCY PrOCEDUrES WhEN WOrKiNg iN PPEIn the event that entry personnel experience a failure in their PPE, the most important thing they can do is stay calm. The responder must keep a clear head in order to make sound decisions. There are several issues that can arise when working in PPE, such as loss of communica-tions, a medical or other incapacitating emergency, loss of air supply, or a failure in the integrity of the suit.

In the event of a loss of communication with your partner and/or the entry supervisor, the best plan is to have an alternate form of communication, such as hand signals, prearranged. These signals will allow the entry personnel to indicate their status to one another and to other personnel if they are in visual range. This can be something as simple as a thumbs up to indicate everything is okay or a thumbs down to indicate a problem.

If a medical or other incapacitating event occurs to an entry member, the backup team would be activated to assist his or her buddy in the timely removal of the member from the area and to get them access to medical care. Depending on the severity of the problem, it may require emergency decontamination and immediate care. In the event of a cardiac arrest, it may be necessary to start lifesaving measures before decontamination has been fully completed in order to give the responder the best chance for survival.

As in a structural fire, the loss of air supply can be a major emergency and can be the result of anything from simply running out of air to a failure in the equip-ment. The immediate response should be to begin to move out of the area and toward a less contaminated location or directly to the decon area. At the same time

the safety officer or entry leader should be notified that an emergency has been declared. Entry personnel should never attempt to remove their suits, as it would expose them to the contaminants. In the event that the member is wearing a suit where the SCBA is worn on the inside, if possible, remove the regulator from the face mask and breathe the available but limited air supply inside the suit while making an exit from the area.

If there is a failure in the suit’s integrity, the responder should exit the area immediately with his or her partner by moving toward the decon location or a less contaminated area. As with any air supply problem, this also requires the immediate notification of the safety officers or entry group supervisor. Deter-mine the extent of the damage and potential level of contamination while attempting to seal the breach with a hand or other available resources to limit the contamination. Do not remove the facepiece until suit removal and decontamination of the responder can be accomplished.

Working in PPEResponders working in PPE need to understand both their limitations and the limitations of their equipment. Additionally, it is important that they are familiar with proper donning and doffing procedures, as well as how to maintain the PPE.

Limitations of personnel using PPE. First responders must know and understand their own limita-tions and that of their protective equipment. Limita-tions of the wearer may be physical, mental, or medical.

Physical limitations. To maximize the amount of working time in PPE and SCBA, the wearer must be in good physical condition. The more work that needs to be accomplished, the greater the demands placed on the body. The use of this equipment may restrict the movement of the wearer, causing agility and balance limitations, as well as reducing dexterity and the ability to see (fig. 25–5). Finally, facial features may affect the first responder’s ability to get a good seal with the SCBA mask.



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Fig. 25–5. Use of PPE reduces the wearer’s dexterity and ability to see. (Courtesy of Pullman FD)

Psychological limitations. Persons wearing PPE and respiratory protection should be able to handle themselves in a hostile and high-stress environment. First responders must have confidence in their ability to perform the necessary actions. Responders should also have the proper training and understand every aspect of their PPE. It should be noted that some individuals who are claustrophobic may not be able to wear a mask. The level of experience a responder has can also be a psycho-logical limitation. Suit or respiratory protection failures can also present psychological challenges.

Medical limitations. Medical limitations can include wearers’ muscular/skeletal condition as well as the condi-tion of their cardiovascular and respiratory systems. The bodies of those who are in better physical condition will be strained less by the use of positive-pressure SCBA than those who are out of shape.

OSHA 1910.134 requires that any individual who is assigned a task requiring SCBA be medically cleared to wear the SCBA. A responder’s medical history should be reviewed, and a physical exam (fig. 25–6) must be administered prior to being cleared to use SCBA. In addition, a fit test of the face mask is required.

Fig. 25–6. A medical exam needs to be completed before responders are allowed to wear PPE and SCBA.

Donning and doffing of PPE. Responders must be completely familiar with PPE donning and doffing procedures as dictated by their department standard operating procedures (SOPs) and manufacturer’s recom-mendations. Different types of PPE may have different donning and doffing methods. Before any operations-level responder is allowed to participate in an actual hazmat response, he or she must have practical experi-ence donning, doffing, and working in the PPE provided by the department (fig. 25–7).

Fig. 25–7. Responders must have practical experience donning, doffing, and working in the PPE provided by the department.

Documentation of PPE usage. Following the use of PPE at a hazmat incident, the operations-level responder needs to complete the reporting and documentation requirements set forth by department SOPs and the local emergency response plan. Depending on local require-


ments, this can include a description of the actions that were performed, any problems or issues experienced with the PPE, any potential contamination that occurred, and decon measures performed on the PPE. Additionally, the final disposition of the PPE should be noted. For example, was it cleaned, inspected, and placed back in service, removed from service for repairs, or discarded? Local procedures may dictate that additional informa-tion is collected.

PrODUCt CONtrOL (DEFENSiVE) OPErAtiONSThe efforts of firefighters to contain the release of a hazardous material are intended to minimize environ-mental effects by confining the spill to the smallest possible area for later removal by commercial cleanup contractors. As with all other activities during these types of incidents, the safety of firefighters is vital, and those performing these tasks must make every effort to avoid contact with any hazardous material involved.

