integrating estuarine, coastal and inner shelf sediment ... · million people are vulnerable to...

Pre-print: French JR, Burningham H, Thornhill G, Nicholls RJ (2016) Integrating estuarine, coastal and inner shelf sediment systems in a common conceptual framework as a basis for participatory shoreline management. In: Meadows M, Lin J-C (eds.) Geomorphology and society. Springer (in press).

1

Integrating estuarine, coastal and inner shelf sediment systems in a commonconceptualframeworkasabasisforparticipatoryshorelinemanagementJonRFrench,HeleneBurningham,GillianDThornhillandRobertJNicholls

AbstractCoastalandestuarinemarginsarehometoanincreasingproportionoftheglobalhumanpopulationanditsactivities.Withinthiscontext,landformsplayacriticalroleinmediatingthetranslationoferosionandflood risk to human receptors in environmental settings that are vulnerable to the likely impacts ofclimatechange.Predictinghowcoastalandestuarinelandformswillevolveinresponsetochangesinsealevel and wave climate is thus of considerable importance. This is naturally a modelling problem butpreviouseffortshaveoftenfailedtotranslategenericprinciplesintomodelsthatdojusticetotheplace-specific interactions between contemporary processes, antecedent geology, sea level history, historicalmorphology,engineeringinterventionsand,notleast,broadersocietalconcerns.Progressclearlyrequiresbetter models but, as we argue here, more sophisticated conceptual frameworks are also needed.Accordingly,weoutlineanewCoastalandEstuarineSystemMapping(CESM)approachthatcapturestheconfigurationofestuarine,coastalandinnershelf landformcomplexeswithinaunifyingframeworkthatalso explicitly resolves the multitude of human interventions that influence shoreline change. Anillustrative application to the Suffolk coast of eastern England demonstrates the potential of CESM toencourage a more participatory approach to regional shoreline management and the application ofscientificunderstandingtothechallengeoflivingwithhumanandclimatechangeimpactsatthecoast.

Keywords:Coastalgeomorphology,systemstheory,ontology,conceptualmodel,coastalmanagement1.IntroductionCoastal and estuarine margins are home to an increasing proportion of the global humanpopulation and its activities (McGranahan et al. 2007; Lichter et al. 2011) and that over 200millionpeoplearevulnerabletoannualfloodingduringstormsandsurges(Nicholls2011).Theattendantpotentialforlossanddamagetohumanlivesandassetsduetoerosion,stormsurges,extremewavesandtsunamismeansthatcoasts,inthewidestsenseoftheterm,constituteoneof the riskiest environments (Kron 2013). In the 21st century, the challenge of continuing tomanagetheserisks isexacerbatedbytheprospectofasignificant increase indamagecostsasthe effects of widespread erosion and progressive inundation due to sediment deficits andsubsidencecombinewithclimatechangeimpactsonsea-levelandcoastalwaveclimate.Thereislittlerealisticprospectofmitigatingtherateofclimate-drivensea-levelriseoverdecadalscalesgiven the substantial inertia of the coupled atmosphere, cryosphere and oceans (Nichols andLowe2004), and theprospect that annual coastal flooddamage costs alone couldpotentiallyamounttobetween0.3and9.3%ofglobalGDPby2100(Hinkeletal.2014)willlikelystimulateasignificantadaptationeffort(Brownetal.2014).Historically, continuing advances in engineering capability have favoured protection as astrategy foradaptingtoerosionand floodrisk (Charlieretal.2011;Nicholls2011;Nordstrom,2014). The influence of engineered structures on shoreline dynamics is now pervasive (vanKoningsveldetal.2008;Brownetal.2011;BernatchezandFraser2012).Thecumulativelegacy


2

ofinterventionissuchthat,atthescaleoftheUnitedStates,ratesofshorelinechangealongtheopen coast are strongly constrained by varying levels of development (Hapke et al. 2013).Naturally dynamic estuarine systems are similarly held away from natural equilibriummorphologies, in artificial meta-stable, states by extensive flood defences, training walls andinletjetties(e.g.Huangetal.2004;Smitsetal.2006;Wetzeletal.2014).Effortstosecureandmaintainsociallyacceptablelevelsofprotectionagainsterosionandfloodinghavelatterlybeenconducted within a shoreline management paradigm (Nicholls et al. 2013) under which atraditionalrelianceonengineeringhasbeensupplementedbyagrowingawarenessthatcoastalengineeringproblemsarealsogeomorphologicalones.The roleofgeomorphologists in coastalengineeringand shorelinemanagementhas stemmedpartlyfromtherealisationthaterosionproblemsaretypicallyrootedininterruptionsofnaturalsediment pathways or constraints on sediment supply (Allen 1981; Kana 1995; Runyan andGriggs2003;Hapkeetal.2010).Thisunderstanding isunderpinnedbytherelatedconceptsofthesedimentbudget(BowenandInman,1966)andthelittoralcell(InmanandFrautschy1966;Davies1974).Littoralcellsareeasilydefinedoncompartmentedbay-headlandcoasts(ShihandKomar,1994;StorlazziandField2000;Barnardetal.2012),withdivergencesorconvergencesintransport flux or estuary inlets being used to structure the sediment system on more opencoasts (Stapor1973;MotykaandBrampton1993;Brayetal1995).Hierarchiesof littoral cellsprovideageomorphologicalframeworkformanagementplanningatawiderangeofscalesthathasclearadvantagesoverschemesbasedprimarilyonadministrativeboundaries(Komar1996;CooperandPethick2005;PsutyandPace2009;Stuletal.2012).At the landform scale, coastal engineering has also undergone a shift in emphasis from areliance on hard structures towards softer approaches that seek to work with, rather thanagainst,naturalprocessesofsedimentmovement.Structuralinterventionsincreasinglyattempttomimicnaturalfeatures(e.g.Hsuetal.2010),andtheroleofbeaches,dunesandwetlandsindissipatingwaveenergyandattenuatingextremewaterlevelsiswidelyappreciated(e.g.Hanleyetal.2014;Luoetal.2015). Landformsarealso integral towidelyusedconceptualmodelsoferosionandfloodrisk.TheSource-Pathway-Receptormodel(Sayersetal.2002;Narayanetal.2012), forexample,highlights the roleof landformsasoneof thepathways thatmediate thetransmissionoffloodriskfrommarineandfluvialsourcestohumanreceptorsinlow-lyingareas(e.g.Battenetal.,2015).Giventheextenttowhichthesourcesofriskareanticipatedtochangeover the course of the 21st century and beyond, it is important that we develop ourunderstandingofhowcoastalmorphologywill evolveandhow thiswill influenceerosionandflood risk. In this context, theability toquantitativelypredict coastalmorphologicalchangeatdecadaltocentennialscalesthusassumesconsiderableimportance.Predictions of coastal change are often derived from analysis of historical behaviour on thepremisethatthefuturecansomehowbeextrapolatedfromtherecentpast.However,landformand sediment system behaviour is often highly non-linear (e.g. Werner, 2003) and pastconfigurations often contain insufficient information to generate quantitative predictions offuture behaviour (Gelbaum and Kaminisky 2010; French and Burningham 2013).Modelling ofcoastal morphological change has consequently become a very active area of research.However,devisingrobustmechanisticschemescapableofresolvingthemorphologicalevolutionofwhole landforms, let alone complexes of interacting landforms, presentsmany challenges.Applicationsofreductionistsedimentdynamicsprinciplestocoastalmorphodynamicproblemsare becoming evermore sophisticated (Roelvink and Reniers 2012; van Rijn et al. 2013) and,


3

withadvances incomputingpower,simulationoverdecadesandevencenturies is feasible forcertainenvironments (e.g.nearshorebars (Ruggieroetal.2009); tidalbasins (Dastgheibetal.2008)andestuaries(Hibmaetal.2004;vanderWegenandRoelvink2008).Computationalcoststilllimitstheextenttowhichrigorouscalibrationandsensitivityanalysisarepossible,however,and long-termmorphological change predicted in thisway is typically very sensitive to initialconditions that can usually only be approximated and also to simplifications in the externalhydrodynamicforcings(Walstraetal.2013).Analternativestrandofmodellingeffortembracesmore synthesist approaches that are explicitly designed to resolve those aspects of coastalbehaviourthatemergenaturallyatamesoscalemeasured indecadestocenturiesandtenstohundreds of kilometres (Murray et al, 2008; French et al. 2015b). These range from highlyaggregated aspatialmodels that capture selected aspects ofmesoscale coastal and estuarinemorphodyamics (e.g. Stive et al. 1998; Kragtwijk et al. 2004) to more mechanistic spatiallydistributedmodels(e.g.WalkdenandHall2011).Irrespective of the quantitative modelling approach adopted, generic principles need to betranslated intomodelsthattakeaccountof theplace-specificcontexts inwhichcontemporaryprocesses interact with antecedent geology, sea level history, historical morphology andengineering interventions, and landform dynamics are forced by tidal, wave and sedimentsupplyboundaryconditionsatbroaderscales.This requires robustconceptual frameworks forthe formalisation of existing knowledge; formulation of relevant scientific questions andmanagement issues; development and implementation of predictive models; and, not least,meaningfulengagementwithstakeholders.Despiteundoubtedprogresswiththedevelopmentofmesoscalecoastalbehaviourmodels (e.g.WalkdenandHall;2011;Castedoetal.2012)ourconceptualisationshavenotevolvedatasimilarpacetosupportageomorphologically-informedassessmentoferosionandfloodriskoverthe21stcenturyandbeyond(Nichollsetal.2012).Inparticular, a reliance on littoral cells as an organising framework makes it difficult toconceptualise the complex web of interactions between the sediment systems of estuaries,opencoastsandtheinnershelf.In this chapter,we show how the recently developed Coastal and Estuarine SystemMapping(CESM)approachofFrenchetal.(2016a)providesabasisfor integratingopencoast,estuariesand the inner shelf ina single conceptual framework.CESMcaptures the configurationof thesediment system, with all its human constraints, at time and space scales relevant tomanagement. It also identifies locations where there is potential for step-changes inconfiguration, for exampledue to thebreakdownof a spit orbreakdownof abarrier. Finally,CESM encourages a more participatory approach to shoreline management by formalisingdisparatesourcesofknowledgeanddrawingstakeholdersintotheprocessofdefiningproblemsanddeployingmodel-basedscientificunderstandingtofindsolutionstothem.2.IntegratingourunderstandingofcoastalsedimentsystemsUnder the shorelinemanagementparadigm thathasprevailed inmany countries (Leafeet al.1998;Huntetal.2011;Mulderetal.2011;Nichollsetal.2013),opencoastshavehithertobeentreated separately from estuaries. This division of effort hasmuch to do with administrativeboundaries and differences in the state agencies responsible for dealing with erosion (moreprevalentalongopencoast)and flood risk (concentrated inestuaries).While suchgeohazardsdopresentdifferentsetsofproblems,adivergentapproachtotheirmanagementhas ledtoa


