international journal of scientific and innovative research 2015; 3(1)p issn 2347 2189, e issn 2347

International Journal of Scientific and Innovative Research 2015; 3(1)

P-ISSN 2347-2189, E- ISSN 2347-4971

www.ijsir.co.in 163

DR. B.R. PANDEY

DIRECTOR (RESEARCH)SKY INSTITUTE, KURSI ROAD, LUCKNOW, U.P, INDIA

FORMER JOINT DIRECTOR, COUNCIL OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY, UP, LUCKNOW

(DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY, UP GOVERNMENT), INDIA

FORMER PROFESSOR, INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTE OF HERBAL MEDICINE (IIHM), LUCKNOW, U.P., INDIA

E-MAIL ID: [email protected], MOBILE-: 9794849800

Dr. B.C.TripathiAssistant Prof.

Deptt. of Educa-

tion,

Rama P.G. College,

Chinhat, Lucknow,

Uttar Pradesh

Dr. Pankaj Verma

Senior Research Fellow,

Deptt. of Oral & Maxillofacial

Surgery,

Faculty of Dental Sciences,

K.G. Medical University,

Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh

Shri Sanjay Pandey Assistant Prof.

National Institute of

Fashion Technology,

Raebareli,

Uttar Pradesh

Shri Ashish TiwariResearch Scholar,

Sai Nath University,

Ranchi,

Jharkhand

ADVISORY BOARD

EDITOR-IN-CHIEF

COMMITTEE FOR EDITORIAL ASSISTANCE

Prof.(Dr.)S. P. OjhaFormer Vice Chancellor, CCS Meerut University, Meerut, Uttar Pradesh

Prof.(Dr.)V.K. SrivastavaFormer Prof & Head, Deptt. of Community Medicine

King George Medical University, Lucknow.

Former Director, Integral Institute of Medical Sciences & Research,

Integral University, Lucknow

Former Vice -Chancellor,

Texila American University, Georgetown, Guyana, South America

Prof.(Dr.) M.I. KhanProf & Head, Deptt. of Mechanical Engg.,

Integral University, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh

Prof. (Dr.) S.K. AvasthiFormer Director, H.B.T.I., Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh

Prof.(Dr.) Amrika SinghProf & Head (Chemistry), Deptt. of Applied Sciences,

Institute of Engg. & Technology, Sitapur Road, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh

Prof.(Dr.) U.N. DwivediProf & Ex- Head, Deptt of Biochemistry, Former Pro- Vice Chancellor,

Former Dean, Faculty of Science, University of Lucknow, Lucknow, U.P.

Prof.(Dr.) U.K. MisraHead, Deptt. of Neurology, Ex Dean,

Sanjay Gandhi Post Graduate Institute of Medical Sciences, Lucknow, U.P.

Dr. A.K. GuptaFormer Deputy Director General,

Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR), Ansari Nagar, New Delhi

Prof.(Dr.) V.K.TondonFormer Prof & Head, Deptt. of Chemistry, Ex- Dean Faculty of Science,

University of Lucknow, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh

Prof. (Dr.) Amod Kumar Tiwari,Prof.- Director, Bhabha Institute of Engg.& Technology, Kanpur, U.P.

Prof.(Dr.) Chandra Dhar DwivediFormer Prof. & Chairman, Deptt. of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of

Pharmacy, South Dakota State University, Borokings, South Dakota, USA

Prof.(Dr.) Vimal KishoreProf. & Chairman, Deptt. of Basic Pharmaceutical Sciences,

Xevier College of Pharmacy, University of Louisiana, 7325,

Palmetto Street New Orlens, Louisiana USA

Prof .(Dr.) M.C. Pant,Former Director,R. M. L. Institute of Medical Sciences, Lucknow and Prof. & Head, Deptt. of Radiotherapy, K. G. Medical University, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh

Prof. (Dr.) S.P. SinghFormer Prof & Head, Deptt. of Pharmacology,

G. S. V. M. Medical College, Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh

Prof. (Dr.) R. L. SinghProf & Head, Department of Biochemistry & Coordinator Biotechnology

Program , Dr. R. M. L. University Faizabad, Uttar Pradesh

Dr. Sarita VermaHead, Deptt. of Home Sci., Mahila P.G. College, Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh

Prof. (Dr.) S.K.AgarwalPro. & Ex-Head, Deptt. of Biochemistry, Lucknow University,

Lucknow, U.P.

Dr. Bharat SahDirector,

National Institute of Fashion Technology, Raebareli, Uttar Pradesh

Prof.(Dr.)N.S. VermaProf., Deptt. of Physiology,

K. G. Medical University, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh

Prof.(Dr.)A.K. TripathiProf. & Head, Deptt. of Clinical Hematology & Medical Oncology,

K. G. Medical University, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh

Prof.(Dr.)C.M. PandeyProf. & Head, Deptt. of Biostatistics & Health Informatics,

Sanjay Gandhi Post Graduate Institute of Medical Sciences, Lucknow, Uttar

Pradesh

Dr. Rupesh ChaturvediAssociate Prof., School of Biotechnology,

Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, Former Asstt. Prof., Deptt. of