Hazardous materials can migrate from an incident scene. Spilled liquids move downhill where the product can then enter storm drains or other bodies of water; vapors from spilled liquids and dust from finely ground spilled solids move from the scene by air currents. Remember, anything used to contain a hazardous material must be compatible, meaning that the containment barrier cannot react with the hazardous material, which could produce dangerous fumes or perhaps even a fire. Another word of caution: avoid any contact with spilled hazardous materials during containment efforts.

Product control optionsDefensive control methods are used to contain or confine a spill. These actions should be undertaken only if it is possible to perform the tasks without contacting the material. All responders must be wearing the appro-priate PPE for the hazard. Responders need to be able to identify the purpose for and the procedures, equip-ment, and safety precautions associated with each of the following control techniques.

Absorption. Absorption is the physical process of absorbing or “picking up” a liquid product spill (fig. 25–8). In this process the liquid enters the interior of the absorbent material used and is trapped in that product. It is most effective on spills less than 55 gal

(208 L). Some absorbent materials can be used for liquid spills on both land and water. Booms and pads may be used to absorb materials on the surface of water. The absorbent material should be spread on top of the product or in the direction of its travel.

The following materials can be used for absorption:

• Dirt

• Sawdust

• Absorbent pads

• Socks

• Booms

• Speedy dry

• Absorbent particulate

• Pans

• Pillows

• Charcoal

• Kitty litter

• Product-specific absorbents

Fig. 25–8. Using absorbent materials to “pick up” a fluid spill

The first responder should consider the compatibility of the absorbent with the spilled product. For example, spreading sawdust on an oxidizer could result in a fire. The properties of different absorbent materials vary, and they are not necessarily interchangeable.

It is important to understand what types of liquids will be absorbed by the absorbent material being used. Some will not pick up water, whereas others will pick up any liquid they come in contact with. This information is helpful when determining what is needed to soak up



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an oil spill in a lake or stream. Because it is considered hazardous waste, the first responder must ensure that the absorbent material and the product is disposed of in accordance with environmental regulations.

The absorption method should not be confused with adsorption, which is when one material adheres to the outside of another.

Adsorption. Adsorption is the chemical process by which the spilled product adheres to the surface of the sorbent. The absorbent must be compatible with the spilled product.

Because the process of adsorption is a chemical reaction, it can produce of large amounts of heat.

Confinement—diking. Diking is the process of constructing a land-based barrier that controls the movement of liquid hazardous material. Dikes prevent movement of materials into areas where they can cause greater damage. They are constructed by forming an embankment. Construction should begin at the point farthest away from the spill and work back to the spill (fig. 25–9). The responder should ensure that it is far enough away from the spill that it can be completed before the material reaches it. Dikes can be constructed of materials available on site such as dirt, sand, clay, and other materials that may be found on the incident scene. There are two types of dikes commonly used to capture and control product releases:

• The V-dike captures released material by using the small end of the V as the collection point.

• The circle dike is used as a secondary containment to capture a released material that escapes or overflows the V-dike. It is a berm that is placed 360 degrees around a leaking container. It does not form a perfect circle but rather an enclosure for the product.

Fig. 25–9. A circle dike

Confinement—damming. Damming is the process of constructing a barrier intended to slow or stop the flow of liquid into the environment. A dam or line dam can be constructed of any materials available that could prevent a liquid from moving down an incline. They are typically built in ditches, streams, or creeks. Addition-ally, dams may be used to act as accumulation points where product can be collected for cleanup. Overflow and underflow dams are used when constructing a dam in moving water.

Overflow damming. Overflow dams should be constructed from materials with a specific gravity greater than 1. Hazardous materials with a specific gravity greater than 1 will sink in water and will be trapped against the base of the overflow dam. The pipes at the top of the dam allow the water that remains on top to flow freely over the dam (fig. 25–10). Pipes used in overflow dams should be a minimum of 4 in. in diameter.

Fig. 25–10. An overflow dam

Underflow damming. Underflow dams should be used for materials with a specific gravity lower than 1. Hazardous materials that have a specific gravity lower than 1 will float on water and will be trapped against the top of the overflow dam. The pipes at the bottom of the dam allow the water at the base of the dam to flow freely (fig. 25–11). Because most spilled hazardous materials float on water, this type of dam is most commonly used.

Fig. 25–11. An underflow dam

The following materials may be used to construct dams:

• Dirt or sand

• Pipes

When using pipes, note that they should have at least a 4-in. (100-mm) diameter. If the water flow is larger, it


may be necessary to use either a larger pipe or multiple pipes. The responder should place enough pipes to cover two-thirds of the waterway. Hard suction can be used in an emergency.

Confinement—diverting. Diverting is channeling spilled materials into a containment area to an area where it poses less harm. It can be used on both land and water. A spill on land can be diverted by building a barrier made out of a material such as dirt, ahead of the spill. A spill on water can be diverted using booms to channel the material into an area where it can be absorbed or collected. Diverting allows the product to be directed to an area where it will cause less harm. For example, it may prevent a product from flowing down a storm drain (fig. 25–12).