4

lack of appreciation of the nature, extent and significance of the sedimentary andmorphodynamicinteractionsbetweenestuariesandtheopencoast,andindeedthewidershelf.The need for a more integrative perspective has become more pressing as the strategicapplicationandevaluationofmanagementandengineeringoptionshasevolvedtoaddressthebroadertimeandspacescalesatwhichprogressiveshiftsinshorelinepositionoccurinresponsetoclimatechangeandsea-levelrise(FrenchandBurningham2013).Akeyareaofconcernisthefact that littoral cells (Figure 1a) primarily reflect short-range transfers of ‘beach-grade’sedimentandarenotwellsuitedtoresolvingbroaderscalelinkagesbetweenestuarine,coastaland offshore systems (Cooper and Pontee 2006). This limitation is especially apparentwherelong-range coastal shelf suspended sediment transport fluxes drive morphological change inestuaries (e.g. Kirby 1987; Dyer and Moffat 1998; Keen and Slingerland 2006). Cooper andPontee (2006) also highlight concerns over the criteria used to delimit littoral cells, and thestability of cell boundaries, especially under significant changes in wave climate or sedimentsupply. In theUK, these issueswere tackled in the FutureCoast project (Burgess et al. 2002),whichembedded littoral cellswithin a spatial hierarchyof geomorphological units (effectivelyindividual landforms), shoreline behaviour units (sub-systems, such as embayments andestuaries)andregionalcoastalbehavioursystems.AppliedtotheentireopencoastofEnglandandWales,theFutureCoastmethodologyallowed identificationofthescaleandnatureofthelinkages that govern coastal morphological change at the decadal to century timescale andunderpinnedasecondgenerationofSMPs(Burgessetal.2004;Huntetal.2011).


5

Fig.1.a) coastal,or littoral, cell concept (after InmanandFrautschy,1966);b)visualizationofcoastaltracts(afterCowelletal.2003).The concept of the ‘coastal tract’ developed by Cowell et al. (2003) provides an alternative,though complementary, perspective on coastalmorphodynamics at scales directly relevant toshorelinemanagement.Identificationofsediment-sharingtracts(Figure1b)ismotivatedbytheobservationthatmanyofthemostpressingmanagement issuesarisenotfromtheshort-termvariability that often dominates the observational record but from progressive trends.Accordingly, the tract concept is formulated around a temporal hierarchy inwhich landformsand complexes of landforms evolve under lower order geological constraints


6

(Holocene/Quaternaryscale)whilesubjectalsototheresidualeffects,accumulatedoverlargertime scales, of unresolved fine-scale processes. At the same time, successful treatment ofcoastaltractsrequiresanexpandedspatialscopethatincludesexchangesofsedimentwiththelower shoreface as well as interactions between open coast and backbarrier lagoonal andestuarine environments. As French et al. (2016b) observe, contrary to the generally assumedcorrelationoftimeandspacescales,coupledestuary–coast–innershelfbehaviourisdrivenbysediment exchanges atmultiple nested spatial scales (see also, Figure 2). These are primarilyrelated to distinct sediment size fractions (Keen and Slingerland, 2006; van der Kreeke andHibma,2005),aswellastodifferentsetsofanthropogenicnaturalforcingfactors(FensterandDolan, 1993; Hapke et al., 2013). Beachmorphological change tends to occur in response torelatively local sand and gravel transport dynamics, often fed by proximal sea cliff or fluvialsources(e.g.vanLanckeretal.2004;Komar,2010).Incontrast,cohesivesedimentsfromfluvialor coastal cliff sources can sustain estuarine sedimentation hundreds of kilometres from thesources(McCave,1987;Dronkersetal.1990;Gerritsenetal.2000).

Fig. 2. Schematization of temporal and spatial scales of coastal behaviour (based on Cowell and Thom1994), highlighting a decadal to centennial management mesoscale at which grainsize-dependentsediment systempathwaysnest atmultiple spatial scales.Mesoscale coastal configuration also reflectsresidual effects (accumulated over larger time scales) of short-term storms, which can effect statechanges,forexample,bybreachingofbarriers.Inadditiontosedimentsharingbetweencoupledlandformsandcomplexesoflandforms,otherkindsof interactionalso influence coastalbehaviour. Shelfbank systems (e.g.MacDonaldandO’Connor1994;ParkandWells2005;Hequetteetal.2008;HequetteandAernouts2010)andsubmarine channels (Browder and McNinch 2006) can both play a role in modifying coastalwaveclimate,eitherbyreducingwaveenergyattheshorelineorelsefocusingit.Thesesystems


7

are often morphologically active but may still have little direct sediment exchange withcontemporarycoastalsystems(Antia1996).3.Aspatialontologyofestuary-coast-innershelfsedimentsysteminteractionsAsa first step towardsarticulating thevisionoutlinedabove,Frenchetal. (2016a)presentanidealised spatial ontology for coupled estuary-coast-inner shelf sediment systems. The termontologyrefers toa formalspecificationofaconceptualisation (Gruber1992),althoughthis isinterpretedratherlooselyheretorefertoahierarchicalclassificationofcomponentsandasetof permitted interactions between them.As outlined in Figure 3, this scheme reflects certainaspectsofthecoastaltractconcept(Cowelletal.2003)initshierarchyofmorphologically-activesediment-sharing landforms and landform complexes. These are embedded within thegeologicalcontextofashorefacethatcanbeconsideredtime-invariantatdecadaltocentennialtimescales.Incontrasttotheprimarilytemporaltracthierarchy(Cowelletal.2003),ourschemeemphasises spatial nesting of discrete landform componentswithin landform complexes, andexplicitly represents varied human interventions and the way in which these constrainmorphological change. Landform complexes, in turn, are embeddedwithin coastal behavioursystems at a broad regional scale; this parallels the thinking behind the FutureCoast work(Burgessetal.2002).3.1LandformcomplexesClassification invariably involves a trade-off between the desire to simplify and the need toresolvesignificantdiversity.Severalattemptshavebeenmadetoreducethewidevariation inestuarymorphologyandorigintoasmallsetofsub-types.InaNewZealandcontext,HumeandHerdendorf (1988) identified fivemajormodes of estuarine basin formation,withinwhich 16estuary sub-types occur. A more elaborate scheme incorporating several distinct levels ofcontrolling factors was presented by Hume et al. (2007). Davidson and Buck’s (1997)classification of British estuaries into eight types was rationalised to seven generic types byABPmer (2008), basedon the considerationof 163estuaries around theentireUK coast. Thisscheme(Figure4a)wasadoptedforCESMbyFrenchetal.(2016a)onthebasisthatitssimplicityreduces the potential for variation between maps produced by different ‘experts’ due tosubjectiveclassificatoryjudgements.Foropencoasts,asimilarlyminimalclassificationisfeasible.ThatshowninFigure4brecognisesmainlandcoast (cf.Cowelletal.2003),andaugments thiswithheadlandsandbays forcoaststhatexhibitmoreobviousgeologicalcontrol.Cuspateforelandsandspitsarelocallyprominentaround the British coast and some are large enough to be afforded the status of a landformcomplex(Plateretal.2009),asareavarietyofbarrierfeatures(Bray,1997;Funnelletal.2000).Forapplication inothergeographicalcontexts,additionalcomplexeswouldclearlyberequired(mostobviouslydeltas,whichdonotfeatureonthecontemporaryBritishcoast).Individual landformsare less abundantovermuchof the inner shelf, although the interactionbetweendrownedpalaeo-landscapesofthelastglacial(Harrisetal.2013)andmodernshorelinedynamics is attracting increasing attention (McNinch 2004). Many shallow shelf seas arecharacterizedbybanksystemsthatdifferinmorphology,organizationandorigin(e.g.SwiftandField 1975; Belderson 1986; Hequette and Aernouts 2010). In a UK context, sand bankcomplexes(andisolatedfeatures)arecommonintheNorthSea(Caston1972;Burninghamand


8

French 2011), where they are known to influence contemporary shoreline behaviour bymodifying coastalwave climate (Dolphin et al. 2007) and via their role in sediment pathways(Robinson1966;ChangandEvans1992).Figure4cdistilsadetailedanalysisbyDyerandHuntley(1999) intothreedistinct types.Shelfbanksystemsmayormaynotbemorphologicallyactiveand,atdecadaltocentennialscales,chieflyacttomodifycoastalwaveclimate(e.g.Chinietal.2010). They are also associated with tidal interactions controlling broader bedload sedimenttransport pathways and residual currents influencing fine sediment transport (e.g. Dyer andMoffatt 1998). Linear bank systems are associatedwith largermeso- tomacro-tidal estuaries(e.g. Burningham and French 2011). Nearshore bank systems include the various forms ofheadland-attachedridge(Caston1972;Schmidtetal.2007).

Fig.3.Spatialontologyofcoupledestuary–coast–innershelfgeomorphicsystems(modifiedfromFrenchetal.(2016a).3.2LandformsEstuarine, open coastal, and inner shelf complexes are aggregations of individual landforms(Table1).Thesamelandformtypemayoccurwithinmorethanonetypeof landformcomplex(e.g.tidalflat,whichcanoccurinbothopencoastandestuarinesettings).Otherlandformtypessuchasspitsandebbtidaldeltasoccurattheinterfacebetweenestuaryandopencoastand,assuch, couldbe considered tobepartof either complex. Spits are a special case in that largerexamplescanbemappedasacomplex (including landformssuchasbeach,beachridge,duneand saltmarsh) while minor features can be considered to be landforms embedded within alarger complex. At decadal to centennial scales, hinterland imposes an essentially staticboundaryconditioncontrol.Terrainthatriseswellabovecurrentandprojectedfuturetideandsurgeelevationsandwouldbeexpectedtoshowalargelyerosionalresponsetosea-levelriseis


9

referred toashighground. Lowground is identifiedasbeingmore susceptible to inundation,although erosion can also lead to increased flood risk such that the two hazards are notindependent. Reclaimed areas have been converted from former subtidal or intertidallandforms,andareprotectedfromtidalinundationbyfixeddefences.

Fig.4.ClassificationofUK(a)estuary,(b)coastaland(c)innershelflandformcomplexes(modifiedfromFrenchetal.(2016a).Coastal, estuarineandshelf sediment systemsalso include reservoirsof sediment that canbelocally important in mediating landform behaviour. The inner shelf is typically veneered bypatchesofsediment,someofwhichareinactiveunderpresentsealevel,waveclimateandtidalregime,andsomeofwhichexchangesedimentwithcoastalorestuarineenvironments.Seabedstores can be classified according to grain size, and their interaction with the contemporarysedimentsystemelucidatedbyconsiderationofshelfsedimentpathways(e.g.PoulosandBallay2010),possiblyaugmentedbysedimenttransportmodelling(Barnard2013;Brownetal.,2015).3.3HumaninterventionsAsnotedabove,present-daycoastalbehaviourisstronglyconditionedbyamultitudeofhumaninterventions. The effects of coastal protection works are evident locally (Runyan and Griggs2003;Basco2006), regionally (Clayton1989;Dawsonetal.2009;Brownetal.2011)andevennationally(vanKoningsfeldetal.2008;Hapkeetal.2013).Themostobviousinterventionsarestructural, installed with the aim of preventing erosion, reducing flooding or facilitatingreclamation. Engineering practice has evolved to incorporate varied local experiences andrequirements,andthisisreflectedinadiverseterminologyforstructuresthatperformthesame


10

function. It is therefore useful to adopt a highly generic classification of intervention typesaccording to the function that they perform. In the scheme summarised in Table 2, mostinterventions have the effect of arresting movement, for example through limiting erosionalretreat or channelmigration. Some, such as groyne fields, represent a direct intervention toretain or restore a sediment store and any associated littoral drift pathway. Non-structuralinterventions in coastal and estuarine sediment systems are also common, not only throughdredgingandaggregateextraction(HitchcockandBell2004)butalsothrough‘softer’andmoreadaptive approaches to coastal management including beneficial reworking of sediment(includingvariousformsofnourishmentorrecharge)torestoreknowndeficitsandenhancetheresilienceofdegradedenvironments(Khaliletal.2010;vanSlobbeetal.2013).Table 1. Landform components common to open coastal, estuarine and inner-shelf complexes. Thesecomprisemorphologicallyactive landforms,aswellassedimentreservoirs,andhinterlandsthatarenotconsideredtoevolvetheirmorphologyattimescalesofdecadestocenturies.NotethatthissethasbeendevisedforapplicationinaUKcontext;othersettingsmayinvolvelandformsnotrepresentedhere.Landform Hinterland SedimentstoreCliff Inletchannel Highground SeabedgravelShoreplatform Ebbdelta Lowground SeabedsandBeach Flooddelta Reclaimed SeabedmudBeachridge Bank SuspendedmudTombolo Channel Dune Tidalflat Spit Saltmarsh Rockoutcrop Brackishmarsh Lagoon River 3.4InteractionsTheontology described above includes about 60 components, distributedover four hierarchylevels.Fromafunctionalperspective,componentsinfluenceeachotherthroughacomplexwebof interactions. Interactions in the broadest sense refer to any cause-effect relation betweencomponents.Forexample,ajettyexertsaneffectonaninletchannel,stabilisingitslocationandalsoinfluencingitscross-sectionalcharacteristics.Somecomponents(e.g.beach,inletchannel,channel) are far more connected than others (including the less common landforms andstructural interventions). Some interactions arebidirectional, suchas the interplaybetweenaseawall and a beach (Basco 2006). A sub-set of the interaction network involves transfers ofmassandthesesedimentpathwaysdefinethesedimentbudget.Someofthe linkagesmaybeunidirectional, for examplewhere sequential beachunitsdefine a littoral drift system.Othersmayrepresentmorecomplexcausality:acliffmaysourcesediment toa frontingbeach (masstransfer) and the beachmay influence the cliff (via an influence whereby beachmorphologyfeedsbackintothecliffrecessionrate;WalkdenandHall2011).


11

Table2.Minimalclassificationofgenericstructuralandnon-structuralinterventionsinestuary,coastandinnershelfsedimentsystems,withtheirindicativepurpose.Structural (indicativepurpose) Non-structural (indicativepurpose)Seawall Erosionprotection Dredging Navigation;miningRevetment Erosionprotection Dredgedisposal SpoildisposalBulkhead Erosionprotection Sedimentrecharge Restoration of sediment

deficit(beach,intertidal)Embankment Floodprotection Sedimentbypassing Continuity of sediment

pathway;navigationBarrage Floodprotection Sedimentrecycling Resilience (beach

profiling);navigationBreakwater Waveenergyreduction Detachedbreakwater(s) Waveenergyreduction Groyne(s) Sedimentretention Trainingwall Channel stabilisation /

navigation

Jetty Varied Outfall Drainage/dispersal Quay Navigation/trade Dock Navigation/trade Weir Regulation of river

gradient and/or tidallimit

Consistency in the representation of system interactions is clearly important and can beachieved through careful tabulation of permitted interactions, their nature and directionality,and a supporting logic backed by references to the scientific literature. Table 3 presents anillustrative portion of an interaction matrix for selected system components. Three types ofinteractionarepossible:(1)None–pairedcomponentsexertnodirectinfluenceoneachother;(2) Influence, where there is a process interaction, such as wave sheltering, but no directsediment exchange; and (3) Sediment pathway – a direct exchange of sediment betweencomponents. The entire set of system components can be treated in thisway, such that theontologygoesbeyondasimpleclassificationtospecifywhichlandformscanbeassembledintocomplexes, themanner inwhich they interact,and theeffectofvarioushuman interventions.Whilst local circumstances may generate situations that require special provision, a priorispecification of system interaction types is essential to ensure consistency when systemmappingisappliedinpractice.4.CoastalandEstuarineSystemMapping(CESM)TheCESMapproach(Frenchetal.2015a)providesameansofcapturingtheconfigurationofthekey morphological components, human interventions, and the sediment and other influencepathwaysthatconnectthem.Giventheemphasisonsystembehaviouratdecadaltocentennialscales,seasonalandinterannualvariabilityisexcludedinfavourofmorepersistentinteractions.Theresultisatime-averagedviewofsystemconfigurationasconditionedbypresentprocessesandhumanconstraints.Behaviouraldynamicsarenotresolved,althoughincertainsituationsit


12

ispossibletoenvisageevent-drivenchangesingrossconfiguration,suchasthebreakdownofabarrier to create to create a new tidal inlet. Configurational state changes of this nature areconsideredfurtherbelow.Table3.Illustrativepairedexamplesofinteractionrulesforlandformsandinterventions.From To Interaction Logic(literaturesource)Cliff Beach Sediment pathway

(sand,gravel)Cliff sources beach-gradesediment (mud lostoffshore)

Beach

Cliff Influence Presence and morphologyof beach feeds back intocliff recession rate (e.g.WalkdenandHall2011)

…… …… …… ……Seawall Beach Influence Presence of seawall may

cause lowering of beach(e.g.Basco2006)

Beach Seawall Influence Beach protects toe ofseawall and reduceswaveenergyonface

…… …… …… ……Jetty Inletchannel Influence Jetty exerts stabilising

influence on channelposition and constrainwidthadjustment

Inletchannel Jetty none Nodirectcausalrelationinthisdirection

Theworkflow forCESM(Figure5)commenceswith ‘specification’of theproblemathand, forwhichaformalstatementoftheapplication isrequired.Asuitabletime-averagingperiodoverwhichtocharacterisetheconfigurationofthecoastalsedimentsystemischosenatthisstage.For strategic management problems, including those relating to climate change impacts,relevant timescalesareusuallydecades tocenturies (Frenchetal.2015b).The levelof spatialdetailrequired,aswellasthegeographicalscope,arealsodeterminedatthisstage.Thelattermightvaryfromregionalmappingtoguidethepreparationofashorelinemanagementplantomapping of individual intertidal flat, saltmarsh and reclaimed flood compartments to providecontext for a specific flood defencemanagement scheme. The next step is to determine themost effective route to formalising the current state of understanding. For well documentedand/orunderstood systems, a loneexpertor small teamof expertsmaybeable to achievearelatively uncontentious synthesis of existing knowledge. Where a system is less wellunderstood,CESMprovidesastartingpoint forthedevelopmentofaconceptualmodelandalarger team might be required to achieve a consensus. This might be a joint effort or elseachieved through rival efforts that highlight areas of divergent opinion. Finally, backgroundknowledge(publishedpapers,reportsetc.)andplaindata(aerialimages,bathymetry,historicalshoreline change analyses etc.) are assembled to support subsequent stages of themappingprocess.