Fig. 25–12. Spills can be diverted around an endangered area such as a storm drain using a diversion barrier.

The first responder should consider the angle and speed of the flow when constructing a diversion barrier. When dealing with fast moving spills, the barrier should be set up at an angle of no less than 60 degrees in order to be effective. As with dikes and dams, a diversion barrier should be placed far enough ahead of the spill so that it can be completed prior to the arrival of the material. This may require that some intermediate area between the spill and the barrier be sacrificed. Diversion barrier are generally built using the same materials as dikes.

Confinement—retention. Retention or containment can be broken down into two methods based on whether the physical state of the product is liquid or solid.

Liquid. When containing a liquid spill into water, booms are most commonly used. Booms are long tubular devices that float on top of the water and provide either a barrier or barrier/absorption (fig. 25–13).

Fig. 25–13. An absorbent boom

Absorbent booms are made from various materials that can collect compatible materials released during a spill.

Retention or barrier booms are constructed of nonpo-rous materials that float on the water and have a curtain extending below the surface to hold the product in place. The product is then removed using either absorbent pads or other manual devices, or it is vacuumed up by a cleanup contractor.

Solids. When containing spills of solid materials, the method most often used is covering the product. This involves placing tarps over the material to prevent movement. Movement may be caused by weather condi-tions such as wind and rain or by personnel walking through the product.

Dilution. Dilution reduces the concentration of the material to a nonhazardous or less hazardous state (fig. 25–14). This method has few practical applica-tions at a hazmat incident, especially for first responders. This process can be used when dealing with small acid or base spills. There are disadvantages to using this method. Dilution is more likely to increase the volume of the product and create a runoff problem. It may also weaken the original product but not eliminate the hazard. In addition, fuels, oils, and other hydrocar-bons are not water-soluble and cannot be diluted with water. Finally, this method should not be used on water-reactive materials.



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Fig. 25–14. Dilution reduces the concentration of the material to a nonhazardous or less hazardous state.

Vapor dispersion. By moving gases or vapors using vapor dispersion, the hazard and concentration of the product are reduced, while firefighters are able to work from a safe distance. Vapor dispersion uses water spray to direct hazardous vapors away from a certain area (fig. 25–15). The turbulence created by the stream mixes up the air and reduces the material’s concentration. Fans may also be used to prevent fewer problems with runoff and chemical incompatibility with water. However, fans should not be used with flammable materials unless a unit such as a water-driven positive-pressure fan can be used to reduce the risk of ignition. To be effective, the material must be water soluble or the vapor cloud must be moveable. Be sure to disperse the vapors into an area where they will not cause more harm.

Fig. 25–15. Firefighters dispersing a propane vapor cloud

When using this technique, first responders should confine the runoff and analyze it for contamination. When applying this technique to flammable vapors, such as LP gases, be aware that reducing the concentra-

tion in air may bring it into its flammable rage. Vapor dispersion is usually used to remove gases that are heavier than air from low-lying or enclosed areas. It is usually not a recommended practice except in life- threatening situations.

The first responder must know the identity of the product before using this tactic. Lighter-than-air vapors, which would normally dissipate on their own, may be knocked down by water spray.

Water-soluble materials such as anhydrous ammonia, when mixed with water, may produce another substance that could be dangerous. For example, anhydrous ammonia when mixed with water produces ammonium hydroxide, which is a corrosive liquid.

Vapor suppression. Vapor suppression is the reduction or elimination of vapors produced by a spilled hazardous material. Firefighting foams are effective when used on flammable or combustible liquids (fig. 25–16). This method significantly reduces the hazards associated with uncontrolled vapors. The selection of the proper foam for vapor suppression is an important decision. Trans-portation and industrial accidents, or even a mishap at the local high school, can result in a flammable liquid or hazardous vapor incident.

Fig. 25–16. Foam being applied to a combustible liquid

Foam extinguishes flammable and combustible liquid fires and protects liquid spills from ignition in four ways:

• Removes the air from the flammable vapors

• Minimizes or eliminates vapor release from fuel surface

• Provides a barrier between the flame and the fuel surface

• Cools the fuel surface and surrounding surfaces


The following are common types of foams used in hazardous materials applications:

• Aqueous film-forming foam (AFFF)

• Fluoroprotein

• High-expansion foam

Additional foam types are addressed in chapter 31, Advanced Fire Attack.

The following factors must be considered prior to using foam:

• The product must be compatible with the type of foam being used (water-reactive chemicals cause adverse reactions).

• Personnel should not walk through or disturb the foam blanket after it has been applied and established.

• After the foam is applied, monitor the integrity of the foam blanket.

Types of foamAqueous film-forming foam (AFFF). AFFF forms a thin layer of foam that floats on the surface of the fuel (fig. 25–17). It is a synthetically produced, detergent-based foam. There are several advantages to using AFFF:

• Extremely rapid knockdown

• Long shelf life

• Easy to foam and can be used with nonaspirating nozzles

• Self-healing foam blanket

Fig. 25–17. Aqueous film-forming foam (AFFF)

Among the disadvantages of AFFF include:

• Less overall burn-back resistance than fluoroprotein foam

• Effectiveness depends on the proper formation of an aqueous film

AFFF is self-healing after being disrupted and has good viscosity at low temperatures. It can also be purchased in an alcohol-resistant formula for use on alcohols and polar solvents.