13

Fig.5.WorkflowforCoastalandEstuarineSystemMapping(afterFrenchetal.,2015a).Mappingmaythenfollowa ‘topdown’route, inwhich landformcomplexesare identifiedfirstand then populated with landform detail, or a ‘bottom up’ route whereby landforms andinterventions are mapped in detail and then organised into broader-scale complexes. Bothrequire a robust protocol for the identification of discrete system components and theinteractionsbetweenthem.Figure6 illustrates this foranexample caseof the interactionsbetweena small spit-enclosedestuaryandasandyopencoastalbayboundedbyheadlandsformedinmoreresistantgeology.


14

Mappingoftheopencoastproceedsbyidentifyingdistincthinterland–backshore–nearshoresequences and any local constraints due to structures or known non-structural interventions(e.g. beach nourishment or sediment bypassing programmes). This is similar to the approachtakenbyHansonetal.(2010)intheirschemeformappingbarrierandnon-barriercoastsbasedonsequentialtransitionsincross-shoreprofiletypeandasetofprescribedlandformelements.Figure7aillustratesaportionoftheopencoast,showingbackshoretohinterlandsequencesoflandforms togetherwith human interventions (including aminor jetty and extensive groynes,bulkheadandembankments).Alongshore intervalsarechosentosegmentthecoast intounitsthat canbeconsidered to functionmore-or-lessasan integratedwhole. Interactionpathwaysare then added, with the directionality of the sediment pathways indicated, and distinctionmadebetweentheseand‘influenceonly’interactionsthatarenotpartofthesedimentsystem.

Fig.6.Illustrativecompositionofopencoastandestuarylandformcomplexes.


15

Fig.7.a)illustrativeopencoastmappingforaportionofbaycomplexshowingsegmentationintodistinctcross-shore transitions (demarcatedwithbroken red lines),withdirectional sedimentpathways (white)and ‘influence only’ interactions (yellow); b) equivalentmapping of outer estuary, showing contrastingintertidal–backshore–hinterlandsequenceseithersideofcentralchannel.


16

Within the estuary, distinct subtidal – intertidal – hinterland transitions are similarlymappedwith reference to the dominant axis of the estuary. This is illustrated for part of the outerestuaryinFigure7b.Thisparticularspit-enclosedestuaryexhibitsanasymmetriccross-sectionalmorphology,withanorthernshore(leftedgeoffigure)flankedbyhighgroundandcliffs(partlyprotectedbyseawalls)andasouthernshorewithwidetidalflats,saltmarshandembankmentsprotecting reclaimed wetlands. The estuary exchanges sand with adjacent beaches via thepairedspits,oneofwhichisweldedtothenorthernshore,andthetidaldeltasandbodies.Sanddredgedfromtheharbourchannelisusedtonourishdunestothenorth.Mapping of landform components and interventions connected by various forms of influenceeffectivelyrepresentsasystemasanetworkgraph.Thisallowsformorequantitativeanalysis,ranging fromsimple inventoriesand interactionprobabilities tomoresophisticated inferencesof overall system behaviour based on network topology (e.g. Phillips 2012). Network graphanalyses are sensitive to the way the system is rendered in terms of discrete components(networknodes)andinteractions(edgesorlinks).Inthecaseofgeomorphologicalsystems,thisprocess involvessubjective judgementregardingthedemarcationofdiscrete landformswithincontinuous landscapes.Moreover, CESM generatesmultiple instances of individual landformswhere these are considered to participate in more than one alongshore or along-estuarysegment.Rationalisationofthemaptopologyisthereforeneededtomergemultiple instancesof the same geomorphic feature. Figure 8 illustrates this for the outer estuary. Duplicatelandforms and interventions are merged where possible but channels or beaches may beassociated with known convergences or divergences in sediment flux, such that theirdisaggregationintomultiplefunctionalcomponentsisthenjustified.Notethat,sincehinterlandis represented as a bounding effect on the active coastal and estuarine system rather than adynamiclandscapecomponent,itslabellingisdeterminedfromapurelyaestheticperspective.TheworkflowinFigure5incorporatesafinal‘augmentation’stage,inwhichthesystemmapcanbe annotated to include metadata (e.g. references and active links to relevant research anddatasets) aswell asdata (e.g. digital researchdocuments, images, observational datasets andmodel outputs). This functionality is facilitated by implementation of CESM a geospatialsoftwareenvironment,asoutlinedbelow.


17

Fig8.Rationalisationoftheouterestuarynetworkgraph(Figure7b)toremovemultipleinstancesofthesamecomponentwherepossible.4.1ImplementationofCESMwithinanopen-sourceGISframeworkInitialdevelopmentoftheCESMapproach(FrenchandBurningham2009)wasundertakenusingconceptmapping software (CmapTools; Cañas et al. 2005) that lacked the ability to producegeoreferencedsystemmapsortodirectlyutilisegeospatialdatasets.Toaddressthis,Frenchatal.(2015a)developedbespokeCESMsoftwarethatoperateswithinaGeographicalInformationSystem (GIS) framework. The open source QGIS (http://www.qgis.org) was selected as ageospatialplatformonaccountof itssupportformultipleoperatingsystemsandgrowinguserbase. The CESM workflow has been implemented as a QGIS plugin (coded in Python) thatenablessystemcomponentstobemappedinteractivelyoveroneormoreQGISdatalayers.SystemmappingisperformedwithintheQGISenvironmentwithreferencetoabaselayerthatdefines the projection and co-ordinate system. This base layer may take the form of digitalmapping, Web Map Server-based layers (including Google Maps or Bing maps), or digital


18

photography.Additional ‘helper layers’ canbe loaded into theGIS to aid the identificationoflandform types and identify human interventions. Airborne LiDAR raster layers are especiallyuseful,asaredigitalbathymetricchartsandgeologicalmaps,andvectordatabasesoffloodandcoastaldefenceinfrastructure.AkeyfeatureoftheQGISCESMpluginisspecificationoftheontologyinanexternalfilethatcanbe edited as required to suit particular regional situations. Sets of components (landforms,landformcomplexes,interventions)arereadfromtheontologyandusedtopopulateGraphicalUser Interface (GUI) palettes. These provide the user with a pre-determined set of systemelements and impose constraints on how these can be combined. The user may alsointeractivelydefinethelinkagesbetweencomponentsandspecifythetypeanddirectionalityoftheconnection(influence,sedimenttransfer).Itisalsopossibletoincludenumericalvaluesforsedimentfluxeswheretheseareknownquantities.Aggregationoflandformsintocomplexesisalsocheckedagainstontologyrules.Thisensuresconsistencyandhelpsminimisedifferencesofinterpretationwherethesameregionismappedbydifferentusers.Finalmapscompriseapointlayerofcomponentsanda line layerofconnectionsandcanbesaved inthewidelyusedESRIshapefileformat.4.2Illustrativeapplication–Suffolkcoast,easternEnglandThe CESM approach and software are presently being used within the Integrating CoastalSedimentSystems (iCOASST)project (Nichollsetal.2012) tosupport thedevelopmentofnewquantitativemodels of coastal andestuarinemorphological change. In iCOASST, systemmapsprovideameansofdetermininghowbest tobreakdowna regional coastalbehaviour systemintoasetofcomplexesofconstituent landformsthatcanbesimulatedbyspecificcoastalandestuarine models. Identification of discrete landform components, interventions andinteractions between them at a sub-complex scale then informs the development of specificmodel codes. A novel feature of the project is that the model codes being developed arecompliant with the OpenMI coupling standard (Harpham et al. 2014). By assembling‘compositions’ofmodelsthatexchangeinformationatruntime,coupledcoastalandestuarinebehaviourcanbesimulatedataregionalscale.TheSuffolkcoast,easternEngland,isoneofthemainiCOASSTmodelvalidationregions(Nicholsetal.2012).ExtendingfromLowestoftinthenorthtoFelixstoweinthesouth,theopencoastallengthofapproximately77kmcanbebrokendownintoasequenceofopencoastal,estuarineandinnershelf landformcomplexes(Figure9).Themainlandcoast largelycomprisesstretchesof cliff-backed sand and gravel beaches (Burningham and French 2015a) interspersed withdiscretebarrier-enclosedlagoons(SpencerandBrooks,2012).ThecliffedcoastlinenorthoftheBlyth estuary has a long history of erosion, with recession rates up to 5 myr-1 (Brooks andSpencer, 2014;Walkden et al. 2015), but sediments released through this erosion are largelysandandgravel(BurninghamandFrench2015b).ThealongshorecontinuityoftheopencoastispunctuatedbytheinletsoftheBlyth,Alde/OreandDebenestuaries,allofwhichhaveextensive,predominantlymuddy,intertidalflatandsaltmarsh.Theseestuarieswereextensivelyembankedand reclaimed for agriculture in the 18th and 19th centuries, and many of the defensiveembankments are now susceptible to overtopping and breaching under extreme tidal surges(French,2008).ThepredominantlymuddysedimentationwithintheseestuariesissustainedbylongrangefluxesofmudwithinthecoastalwatersofthesouthernNorthSea(DyerandMoffat,1998;Frenchetal.,2008),presumablyoriginating incliff tothenorth inNorfolkandYorkshire


19

given that local cliff retreat contributes virtually nomuddymaterial (Burningham and French2015b).Figure 10 illustrates the development of the system map using the QGIS software. ThescreenshothighlightssomeofthelocalinteractionsbetweenestuaryandadjacentcoastalinthevicinityoftheAlde/Oreestuary inletandOrfordness.This includescyclicalsedimentbypassingvia spit growth and breaching and ebb shoal migration (Burningham and French, 2007;Burningham,2015)thathashistoricallysustaineddowndriftbeaches.Thisfigurealsoillustratesthe use of a LiDAR-derived elevation raster layer, a bathymetry vector layer and Bing aerialimagerytoassistthemappingprocesswithintheQGISplugintool.

Fig.9.DivisionoftheSuffolkcoastalbehavioursystemintoopencoast,estuaryandinnershelflandformcomplexes.