Fluoroprotein foams. Although fluoroprotein foams are designed for hydrocarbon fires, protein foams can be formulated to be alcohol resistant by adding an additional mixture of materials. However, they gener-ally only maintain their alcohol-resistant properties for about 15 minutes. Fluoroprotein foam can be injected into the base of a burning storage tank and be allowed to rise to the surface and extinguish the fire. This procedure is known as subsurface injection.

Fluoroprotein foam has the following advantages:

• Reasonably compatible with dry chemical extinguishing agents

• Better burn-back resistance than AFFF

• Not dependent on film formation

• Good fuel-shedding properties

• Nontoxic and biodegradable

Fluoroprotein foam has the following disadvantages:

• Does not provide as quick a knockdown as AFFF

• Requires aeration

• Not film-forming

This foam type is not affected by freezing and thawing and can be mixed with either fresh or salt water. In addition, fluoroprotein foams can be stored in tempera-tures ranging from 20°F (–7°C) to 120°F (49°C).

High-expansion foams. High-expansion foams are special-purpose foams with a detergent base. They are characterized by low water content and have poor heat resistance.

This type of foam is used for:

• Pesticide fires

• Suppression of fuming acid vapors

• Firefighting operations in confined spaces

Using high-expansion foam as a vapor suppression tool offers the following advantages:

• Good for use in basement fires or enclosed areas



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• Low proportioning rate in conjunction with high-expansion ratios allow for large quantities of foam to be produced with a minimum amount of concentrate

• Not affected by freezing and thawing

High-expansion foams have the following disadvantages:

• Limited use on Class B fires because the thermal updraft causes difficulties in the formation of a thick blanket

• Does not heal itself when disrupted

• Generally not recommended for the outdoors because the foam blanket tends to blow off easily in the wind

Foam production. Foam is a specific agent for a specific type of material. As such, it must be used properly. Proportioning or mixing the right amount of foam concentrate with the right amount of water and air at the right pressure results in good quality foam. Foam is not just a collection of bubbles; it is a specific mix of concentrate, water, and air. It is also critical that there are sufficient quantities of foam concentrate to extinguish the fire and secure the spill.

Proper proportioning is important. If there is not enough concentrate in the finished foam, the overall quality and effectiveness will decrease. It may not extinguish the fire as expected, heat resistance decreases, and burnback resistance decreases.

If your finished foam has too much concentrate in it, foam will not flow around debris and obstacles. Additionally, limited foam concentrate will be depleted rapidly, not allowing enough for complete extinguish-ment and reapplication as necessary.

A common type of foam proportioning and delivery system is called an inline eductor (fig. 25–18). The eductor uses the venturi principle to pull foam concen-trate from the foam container and mix it with the appropriate amount of water to make foam solution. Inside the eductor there is a restriction in the metering orifice that creates a venturi effect, causing the water to flow faster and creating a lower pressure area in the line, resulting in suction (fig. 25–19). The foam pickup tube is attached to the venturi area of the eductor and goes in the foam bucket. A metering device allows the passage of the correct amount of foam concentrate to enter the hoseline. Determining the appropriate ratio of foam to water depends on the foam being used and

the material it is used on. For example, an alcohol-resis-tant AFFF with a 1%/3% application ratio (fig. 25–20) would require 1% of foam concentrate and 99% water on a hydrocarbon spill and 3% of concentrate and 97% water on an alcohol spill.

Fig. 25–18. Inline foam eductor

Fig. 25–19. The foam process introduces a set percentage of foam concentrate into the water supply and uses a foam nozzle to inject air into the foam solution.

Fig. 25–20. Alcohol resistant AFFF (courtesy of National Foam)

The nozzle is the last step in the foam making process. Here the foam solution is aspirated, and finished foam is produced. The air is entrained in the foam by some type of mechanical means, usually directed at a baffle, or by foam solution streams directed at each other in


the nozzle, then directed down the foam tube and out the end, forming the foam stream (fig. 25–21). The best quality foam blanket is generated with a nozzle designed for foam making and distribution.

Fig. 25–21. Foam nozzle

Application of foam. It is the nozzle operator’s respon-sibility to apply the foam as gently as possible to allow the finished foam to form a cohesive but flowing blanket on the fuel to cover the product, allow the best devel-opment of the film-forming actions (stop vapor produc-tion), and maintain the security to prevent ignition. When applying foam, the operations-level responder should be familiar with local department SOPs on foam equipment and application methods. Different types of foam use different methods of application. The bank down, roll-on, and rainfall techniques are methods of applying foam. Bank-down technique. In this technique, foam is bounced off a wall or object behind the spilled product. The foam then falls onto the hazardous material (fig. 25–22).

Fig. 25–22. Bank-down technique

Roll-on technique. In this technique, foam is applied ahead of the spilled product and gently rolled over it (fig. 25–23).

Fig. 25–23. Roll-on technique

Rainfall technique. In this technique, the foam is sprayed into the air above the product and allowed to rain down upon it (fig. 25–24).

Fig. 25–24. Rainfall technique

For additional information on foam types, compatibility factors, application rates, and methods, consult chapter 31, Advanced Fire Attack.

Remote valve shutoffs. This technique is not typically used by first responders at the operations level, but it is the best method of controlling spills for a limited number of situations. This process requires the firefighter, either manually or through engineering control methods (hydraulic, pneumatic, or mechanical), to stop the physical flow of product from a valve. This is done from a remote area, not at the leak. This should only be attempted if the responder will not be polaced in the hot zone and there is no danger of coming in contact with the material. This method will require the firefighter



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to interact with either the driver or facility personnel to determine where the control for the valve may be and what is the safest method to accomplish the task. Do not open or close any valve without understanding its implications.

Emergency shutoffs—transportation. There are three types of emergency shutoffs valves: mechanical, hydraulic, and pneumatic. Closing a mechanical valve closes all internal valves within 30 seconds of activa-tion. Mechanical valves are constructed with corrosion-resistant cables and handles. Closing a hydraulic or pneumatic valve closes all internal valves when a loss of hydraulic or pneumatic pressure occurs. This typically operates off the tractor’s system via a pigtail. Emergency shutoffs are usually well marked and located in easy-to-find areas. The shutoff valves are typically found behind the driver’s side of the cab or near the control valves.

Figures 25–25, 25–26, and 25–27 are examples of shutoff valve locations on common trailers:

Fig. 25–25. Emergency shutoff in an MC306/DOT406

Fig. 25–26. Emergency shutoff in an MC307/DOT407

a

bFig. 25–27. Emergency shutoff in an MC331


Remote valve shutoffs—fixed facilities. Remote shutoff valves in fixed facilities are generally found in facilities with loading and unloading areas (fig. 25–28). They may be located near the entrance to provide easy access to emergency responders. Consult with facility personnel to determine the location. During facility preplans, the responder should look for remote shutoff valves and mark them on a site map.

Fig. 25–28. Remote shutoff valves are generally found in facilities with loading or unloading areas.

EVALUAtiNg PrOgrESSAs responders implement the tactics selected to meet the objectives of the emergency response, it is important that they evaluate the progress of their efforts. Without this continual evaluation process, it is impossible to determine if objectives are met.

Evaluating progressWhen evaluating the progress to determine if the response is effective, the first responder should ask if the situation is stabilizing or worsening. If the situation is stabilizing, then the operations as implemented should be continued. If the situation is becoming worse, the action plan should be reviewed, and potential alternative approaches to the situation should be determined.

Throughout the emergency response, the responder should constantly be addressing the effectiveness of the response. Changing conditions may require a change in tactics to mitigate the incident. For example, the leak may become larger, the weather conditions may deteriorate, or responders may be injured (fig. 25–29). The action of emergency responders should be leading toward the ultimate goal of life safety, incident stabiliza-tion, and property conservation.

Fig. 25–29. An injured responder would require a change in the action plan.

Communicating the status of the responseThe first responder should follow predetermined communications protocols to keep other parties informed about the response progress. The chain of command should be used to relay information, and dispatch must be kept appraised of the current situation. If possible, the transfer of critical information to the next level should be done face to face for the most effective communication of the situation.

First responders should be familiar with local emergency communications procedures as outlined in the organi-zation’s SOPs. For example, the SOP may require emergency communications message or tones, blasts on the appropriate air horn, or other predetermined methods. In an emergency situation where the situa-tion becomes critical and personnel are threatened, the chain of command does not need to be followed. The first responder should avoid all delays in notifying the incident commander of an emergency situation.

Withdrawing from an incidentIt may be necessary to remove responders from the incident area if conditions are too dangerous. For example, withdrawal may be necessary if the incident is beyond an operations-level response, there is imminent danger of explosion or boiling liquid expanding vapor explo-sion (BLEVE), or other potential for massive container failure exists. Keeping responders in the immediate area of a hazmat incident when there is nothing that can be accomplished serves no useful purpose. The incident commander needs to apply a risk-versus-benefit approach when determining whether operations should be allowed to continue or be suspended or modified.



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Additionally, responders become contaminated by the following actions:

• Walking through a spill

• Touching the material

• Coming in contact with a vapor cloud

Among the basic methods of controlling the spread of contamination is setting up hot, warm, and cold control zones (fig. 25–31). People or equipment should not leave the hot zone without first being decontaminated. Access to control zones should be restricted. All contaminated items and clothing should be properly decontaminated or bagged and disposed of. The first responder should control all runoff from decon operations. If the release is indoors, the first responder should shut down HVAC systems to prevent other portions of the building from becoming contaminated.

When dealing with radioactive materials, in addition to the previously noted methods, the first responder should employ radiation detection equipment to monitor all personnel and equipment leaving the decontami-nation area.

Fig. 25–31. Control zones are set up to prevent the spread of contamination.