20

In its simplest form, the map of components and interactions presents a highly accessiblerepresentation of the structure of the coastal and estuarine system. In Figure 10, landformsalongtheopencoastareconnectedbyalittoralsedimenttransportcorridorthatisintersectedbytheestuaryinlets.Estuarinelandformsareconnectedtomoredistantfinesedimentsourcesthroughchannel-openseasuspendedsediment transportpathways.Asnotedearlier, it isalsopossible to analyse the systemmap as a network graph. Phillips (2012) explores some quitesophisticated graph-based analyses of geomorphic system structure, but even quite simplevisualisations of the occurrence of the different landforms and interactions can be extremelyeffectiveasameansofcommunicatingwithstakeholders.Forexample,normalisedinteractionprobabilitymatrices(Figure11)havegeneratedconsiderableinterestatstakeholderworkshopsconducted in the iCOASST project. This type of analysis for Suffolk highlights the dominantsediment fluxes within the littoral (beach-beach/beach ridge) and estuarine (channel-channel/saltmarsh) subsystems. The influence matrix also demonstrates the importance ofembankmentsincontrollingestuarymorphology.

Fig. 10. Illustrative screenshot showing development of system map for region around mouth of theAlde/Ore estuary using CESM QGIS plugin. Terrain shading is a LiDAR DEM overlaid on vertical aerialphotography.


21

5.CESMasameansofidentifyingpotentialchangesinstateMuch of geomorphology is concerned with the determination or prediction of incrementalchanges inprocess ratesormorphology.Over short timescalesat least, theseare increasinglyresolved using reductionist modelling founded on fundamental hydrodynamic and sedimenttransport principles (e.g. Roelvink and Reniers 2012; Villaret et al. 2013). As the scale ofinvestigation is expanded, qualitative changes in state are sometimes encountered. Theseincludechangesinsomecriticalaspectofsystemdynamics(e.g.ashiftfromflood-dominancetoebb-dominanceinanestuary)aswellaschangesingrossconfiguration(asinthebreachinganddetachmentanddegradationofaspit).

Fig. 11.Normalised interactionprobabilitymatrix landformsandhuman interventionswithin theentireSuffolkcoastalbehavioursystem.Whitecells indicate interactionsthatdonotoccur inthissystemmapandcolour-codedcellsshowthevaryingprobabilityoftheinteractionsthatdoexist.Inthisvisualisation,bothdirectionsofanybi-directionallinkagesareconsideredtobeseparateinteractions.


22

Phillips (2014) presents a comprehensive overview of the various forms of state changeencounteredingeomorphicsystemsmoregenerally.Someareprevalentenoughincoastalandestuarinesettingstomerit immediateattentionfromlandformbehaviourmodellers.Themoststraightforward case involves a sequential transitionbetweendiscrete states, as in the classictidal flat, lowersaltmarsh,uppersaltmarshsequence.Asecondcase involvesasequence thatrepeats in a cyclical manner; examples are some circumstances of tidal flat – saltmarshalternation(PedersenandBartholdy2007;SinghChauhan2009)orbypassingcyclesthatinvolvegrowth, detachment, migration and reattachment of inlet sediment shoals (Burningham andFrench 2006).Other importantmodes of state change involve either divergent or convergentevolution. Divergence is of particular interest in that it implies the existence of multipleevolutionarypathwaysthatmayculminateinalternativestablestates.Animportantexampleinthe present context is the potential for evolution towards either wave- or tide-dominatedintertidalsedimentation(FagherazziandWiberg2009;Kirwanetal.2010).Here,statechangesmaysimultaneouslyencompassbothchangesinconfiguration(e.g.replacementoftidalflatbysaltmarsh or vice-versa) and shifts in process dynamics (e.g. a shift from estuary sedimentimport to export; French et al. 2008). Configuration state changes, such as the breaching ofcoastal barriers, are not especially prevalent at sub-annual to low interannual timescales butmaybesignificantatdecadaltocentennialscales(e.g.OrfordandJennings2007).We see considerable potential in the applicationof CESM to identify alternative future statesbased on the formalisation of our knowledge of particular geographical contexts. By way ofillustration,Figure12showsthepotentialforlocallydivergentcoastalfuturesonastretchoftheSuffolk coast that comprised alternating soft rock headlands punctuated by short sections ofgravel barrier beach backed by shallow brackish lagoons (Spencer and Brooks 2012). Here,systemmapping(simplifiedforillustrativepurposes)depictsapossiblechangeinconfigurationat the landform scale arising from a persistent breaching of one of the low gravel barriers,leadingtotheformationofanewtidalinlet.Inmodellingterms,thiscouldbehandledthroughanadaptivecompositionof coupledmodel codes, inwhichbreaching isevaluated in termsofforcingandstateparameters(e.g.usingtheBarrierInertiaMethod;Obhraietal.2008)thelikelypersistenceofanybarrierbreachisevaluatedusinganinletstabilityanalysisand,ifnecessary,atidalinletmodelistheninvokedtohandlethecreationofanewcomplexofthisclass.6. Integrating geomorphology, engineering and society in participatory coastal and estuarymanagementThechallengeofcoastalandestuarinemanagement isnotsimplyoneofdevisingmodels thatcangenerate scientifically satisfyinganswers toquestionsgeneratedbyexperts in the fieldofclimate change science. Such efforts are clearly vital but, as in other areas of convergencebetweenenvironmentalscienceandpolicy,coastalproblemsincreasinglyrequirethecombiningofnaturalandsocialscienceperspectivesandscientificandlayknowledgestoachievepoliticallyand socially acceptable solutions.Oneaspectof this convergencehasbeen theemergenceofparticipatory modelling as means of achieving meaningful engagement between scientists,policymakersandstakeholders(VoinovandBousquet,2010;Grayetal.2014).Thereareseveralstrands to this process. Firstly, communication is of paramount importance as science hasbecomealmostwhollyfoundedonmodels.Halletal.(2014)drawparallelswithclimatescience,


23

wherepublicunderstandingandconfidencehavebeenimpairedbypoorcommunicationofthenatureandpurposeofsimulationmodels.Theyfurtherobservethatitisnotjustarticulationofthe technical aspects of model formulation and application that are important, but also theprovisionofclearandunambiguousexplanatorydefinitionsforthebasicconceptsthatunderpinthem.Qualitativemodellinghasaclearroleasameansofarrivingatsharedunderstandingofthesystembeingstudiedandthenatureoftheproblemsthatneedtobeaddressed(e.g.Sanoet al. 2014). We see CESM emerging as an effective tool for identifying the most importantprocesses (andassociatedmanagement issues) tobe included inmorequantitativemodellingstudies.

Fig. 12.Highly simplified mapping of a 5 km stretch of the Suffolk coast, eastern UK, illustrating a) acurrentmainlandcoastcomplex,dominatedbyabarrierbeachbackedbyalternationofbrackishlagoonsand elevated cliff headlands; and b) a potential future configuration following hypothetical barrierbreachingandthecreationofpermanenttidalinlets.


24

AsHalletal.(2014)observe,itisequallyimportanttoachievesomefusionofscientificandlayconceptualisationsofhowtheworldworks.TheCESMapproachisintended,atleastinpart,toengage with this challenge. It has the advantage of rendering the complexity of coastal andestuarinegeomorphologicalsystemsasafairlysimpleontologyofcomponentsandinteractions,anddepictingthese inavisualformthatprovidesahighlyeffectivecatalystfordiscussionanddebatebetweenscientist,stakeholderagenciesandorganisations,andlocalcitizens(Figure13).Within the iCOASST project (Nicholls et al. 2012), system maps have been enthusiasticallyreceivedbyadiversegroupofstakeholdersthatincludes,interalia,managementagenciesandregional authorities, non-governmental organisations, representatives of industry andagriculture, and local inhabitants. In the case of the Suffolk study region, discussions havecentred on matters of detail, such as the omission of local geological controls on shorelineposition,aswellasbroaderscaledivergencesinopinion–notablyconcerningtheconsistencyofthelittoraldriftdirection(seealsoFrenchandBurningham,2015).Thesediscussionshavebeenextremelyvaluable incapturing stakeholderknowledgeand feeding this intobothdata-drivenanalysesandmodellingstudies.AsSchmolkeetal.(2010)havearguedelsewhere,thecapturingof valuable local knowledge and its incorporation into the formulation of a problem and anapproachtoit,arekeyelementsofgoodmodellingpracticethathavealltoooftenbeneglected.In contrast to many of the predictive models traditionally used by engineering consultants,CESMistransparentandaccessibletoawiderangeofusers.Thisispartlyaconsequenceofitsimplementationinopen-sourcesoftware.Thiscountersoneofthemajorshortcomingsofa‘topdown’approachtoshorelinemanagementplanningthathashistoricallybeenheavilyreliantonproprietary closed-source model codes and GIS software that is available to the largerconsultanciesbutnottolocalcommunitiesandsmallerconsultants.Theopensourceparadigmofcomputerscienceisagoodmodelhere(VoinovandGaddis,2008),inthatitdemonstratesthebenefitsofgenuinecommunityeffort,bothintermsoftransparencyandaccessibilityandalsointerms of legacy. CESM has the potential to create conceptual models that are communityefforts, thereby stimulating a greater sense of shared endeavour between modellers andstakeholdersthanhasthusfarbeenpossible.Theoutputsoftoomanymajorprojects(including,intheUK,theFutureCoastproject;Burgessetal.2002)havebecomefossilisedandinaccessiblewithinacloseddataandproprietarysoftwaremodel.ThegreateraccessibilityofCESMallowsconceptualmodelsandlinkeddatabasestoevolvebeyondindividualprojecttimelinesthroughthecontinuinginvolvementofacommunityofresearchersandstakeholders.Thesystemmapsthus constitute informationproducts thatarenot finalisedat aprojectenddatebut, instead,remainfreetoevolveasknowledgeaccumulatesandagendaschangeovertime.