DECONtAMiNAtiONDecontamination is a process of removing or neutral-izing contaminants that have accumulated on personnel, equipment, and the environment (fig. 25–30). Decon-tamination protects responders from agents that may contaminate and permeate the protective clothing, SCBA, tools, apparatus, and other equipment used at the incident. It protects all on-scene responders by minimizing the transfer of harmful materials to clean areas and helps prevent the mixing of incompatible chemicals. It also protects the community by preventing uncontrolled transportation of contaminants from the incident. Decontamination operations can be hindered by the lack of a positive identification of the material, weather conditions, topography, and availability of equipment and trained personnel.

Fig. 25–30. Decontamination is the process of removing contaminants from people or equipment. (Courtesy U.S. Air Force)

Common terms related to decontaminationResponse personnel should understand the following terms and definitions as they relate to contamination concerns and be able to differentiate between them.

Contamination. Contamination is the transfer of a hazardous material out of the hot zone in quantities greater than those deemed acceptable and which pose a risk outside the hot zone. It can be caused by direct contact with the hazardous materials present in the hot zone, tools used by hazmat technicians becoming contaminated, or vehicles driven through a contami-nated area. It can also be the result of the movement of the dusts, particles, gases, vapors, fumes, mists, and runoff of the hazardous material and smoke and products of combustion spreading outside the hot zone.


Secondary contamination. Secondary contamina-tion is the contamination of people, the environment, and equipment outside the hot zone. It results from coming into contact with contaminated personnel, equipment, or property. Done properly, emergency and other decontamination operations prevent secondary contamination.

An example of secondary contamination is a victim of a hazmat incident who is transported to the hospital without proper decontamination. This endangers the EMS personnel and the emergency room staff, possibly resulting in their contamination.

Exposure. Exposure is the process that occurs when people, equipment, or the environment come in contact with a hazardous material. When exposed, a person has been subjected to a hazardous material via any of the various routes of entry into the body. This is different from contamination, in which any quantity of a hazardous material physically remains on people or objects. Exposure to a material does not necessarily cause contamination. For example, you may be exposed to a material in your workplace that meets the threshold-limit value for the time-weighted average (TLV-TWA) for that product. Being contaminated does not necessarily mean that you are exposed. For example, a responder’s PPE may become contaminated at an incident; however, the responder is not exposed to the material unless the PPE fails or he or she is not properly decontaminated.

An exposure’s hazard level depends on the material’s concentration and length of exposure. Spills of a less hazardous substance require greater quantities to reach a harmful exposure level. Spills of extremely hazardous substances may only need a small quantity to cause a harmful exposure level.

Exposure from radiation can be either internal or external. Internal exposure is the introduction of radio-active materials internally to body cells, tissues, and target organs. Internal exposure cannot occur unless the victim has been contaminated. External exposure occurs when all or a part of the body is exposed to radiation from an external source. During an external exposure, the radiation may be absorbed by the body or it may pass totally through.

It is possible to be exposed to radiation but not be contaminated:

• Exposures can occur when a person is subjected to the particles or waves being emitted by the radiation source, without actually touching it.

• Contamination can occur when a gaseous, liquid, or solid radioactive material is released into the environment and deposits on people externally.

• Internal contamination can occur if the material is inhaled, ingested, absorbed through the skin, or injected through wounds.

types of decontaminationDecontamination is the removal of hazardous contami-nants from personnel, equipment, property, and the environment. NFPA Standard 472 indicates three levels of decontamination: emergency decontamination, technical decontamination, and mass decontamination. There is also a fourth that is not mentioned in NFPA 472, which is fine decontamination. The size of the incident determines what types will be used. For a small incident the use of emergency decontamination may be all that is required, whereas large-scale hazardous materials/WMD incidents may require the use of all four types. Decontamination can be grouped into two large catego-ries: wet or dry. Wet decontamination requires the use of some sort of liquid, primarily water. Dry decontami-nation does not require a wetting process. Because most decontaminations are chemical specific, there are no set rules, but at a minimum the firefighter should under-stand the procedures for emergency decontamination. Much of the information pertaining to decontamination is from the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and the chemical industry.

Emergency decontamination. Anyone contaminated at an incident needs to have the hazardous material removed as quickly as possible. Victims include those with dangerous contaminants on them who are in dire need of medical attention, or responders who have been accidentally exposed to the product as a result of chemical PPE failure. This process is essentially a gross decon and typically occurs before technical decon can be established. Any delay in this could have fatal conse-quences. For any type of hazardous materials–related incident, the IC should consider the use of emergency decontamination. In fact, this should be part of the response SOPs.

Emergency decontamination in its simplest form can be hosing down a victim or responder with a fire hose or garden hose, whichever is available (fig. 25–32). Washing down a person with water will usually be suffi-cient for most chemicals that firefighters encounter. The use of water will work as long as the victim’s clothing is removed. In the case of airborne contaminants, allowing



MD Incident

a person to be in a fresh-air environment can be a useful decontamination. During emergency decontamina-tion, minimum protective clothing should include firefighting PPE, SCBA, and chemical protective gloves. In addition, depending on the substance, chemical protective clothing may be warranted.