25

Fig.13.CESMbeingusedtostructurestakeholderdiscussionrelatingtothecontemporaryfunctioningofpartoftheSuffolkcoastandestuarysystemaspartoftheiCOASSTproject(photobyAliceMilner).7.ConclusionsGeomorphology is pivotal to understanding how coasts and estuaries, and their associatedpopulations and infrastructures, will be impacted by climate change at decadal to centennialscales. Our success in predicting and then adapting to these impacts will be substantiallydeterminedbyoursuccessindevelopingbetterquantitativemodelsoflandformchange.Atthesame time, it is vital that our conceptual frameworks allow us to formulate managementproblems in a scientifically meaningful way. This problem is compounded by the pervasiveinfluenceofhumanagencyon contemporary shorelines andby themultitudeof stakeholdersinvolved and their differing interests. Effective translation of research into policy requiresframeworks that formalise scientific understanding of human – environment systems in atransparentandaccessiblewayandalsopermittheassimilationofdiverselayknowledgesasabasisforamoreparticipatoryapproachtomanagementplanning.OurapproachtoCoastalandEstuarineSystemMapping(CESM)isintendedtocontributetothisinterfacebetweenscience,policyandmanagementbyofferingageomorphologicalframeworkthatresolvesamorecompletewebofinteractionsthanthelittoralcell-basedmappingthathashitherto guided shoreline management planning. Preliminary work with CESM as an open-source geospatial software tool demonstrates potential on several important fronts. Firstly, ahierarchical landform ontology integrates estuary, coast and parts of the inner shelf in acoherent conceptual scheme that is able to accommodate multi-scale sediment sharingpathwaysandexplicitlyresolvesthe localizedhuman interventionsthatconstraintheirnatural


26

operation. Secondly, the mapping process constitutes a form of knowledge formalisation inwhichdisparatesourcesof information(publishedresearch, imagery,mapping,plaindataetc.)are generalised into a conceptual model of geomorphological system configuration that canguide the development and application of predictive models. Thirdly, configurational statechanges(suchasthecreationofanewestuaryfollowingbarrierovertoppingandbreaching)arenothandledwellbyreductionisthydrodynamicandsedimenttransportmodels.Theconceptualframework provided by CESM encourages such instances to be identified, a priori, such thatdivergences in geomorphic system state can be incorporated explicitly into adaptivecompositionsofcoupledlandformbehaviourmodels.Conceptualisingthespatialstructureofageomorphological system in advanceofmodel development andapplicationallows for locallydivergent changes in configuration tobeanticipated in thedesignof compositionsof coupledmodels.Thispavesthewayforexcitingnewbroader-scalesimulationsofcoastalbehaviourthatgo beyond incremental changes in position and rate. Finally, CESM articulates scientificunderstandingofthestructureandfunctionofcomplexgeomorphologicalsystemsinawaythatis transparent and accessible to diverse stakeholder audiences. As our predictive models ofmesoscalelandformbehaviourincreaseinambitionandsophistication,thisprovidesaplatformonwhich tobuildamuchmoreparticipatoryapproach to the conductandcommunicationofmodel-basedcoastalandestuarinescienceandmanagement.AcknowledgementsThe ideas presented here stem from work initially funded by the Environment Agency forEnglandandWalesunderprojectSC0060074‘Large-scalecoastalgeomorphologicalbehaviour’.RefinementoftheapproachandsoftwaredevelopmenthasbeenfundedbyNERCaspartoftheUCL contribution to the Integrating COAstal Sediment SysTems (iCOASST) project(NE/J005541/1). We also gratefully acknowledge the comments of two reviewers, whichimprovedthefinalmanuscript.ReferencesABPmer(2008)Developmentanddemonstrationofsystems-basedestuarysimulators.R&D

TechnicalReportFD2117/TR.Defra,London.AllenJR(1981)Beacherosionasafunctionofvariationsinthesedimentbudget,SandyHook,

NewJersey,USA.EarthSurfProcLandf6:139:150.AntiaEE(1996)Ratesandpatternsofmigrationofshoreface-connectedsandyridgesalongthe

southernNorthSeacoast.JCoastalRes12:38-46.BarnardPL(2013)SedimenttransportpatternsintheSanFranciscoBayCoastalSystemfrom

cross-validationofbedformasymmetryandmodeledresidualflux.MarGeol345:72-95.BarnardPL,HubbardDM,DuganJE(2012)Beachresponsedynamicsofalittoralcellusinga17-

yearsingle-pointtimeseriesofsandthickness.Geomorphology139-140:588-598.BascoDR(2006)Seawallimpactsonadjacentbeaches:separatingfactandfiction.JCoastRes

39:741-44.


27

BattenBK,BlantonB,TaylorS,PlummerJ(2015)Modelingtheinfluenceofsealevelriseon

futurestormsurgeelevationsconsideringlandscapeevolution.In:WangP,RosatiJD,ChengJ(Eds.)ProceedingsCoastalSediments2015,WorldScientific,NewJersey,15pp.

BeldersonRH(1986)Offshoretidalandnon-tidalsandridgesandsheets:differencesin

morphologyandhydrodynamicsetting.In:KnightRJ,McLeanJR(eds)Shelfsandsandsandstones.CanadianSocietyofPetroleumGeologists.MemoirII,293-301.

BernatchezP,FraserC(2012)Coastaldefencestructuresandconsequencesforbeachwidth

trends,Quebec,Canada.JCoastRes28:1550-1566.BowenAJ,InmanDL(1966)BudgetoflittoralsandsinthevicinityofPointArguello,California.

USArmyCoastalEngineeringResearchCenterTechnicalMemorandum19,41pp.BrayMJ(1997)EpisodicshinglesupplyandthemodifieddevelopmentofChesilBeach,England.

JCoastRes4:1035-1049.BrayMJ,CarterDJ,HookeJM(1995)Littoralcelldefinitionandbudgetsforcentralsouthern

England.JCoastRes11:381-400.BrooksSM,SpencerT(2014)Importanceofdecadalscalevariabilityinshorelinereponse:

examplesfromsoftrockcliffs,EastAngliancoast,UK.JCoastConserv18:581-593BrowderAG,McNinchJE(2006)Linkingframeworkgeologyandnearshoremorphology:

Correlationofpaleo-channelswithshore-obliquesandbarsandgraveloutcrops.MarGeol231:141-162.

BrownJ,AmoudryLO,SouzaAJ,PlaterAJ(2015)Residualcirculationmodelledandthenational

UKscaletoinformcoastalevolutionmodels.In:WangP,RosatiJD,ChengJ(Eds.)ProceedingsCoastalSediments2015,WorldScientific,NewJersey,15pp.

BrownS,NichollsRJ,HansonSetal.(2014)Shiftingperspectivesoncoastalimpactsand

adaptation.NatureClimChange4:752-755.BrownS,BartonM,NichollsR(2011)Coastalretreatand/oradvanceadjacenttodefencesin

EnglandandWales.JCoastConserv15:659-670.BurgessKA,JayH,HoskingA(2002)FUTURECOAST:PredictingtheFutureCoastalEvolutionof

EnglandandWales.In:EURCOAST(ed)ProceedingsLittoral2002,EUCC/EURCOAST,p295-301.

BurgessKA,JayH,HoskingA(2004)FutureCoast:Predictingthefuturecoastalevolutionof

EnglandandWales.JCoastConserv10:65-71.BurninghamH(2015)Gravelspit-inletdynamics:OrfordSpit,UK.In:RandazzoG,CooperJAG,

JacksonD(eds.)Sandandgravelspits.CoastalResearchLibrary,vol12,Springer300p.


28

BurninghamH,FrenchJR(2015a)Large-scalespatialvariabilityinthecontemporarycoastalsandandgravelresource,Suffolk,easternUK.In:WangP,RosatiJD,ChengJ(eds)ProceedingsCoastalSediments2015,WorldScientific,NewJersey,15pp.

BurninghamH,FrenchJR(2015b).Shoreline-ShorefaceDynamicsontheSuffolkCoast.Crown

Estate.BurninghamH,FrenchJR(2006)Morphodynamicbehaviourofamixedsand-gravelebb-tidal

delta:Debenestuary,Suffolk,UK.MarineGeology225:23-44.BurninghamH,FrenchJR(2007)Morphodynamicsandsedimentologyofmixed-sedimentinlets.

JCoastResSI50:710-715.BurninghamH,FrenchJR(2011)Seabedmorphodynamicsinalargecoastalembayment:180

yearsofchangeintheGreaterThamesestuary.Hydrobiologia672:105-119.CañasAJ,CarffR,HillGetal(2005)Conceptmaps:Integratingknowledgeandinformation

visualization.In:TerganSO,KellerT(eds)Knowledgeandinformationvisualization:searchingforsynergies.LectureNotesinComputerScience3426,205-219.

CastedoR(2012)Anewprocess–responsecoastalrecessionmodelofsoftrockcliffs.

Geomorphology177-178:128-143CastonVND(1972)LinearsandbanksinthesouthernNorthSea.Sedimentology18:63-78.ChangS-C,EvansG(1992)Sourceofsedimentandsedimenttransportontheeastcoastof

England:Significantorcoincidentalphenomena?MarGeol107:283-288.CharlierRH,ChaineuxMCP,MorcosS(2011)Panoramaofthehistoryofcoastalprotection.J

CoastRes21:79-111.ChiniN,StansbyP,LeakeJetal(2010)Theimpactofsealevelriseandclimatechangeon

inshorewaveclimate:AcasestudyforEastAnglia(UK).CoastEng57:973-984.ClaytonKM(1989)SedimentinputfromtheNorfolkcliffs,easternEngland-acenturyofcoast

protectionanditseffect.JCoastRes5:433-442.CooperNJ,PethickJS(2005)Sedimentbudgetapproachtoaddressingcoastalerosionproblems

inSt.Ouen'sBay,Jersey,ChannelIslands.JCoastRes21:112-122.CooperNJ,PonteeNI(2006)Appraisalandevolutionofthelittoral‘sedimentcell’conceptin

appliedcoastalmanagement:experiencesfromEnglandandWales.OceanCoastManage49:498-510.