When using water to remove the contaminants, it is important that every effort be made to control the runoff as soon as possible. There are various ways to accomplish this process. The most basic method is to use fire service salvage tarps and some ladders to create a catchall (fig. 25–33). Another method is to use a small inflatable swimming pool, available at many department stores. These small pools can be carried on the apparatus. Lastly, commercial decontamination pools can be used. Emergency decontamination, however, should not be withheld or delayed while waiting to set up contain-ment. Life safety is the top priority.

Fig. 25–32. Responder preparing to perform emergency decontamination on a patient

Fig. 25–33. A simple catch-all can be made with a ladder and a tarp.

The following procedures should be adhered to during the emergency decontamination process:

1. Remove victim from contaminated area.

2. Wash with flooding quantities of water.

3. Remove all contaminated clothing.

4. Continue to wash the victim.

5. Move victim to an uncontaminated area.

6. Begin first aid procedures.

7. Transport to the hospital as soon as the victim is decontaminated.

8. Advise ambulance and hospital personnel of the contaminant involved.

Some things to consider when performing emergency decontamination include the following:

• Avoid storm drains and any other areas where the environment could be compromised by the contaminants.

• If using safety showers in a facility, find out where the runoff is going. If it is going to the sanitary sewers, find an alternative.

• When removing chemicals that are corrosive in nature, use large amounts of water. Small amounts can cause a reaction with the corrosive.

• Make sure the flushing of water continues for at least 20 minutes when decontaminating corrosives.

Emergency decontamination is limited by the fact that it is considered a “quick fix” and some of the contaminants may not be removed completely. Also, some environ-mental damage may occur from the runoff before it is able to be contained. The need for immediate treat-ment of life-threatening injuries outweighs the potential disadvantages of emergency decontamination.

Technical decontamination. Technical decontamina-tion is a more comprehensive approach to decon than emergency decon and usually consists of a four-stage process. The most important part of the decontamina-tion process is to limit the amount of contamination possible. If responders don’t get dirty, they don’t have an excessive need for decontamination. Properly trained and equipped hazmat responders should avoid puddles and not kneel down or crawl, lie in the product, or put themselves in a position to be showered with chemicals.


When they are approaching the decontamination area, the less product on them, the less danger they are in.

Stage one of decontamination, also called gross decon-tamination, consists of a tool drop and a primary wash to remove the gross contaminants (fig. 25–34). This includes a full outer wash and rinse. Because the entry person is the dirtiest he or she can be at this point, this stage should be solo. This solo wash can be accomplished by a shower, polyvinyl chloride (PVC) washing stalls, a portable stall, or a garden hose.

Fig. 25–34. Step one of a technical decon is designed to remove gross contaminants.

Stage two consists of a full outer wash and rinse (fig. 25–35). This is an assisted wash and rinse using decontamination personnel. This stage should concen-trate on the boots and gloves of the individual. Many times they have received a high level of contamination from walking through or touching the product. With standard firefighting gear, a second wash and rinse are performed. In chemical-protective clothing, a wash and rinse followed by the removal of outer bands, tape, outer gloves, or boots is performed. Remember that a wash and rinse followed by a wash and rinse has proven to be very effective.

Fig. 25–35. Step two is an assisted wash and rinse.

Stage three includes another wash and rinse followed by removal of the protective equipment (fig. 25–36). This is an assisted wash, rinse, and removal of equipment using decontamination personnel. It is important to note that respiratory protection should be the last item removed.

Fig. 25–36. Step three is an additional wash and rinse.

Stage four consists of a full body wash, drying, and dressing of the individual. This may be performed on site or off site. Supplies such as shampoo, soap, scrub brushes,



MD Incident

cotton swabs, gowns, and slippers must be made avail-able to adequately carry out this stage. On-scene medical examination and rehabilitation should be performed (fig. 25–37). An exam will compare vital signs taken before entry to vital signs taken after decontamination. This may be performed on site or off site. If the entry involved the use of chemical-protective clothing, heat stress reduction and hydration of the individual should be a priority.

Record keeping and exposure records should be completed at this time, along with discussion of the future effects of the chemical. Post-exposure discussions should include what to look for if there is a delayed effect of exposure. Incident stress should be discussed. Many of these chemicals may be reproductive toxins or carcin-ogens. There may be psychological stress that needs to be diffused.

Fig. 25–37. Step four includes a full body wash and medical evaluation.

Because decontamination is so equipment- and personnel-intensive, it is imperative that it be practical and practiced. Planning, contingencies, proper equip-ment, and training will prove to be the difference between failure and success. A hazardous material incident is no place to rehearse. All responders need to be familiar with the local emergency response plan and department SOPs as they relate to the technical decon-tamination process.

Mass decontamination. Mass decontaminations would typically be used at a terrorist event dealing with chemical/biological agents. In this type of event it becomes critical to get as many persons decontami-nated as quickly as possible. The window of opportunity for decontamination to make a medical difference with victims is 10–15 minutes. Without decontamination some patients may die. In some cases standard triage

may not apply, as your local resources will dictate which patients may be salvageable. The key to saving lives is quick application of water in flooding quantities at a low pressure. Studies have shown that the use of bleach can actually make the situation worse. Do not delay the application of water. The setup of other equipment can be accomplished later as more resources arrive on the scene. This equipment includes tents, showers, etc.

Plan your decontamination setup to help the masses, specifically the victims that can be saved. Victims who are alive but unable to self-rescue are at the greatest risk. Victims who have removed themselves from the area have started the decontamination process by being in fresh air. Any symptomatic patients need decontamination within 10–15 minutes of contamination. Those, as well as victims who are contaminated, should remove their clothes. Victims who were in the vicinity of the incident and are not contaminated can be held for further evalu-ation at a later time. This may include persons on other floors or in other parts of a building.

Persons should be encouraged to stay in the water for as long as possible; this will be driven by the number of victims and the resources available. As resources arrive, the “bank teller” or “amusement park” line setup should be used to slow the process down and have the victims wait in the water. All persons, whether they are decon-taminated are not, are to be held. They should be herded into separate areas to be further evaluated. Victims who initially are not symptomatic or contaminated can be decontaminated at another location if they so desire. A good location is a school or other building that offers privacy. They should be transported by emergency responders. In the event that they later become symptom-atic, they can be run through the symptomatic line or taken to a facility for decontamination.

Attempts should be made to preserve privacy. Tents can be used as well as tarps. Tarps can be run along apparatus to provide some privacy. Children should stay with one of their parents. In many cases psychological decontamination may need to be performed. These types of victims can be transported to a fixed facility for final decontamination.

When using engine companies to provide water for the decontamination sites, use rear, side, and front discharges. The deck gun/pipe also should be used to create a water curtain. A staffed hoseline should be used at the end of the line after the victims have gone through the water, to further wash the victims off. As more resources arrive, a


soap and water solution can be used to lightly scrub the victims (fig. 25–38a & b).

When possible, attempt to capture the runoff. Realis-tically, however, when confronted with hundreds of patients or in an emergency situation, runoff is a secondary concern to life preservation. If using one of the setups shown here, the amount of water is reducing the agent and in most cases rendering it harmless. The decontamination setups shown here are flowing a consid-erable amount of water, which would quickly cause all of the agents to break down. There would be little damage if the runoff enters the storm drain, as many contami-nants already exist in that type of system.

CONCLUSiONScene safety plays a major role in any emergency response, especially those involving hazardous materials. The use of the buddy system, understanding the limitations of PPE, and being familiar with emergency procedures while working in PPE are all critical components to a safe response. Failure to follow established safety guide-lines can result in unnecessary and potentially dangerous exposure to the product.

During the response, the role of operations-level personnel at a hazmat incident is limited to defensive actions, in which there are several options available to help stabilize the incident. These options are designed to contain the product to the area already exposed in order to minimize potential harm, while at the same time prevent the responder from coming in direct contact with the material. During these operations it is very important to continuously evaluate the progress of the response and keep the incident commander updated. In the event that conditions begin to deteriorate, personnel must be prepared to withdraw from the area.

Decontamination plays a vital role in the prevention of the spread of the released material. Without the proper decontamination of people and equipment there is the potential for secondary contamination throughout the immediate area and beyond. There are several options available to responders based on the circumstances. Emergency decon operations should be conducted any time there is a victim or responder who has been exposed to the product and must be evacuated and treated promptly, whereas technical decon is used to systemati-cally remove contaminants from responder personnel. Lastly, in the event that a large number of people have been exposed, a mass decon operation should be set up to handle the large number of victims.



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a bFig. 25–38. Examples of a) basic and b) advanced mass decontamination plans (after FEMA and Baltimore County FD)


1. What seven items should be covered in the safety briefing regarding the hazardous materials incident site?

i. _______________

ii. _______________

iii. _______________

iv. _______________

v. _______________

vi. _______________

vii. _______________

2. Why is it important to use the buddy system when operating at a hazmat incident?

______________________________________________________________________________

3. What backup communication plan is useful in the event of a loss of communication with a partner or supervisor? ______________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

4. Why is a firefighter’s physical condition important to the effectiveness of working in PPE and SCBA?

______________________________________________________________________________

5. Name five materials that can be used for product absorption.

i. __________________

ii. __________________

iii. __________________

iv. __________________

v. __________________

6. What is the difference between absorption and adsorption?

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

7. What are the two types of dams used for product confinement?

______________________________________________________________________________

QUEStiONS



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8. What are the three common foam types used for hazardous materials applications?

i. ________________

ii. ________________

iii. ________________

9. Describe the differences between the “rain down” and “bank down” techniques of foam application.

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

10. What is “secondary contamination”? __________________________________________________

11. Name three ways internal contamination can occur.

i. ________________

ii. ________________

iii. ________________

12. Describe the difference between emergency and technical decontaminations.

______________________________________________________________________________

13. What are the basic attributes of the four stages of technical decontamination?

Stage 1: ________________________________________________________

Stage 2: ________________________________________________________

Stage 3: ________________________________________________________

Stage 4: ________________________________________________________

14. In a mass decontamination situation, the key to saving lives is quick application of _______________ in _______________ quantities.

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