CowellPJ,StiveMJF,NiedorodaAWetal(2003).Thecoastal-tract(Part1):aconceptual

approachtoaggregatedmodelingtolower-ordercoastalchange.JCoastRes19:812-827.


29

CowellPJ,ThomBG(1994)Morphodynamicsofcoastalevolution.In:CarterRWG,WoodroffeCD(eds)Coastalevolution:LateQuaternaryshorelinemorphodynamics.Cambridge,CambridgeUniversityPress,p33-86.

DastgheibA,RoelvinkJA,WangZB(2008)Long-termprocess-basedmorphologicalmodelingof

theMarsdiepTidalBasin.MarGeol256:90-100.DavidsonNC,BuckAL(1997)AninventoryofUKestuaries.In:IntroductionandMethodology,

vol.1JointNatureConservationCommittee,Peterborough,UK,46pp.DaviesJL(1974)Thecoastalsedimentcompartment.AustGeogStud12:139-151.DawsonRJ,DicksonME,NichollsRJetal(2009)Integratedanalysisofrisksofcoastalflooding

andclifferosionunderscenariosoflongtermchange.ClimChange95:249-284.DolphinTJ,VincentCE,CoughlanCetal(2007)Variabilityinsandbankbehaviouratdecadaland

annualtime-scalesandimplicationsforadjacentbeaches.JCoastRes50:731-737.DronkersJ,VanAlphenJSLJ,BorstJC(1990)Suspendedsedimenttransportprocessesinthe

southernNorthSea.In:ChengRT(ed)Residualcurrentsandlong-termtransport.CoastalandEstuarineStudies,vol.38.NewYork,Springer-Verlag,p302-320.

DyerKR,HuntleyDA(1999)Theorigin,classificationandmodellingofsandbanksandridges.

ContShelfRes18:1311-1131.DyerKR,MoffatTJ(1998)FluxesofsuspendedmatterintheEastAnglianplume,southernNorth

Sea.ContShelfRes19:1285-1330.FagherazziS,WibergPL(2009)Importanceofwindconditions,fetch,andwaterlevelsonwave-

generatedshearstressesinshallowintertidalbasins.JGeophyRes114:F03022.FensterMS,DolanR(1993)HistoricalshorelinetrendsalongtheOuterBanks,NorthCarolina:

processesandresponses.JCoastRes9:172-188.FrenchJR(2008)Hydrodynamicmodellingofestuarineflooddefencerealignmentasan

adaptiveresponsetosea-levelrise.JCoastRes24-2B:1-12FrenchJR,BensonT,BurninghamH(2008)Tidalandmeteorologicalforcingofsuspended

sedimentfluxinamuddymesotidalestuary.EstuarCoast31:843-859.FrenchJR,BurninghamH(2009)Mappingtheconnectivityoflargescalecoastal

geomorphologicalsystems:CoastalsystemmappingwithCmapToolstutorial.ScienceReport–SC060074/PR2.Bristol,EnvironmentAgency,25pp.

FrenchJR,BurninghamH(2013)Coastsandclimate:insightsfromgeomorphology.Progressin

PhysicalGeography37,550-561.


30

FrenchJR,BurninghamH(2015)Wave-drivensedimentpathwaysonagravel-dominatedcoastsubjecttoastronglybi-modalwaveclimate.In:WangP,RosatiJD,ChengJ(Eds.)ProceedingsCoastalSediments2015,WorldScientific,NewJersey,15pp.

FrenchJR,BurninghamH,ThornhillGetal(2016a)Conceptualizingandmappingcoupled

estuary,coastandinnershelfsedimentsystems.Geomorphology256:17-35FrenchJR,PayoA,MurrayABetal(2016b)Appropriatecomplexityforthepredictionofcoastal

andestuarinegeomorphicbehaviouratdecadaltocentennialscales.Geomorphology256:3-16

FunnellBM,BoomerI,JonesR(2000)HoloceneevolutionoftheBlakeneySpitareaofthe

Norfolkcoastline.ProcGeolAssoc111:205-217.GelbaumG,KaminskyGM(2010)Large-scalecoastalchangeintheColumbiaRiverlittoralcell:

Anoverview.MarGeol273:1-10.GerritsenH,VosRJ,vanderKaaijTetal(2000)Suspendedsedimentmodellinginashelfsea

(NorthSea).CoastEng41:317-352.GraySRJ,GagnonAS,GraySAetal(2014)Arecoastalmanagersdetectingtheproblems?

AssessingstakeholderperceptionofclimaticvulnerabilityusingFuzzyCognitiveMapping.OceanCoastManage94:74-89

GruberTR(1993)Atranslationapproachtoportableontologyspecifications.KnowledgeAquis

5:199-220.HallDM,LazarusED,SwannackTM(2014)Strategiesforcommunicatingsystemsmodels.Env

ModelSoftware55:70-76.HanleyME,HoggartSPG,SimmondsDJetal(2014)Shiftingsands?Coastalprotectionbysand

banks,beachesanddunes.CoastEng87:136-146.HansonS,NichollsRJ,BalsonPetal(2010)Capturingcoastalgeomorphologicalchangewithin

regionalintegratedassessment:anoutcome-drivenfuzzylogicapproach.JCoastRes26:831-842.

HapkeCJ,LentzEA,GayePTetal(2010)AreviewofsedimentbudgetimbalancesalongFire

Island,NewYork:cannearshoregeologicframeworkandpatternsofshorelinechangeexplainthedeficit?JCoastRes26:510-522.

HapkeCJ,KratzmannMG,HimmelstossEA(2013)Geomorphicandhumaninfluenceonlarge-

scalecoastalchange.Geomorphology199:160-170.HarphamQ,CleverleyP,KellyD(2014)TheFluidEarth2implementationofOpenMI2.0.J

Hydroinfo16:890-906.


31

HarrisMS,SautterLR,JohnsonKLetal(2013)ContinentalshelflandscapesofthesoutheasternUnitedStatessincethelastinterglacial.Geomorphology203:6-24.

HequetteA,AernoutsD(2010)Theinfluenceofnearshoresandbankdynamicsonshoreline

evolutioninamacrotidalenvironment,Calais,northernFrance.ContShelfRes30:1349-1361.

HequetteA,HemdaneY,AnthonyE(2008)Sedimenttransportunderwaveandcurrent

combinedflowsonatide-dominatedshoreface,northerncoastofFrance.MarGeol249:226-242

HibmaA,SchuttelaarsHM,deVriendHJ(2004)Initialformationandlongtermevolutionof

channel-shoalpatterns.ContShelfRes24:1637-1650HinkelJ,LinkeD,VafeidisAT,PerretteM,NichollsRJ,TolRSJ,MarzeionB,FettweisX,IonescuC,

LevermannA(2014)Coastalflooddamageandadaptationcostsunder21stcenturysea-levelrise.PNAS111,3292-3297.

HitchcockDR,BellS(2004)Physicalimpactsofmarineaggregatedredgingonseabedresources

incoastaldeposits.JCoastRes20:101-114.HsuJ,YuMJ,LeeFC,BenedetL(2010).Staticbaybeachconceptforscientistsandengineers:a

review.CoastEng57:76-91.HuangZG,ZongYQ,ZhangWQ(2004)CoastalinundationduetosealevelriseinthePearlRiver

Delta,China.NatHazard33:247-264.HumeTM,HerdendorfCE(1988)Ageomorphicclassificationofestuariesanditsapplicationto

coastalresourcemanagement-ANewZealandexample.JOceanShoreManage11:249-274.

HumeTM,SnelderT,WeatherheadMetal(2007)Acontrollingfactorapproachtoestuary

classification.OceanCoastManage50:905-929.HuntS,GuthrieG,CooperNetal(2011)EstuariesandShorelineManagementPlans–lessons

learnedfromRound2.ProceedingsLittoral2010,London.EDPSciences06003,1-8.DOI:10.1051/litt/201106003

InmanDL,FrautschyJD(1966)Littoralprocessesandthedevelopmentofshorelines.In:

ProceedingsoftheCoastalEngineeringSpecialityConference,SantaBarbara,California.AmericanSocietyofCivilEngineers,p511-536.

KanaTW(1995)Ameso-scalesedimentbudgetforLongIsland,NewYork.MarGeol126:87-110.KeenTR,SlingerlandRL(2006)PotentialtransportpathwaysofterrigenousmaterialintheGulf

ofPapua.GeophysResLett33:L04608.


32

KhalilSM,FinklCW,RobertsHH(2010)NewapproachestosedimentmanagementontheinnercontinentalshelfoffshorecoastalLouisiana.JCoastRes26:591-604.

KirbyR(1987)SedimentexchangesacrossthecoastalmarginsofNWEurope.JGeolSoc

144:121-126.KirwanML,GuntenspergenGR,D’AlpaosAetal(2010)Limitsontheadaptabilityofcoastal

marshestorisingsealevel.GeophysicalResearchLetters37:L23401.KomarPD(1996)Thebudgetoflittoralsediments:conceptsandapplications.Shore&Beach

64:18-26.KomarPD(2010)ShorelineevolutionandmanagementofHawke’sBay,NewZealand:tectonics,

coastalprocessesandhumanimpacts.JCoastRes26:143-156.KragtwijkN,ZitmanT,StiveMetal(2004)Morphologicalresponseoftidalbasinstohuman

interventions.CoastEng51:207-221.KronW(2013)Coasts:thehigh-riskareasoftheworld.NatHazard66:1363-1382.LeafeR,PethickJ,TownendI(1998)Realizingthebenefitsofshorelinemanagement.GeogJ

164:282-290.LichterM,VafeidisAT,NichollsRJetal(2011)Exploringdata-relateduncertaintiesinanalysesof

landareaandpopulationinthe‘Low-ElevationCoastalZone’(LECZ).JCoastRes27:757-768.

LuoS,CaiF,LiuHetal(2015)Adaptivemeasuresadoptedforriskreductionofcoastalerosionin

thePeople'sRepublicofChina.OceanCoastManage103:134-145.McCaveIN(1987)FinesedimentsourcesandsinksaroundtheEastAnglianCoast(UK).JGeol

Soc144:149-152.MacDonaldN,O'ConnorB(1994)Influenceofoffshorebanksontheadjacentcoast.CoastEng

Proc1:492-504.McGranahanG,BalkD,AndersonB(2007)Therisingtide:Assessingtherisksofclimatechange

andhumansettlementsinlowelevationcoastalzones.EnvUrban19:17–37.McNinchJE(2004)Geologiccontrolinthenearshore:shore-obliquesandbarsandshoreline

erosionhotspots,Mid-AtlanticBight,USA.MarGeol211:121-141.MotykaJM,BramptonAH(1993)Coastalmanagement:mappingoflittoralcells.Hydraulics

ResearchLtd,Wallingford,UK,WallingfordReportSR328,102pp.MulderJPM,HommesS,HorstmanEM(2011)Implementationofcoastalerosionmanagement

intheNetherlands.OceanCoastManage54:888-897.


33

MurrayAB,LazarusE,AshtonAetal(2008)Geomorphology,complexity,andtheemergingscienceoftheEarth’ssurface.Geomorphology103:496-505.

NarayanS,HansonS,NichollsRJetal(2012)Aholisticmodelforcoastalfloodingusingsystem

diagramsandthesource-pathway-receptor(SPR)concept.NatHazardEarthSystemSci12:1431-1439.

NichollsRJ(2011)Planningfortheimpactsofsealevelrise.Oceanography24:144-157.NichollsRJ,BradburyA,BurninghamHetal(2012)iCOASST-integratingcoastalsediment

systems.CoastalEngineeringProceedings1(33):100.NichollsRJ,LoweJA(2004)Benefitsofmitigationofclimatechangeforcoastalareas.GlobalEnv

Change14:229–244.NichollsRJ,TownendIH,BradburyAPetal(2013)Planningforlong-termcoastalchange:

experiencefromEnglandandWales.OceanEng71:3-16.NordstromKF(2014)Livingwithshoreprotectionstructures:areview.EstCoastShelfSci

150:11-23.ObhraiC,PowellKA,BradburyAP(2008)Alaboratorystudyofovertoppingandbreachingofshinglebarrierbeaches.In:Proceedingsofthe31stInternationalConferenceonCoastalEngineering,Hamburg,Germany.WorldScientific.OrfordJD,JenningsSC(2007)Variationintheorganisationofgravel-dominatedcoastalsystems:

EvidencefromNovaScotiaandSouthernEngland.ProceedingsCoastalSediments’07.NewOrleans.AmericanSocietyofCivilEngineers,vol.1:434-448.

ParkJ-Y,WellsJT(2005)LongshoretransportatCapeLookout,NorthCarolina:shoalevolution

andtheregionalsedimentbudget.JCoastRes21:1-17.PedersenJBT,BartholdyJ(2007)Exposedsaltmarshmorphodynamics:anexamplefromthe

DanishWaddenSea.Geomorphology90:115–125.PhillipsJD(2012)Synchronizationandscaleingeomorphicsystems.Geomorphology137:50-58.PhillipsJD(2014)Statetransitionsingeomorphicresponsestoenvironmentalchange.

Geomorphology204:208-217.PlaterAJ,StupplesP,RobertsHH(2009)EvidenceofepisodiccoastalchangeduringtheLate

Holocene:TheDungenessbarriercomplex,SEEngland.Geomorphology104:47-58.PoulosSE,BallayA(2010)Grain-sizetrendanalysisforthedeterminationofnon-biogenic

sedimenttransportpathwaysontheKwinteBank(southernNorthSea),inrelationtosanddredging.JCoastResSI51:95-100.


34

PsutyNB,PaceJ(2009)SedimentmanagementatSandyHook,NJ:Aninteractionofscienceandpublicpolicy.Geomorphology104:12-21.

RobinsonAHW(1966)ResidualcurrentsinrelationtoshorelineevolutionoftheEastAnglian

coast.MarGeol4:57-84.RoelvinkD,ReniersA(2012)Aguidetomodelingcoastalmorphology.WorldScientific,New

Jersey.RuggieroP,WalstraDJR,GelfenbaumG(2009)Seasonal-scalenearshoremorphological

evolution:fieldobservationsandnumericalmodeling.CoastEng56:1153-1172RunyanK,GriggsGB(2003)Theeffectsofarmoringseacliffsonthenaturalsandsupplytothe

beachesofCalifornia.JCoastRes19:336-347.SanòM,RichardsR,MedinaR(2014)Aparticipatoryapproachforsystemconceptualizationand

analysis.EnvironModelSoftware54:142-152.SayersPB,HallJW,MeadowcroftIC(2002)Towardsrisk-basedfloodhazardmanagementinthe

UK.ProceedInstCivilEng150:36-42.SchmidtT,MitchellNC,RamsayTS(2007)Useofswathbathymetryintheinvestigationofsand

dunegeometryandmigrationaroundanearshore'banner'tidalsandbank.In:BalsonPS,CollinsMB(eds)Coastalandshelfsedimenttransport.GeologicalSocietySpecialPublication274,53-64.

SchmolkeA,ThorbeckP,DeAngelDL(2010)Ecologicalmodelssupportingenvironmental

decisionmaking:astrategyforthefuture.TrendEcolEvolut25:479-486.ShihS-M,KomarPD(1994)Sediments,beachmorphologyandseaclifferosionwithinanOregon

coastallittoralcell.JCoastRes10:144-157.SinghChauhanPP(2009)Autocyclicerosionintidalmarshes.Geomorphology110:45-57.SmitsAJM,NienhuisPH,SaeijsHLF(2006)Changingestuaries,changingviews.Hydrobiologia

565:339-355.SpencerT,BrooksSM(2012)Methodologiesformeasuringandmodellingchangeincoastal

salinelagoonsunderhistoricandacceleratedsea-levelrise,Suffolkcoast,easternEngland.Hydrobiologia693:99-115.

StaporFW(1973)HistoryandsandbudgetsofthebarrierislandsysteminthePanamaCity,

Florida,region.MarGeol14:277-286.StiveMJF,CapobiancoM,WangB(1998)Morphodynamicsofatidallagoonandadjacent

coasts.In:Proceedings8thInternationalConferenceonPhysicsofEstuariesandCoastalSeas.TheHague.Balkema,Rotterdam,p397-407.


35

StorlazziCD,FieldME(2000)Sedimentdistributionandtransportalongarocky,embayedcoast:MontereyPeninsulaandCarmelBay,California.MarGeol170:289-316.

StulT,GozzardJR,EliotIGetal(2012)CoastalsedimentcellsbetweenCapeNaturalisteandthe

MooreRiver,WesternAustralia.ReportpreparedbyDamaraWAPtyLtdandGeologicalSurveyofWesternAustraliafortheWesternAustralianDepartmentofTransport,Fremantle.

SwiftDJP,FieldME(1981)Evolutionofaclassicsandridgefield:Marylandsector,North

Americaninnershelf.Sedimentology28:461-482.VanderKreekeJ,HibmaA(2005)Observationsonsiltandsandtransportinthethroatsection

oftheFrisianInlet.CoastEng52:59-175.VanderWegenM,RoelvinkJA(2008)Long-termmorphodynamicevolutionofatidal

embaymentusingatwo-dimensional,process-basedmodel.JGeophysRes113(C3016):1-23.

VanKoningsveldM,MulderJPM,StiveMJFetal(2008)Livingwithsea-levelriseandclimate

change:AcasestudyoftheNetherlands.JCoastRes24:367-379.vanLanckerV,LanckneusJ,HearnSetal(2004)Coastalandnearshoremorphology,bedforms

andsedimenttransportpathwaysatTeignmouth(UK).ContShelfRes24:1171-1202VanRijnLC,RibberinkJS,VanderWerfJetal(2013)Coastalsedimentdynamics:recent

advancesandfutureresearchneeds.JHydraulRes51:475-493.VanSlobbeE,deVriendHJ,AarninkhofSetal(2013)BuildingwithNature:insearchofresilient

stormsurgeprotectionstrategies.NatHazards65:947-966.VillaretC,HervouetJ-M,KopmannRetal(2013)MorphodynamicmodellingusingtheTelemac

finite-elementsystem.Computer&Geosci53:105-113.VoinovA,BousquetF(2010)Modellingwithstakeholders.EnvModel&Software25:1268-1281.VoinovA,GaddisEB(2008)Lessonsfromsuccessfulparticipatorywatershedmodelling:a

perspectivefrommodellingpractitioners.EcolModel216:197-207.WalkdenM,HallJ(2011)Amesoscalepredictivemodeloftheevolutionandmanagementofa

soft-rockcoast.JCoastRes27:529-543.WalkdenMJ,PayoA,BarnesJ,BurninghamH(2015)Modelingtheresponseofcoupledbarrier

andcliffsystemstosealevelrise.In:WangP,RosatiJD,ChengJ(Eds.)ProceedingsCoastalSediments2015,WorldScientific,NewJersey,15pp.

WalstraDJR,HoekstraR,TonnonPKetal(2013)Inputreductionforlong-termmorphodynamic

simulationsinwave-dominatedcoastalsettings.CoastEng77:57–70.


36

WernerBT(2003)Modelinglandformsasself-organized,hierarchicaldynamicalsystems.In:WilcockPR,IversonRM(eds)Predictioningeomorphology.GeophysicalMonograph135,AmericanGeophysicalUnion,133-150.

WetzelMA,ScholleJ,TeschkeK(2014)Artificialstructuresinsediment-dominatedestuariesand

theirpossibleinfluencesontheecosystem.MarEnvRes99:125-135.

integrating estuarine, coastal and inner shelf sediment ... · million people are vulnerable to...

Documents