Pharmaceutical Sciences , College of Pharmacy, Vanderbilt University,

Tennessee, USA

Dr. S.SinhaAsstt. Prof. Deptt. of Internal Medicine, CD University,

C. David Giffen School of Medi., University of California, Los Angeles, USA

Dr. K.RamanPrincipal Scientist, Martek Biosciences Corporation,

6480 Dobbin Road, Columbia, MD 21045, USA

Dr. P.K.AgarwalEditor –in – Chief, Natural Product Communication,

Natural Product Inc 7963, Anderson Park Lane West Terville, OH, USA

Dr. R.K.Singh,Chief Scientist, Division of Toxicology, CSIR-Central Drug Research

Institute, Jankipuram Extension, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh

Dr. Mohd. TariqueProf., Deptt of Physical Edu., Lucknow University, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh

1

Shri Sanjay DixitScientist,

Sky Institute

Lucknow

Uttar Pradesh

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EDITORIAL BOARD

Prof.(Dr.) Y.B. TripathiProf. & Head, Deptt. of Medicinal Chemistry,Institute of Medical Sciences,Banaras Hindu University Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh

Prof.(Dr.) R.K. SinghProf. & Head , Deptt. of Biochemistry, Shri Guru Ram RaiInstitute of Medical &Health Sciences, Dehradun, Uttarakhand & Former Prof. & Head, Department ofBiochemistry, K. G. Medical University , Lucknow, U.P.

Prof. (Dr.) R.S.DiwediFormer Director, National Research Centre for Groundnut (NRCG) , ICAR,Junagarh, Gujarat & Former Principal Scientist – Head, Deptt. of PlantPhysiology, Indian Institute of Sugarcane Research, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh

Prof. (Dr.) Nuzhat HusainProf. & Head , Deptt of Pathology & Acting Director, R. M. L. Institute ofMedical Sciences, Lucknow,Uttar Pradesh

Prof. (Dr.) Amita JainProf. Deptt. of Microbiology, K.G. Medical University, Lucknow, U.P.

Dr. Sudhir MahrotraAssociate Prof., Deptt. of Biochemistry, Lucknow University, Lucknow, U.P.

Prof. (Dr.) Vibha SinghProf., Deptt. of Oral & Maxillofacial Surgery, Faculty of Dental Sciences,K. G. Medical University, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh

Prof. (Dr.) U.S. PalProf. & Head, Deptt. of Oral & Maxillofacial Surgery, Faculty of Dental Sciences,K. G. Medical University, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh

Prof. (Dr. ) K.K. PantProf. & Head , Deptt. of Pharmacology & Therapeutics,K. G. Medical University, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh

Dr. C.M.K.TripathiFormer Deputy Director & Head, Division of Fermentation Technology, CSIR-Central Drug Research Institute , Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh

Dr. R.D. TripathiChief Scientist & ProfessorPlant Ecology & Environmental Science Division,Uttar Pradesh CSIR-National Botanical Research Institute, Lucknow, U.P.

Prof.(Dr.) Ashwani K. SrivastavProf. & Head, Deptt. of Biosciences, Integral University,Lucknow,Former Senior Scientist, Birbal Sbahani Institute Paleobotany, Lucknow, U.P.

Prof.(Dr.) L. PandeyProf. & Head , Postgraduate Deptt . of Physics,Former Dean, Faculty of Science,Rani Durgawati University, Jabalpur, Madhya Pradesh, India

Prof .(Dr.) Bali RamProf., Deptt. of Chemistry, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh

Prof.(Dr.) J.P.N.RaiProf.& Head, Deptt. of Environmental Sciences, G.B. Pant University of Agr. &Technology, Pant Nagar, Uttarakhand

Prof.(Dr. )R. S. DubeyProf. & Head, Deptt. of Biochemistry, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, U.P.

Prof. (Dr.) OmkarDeptt. of Zoology, Lucknow University, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh

Prof.(Dr.) Sudhir KumarProf., Deptt. of Zoology, Lucknow University, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh

Prof.(Dr.) Naveen KhareProf., Deptt. of Chemistry, Lucknow University, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh

Prof.(Dr.) S. M. NatuProf., Deptt. of Pathalogy,K.G. Medical University, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh

Dr. Kusum Lata Mishra,In-charge, Coagulation Laboratory, Deptt. of Pathology,

K.G. Medical University, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh

Prof.(Dr.)V.K. Sharma,Prof., Deptt. of Chemistry, Lucknow University, Uttar Pradesh

Prof.(Dr.) R.K. ShuklaProf., Deptt. of Physics, Lucknow University, Lucknow Uttar Pradesh

Prof.(Dr.)Anil GaurProf., Deptt. of Biotechnology & Genetic Engg., G.B. Pant University of Agr. &Technology, Pant Nagar, Uttarakhand

Dr. Mahesh PalPrincipal Scientist ,Phytochemistry Division, CSIR- National Botanical ResearchInstitute, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh

Dr. Vinod SinghAssoc. Prof. & Head, Deptt. of Microbiology, Baruktulla University, Bhopal,Madhya Pradesh

Dr. K.K.VermaAssoc. Prof., Deptt. of Physics & Electronics.Dr. R. M. L. Awadh University ,Faizabad,Uttar Pradesh

Dr. Atul GuptaSenior Scientist, CSIR- Central Institute of Medicinal & Aromatic Plants,Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh

Dr. Saudan Singh,Senior Principal Scientist,CSIR- Central Institute of Medicinal & Aromatic Plants ,Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh

Dr. S.K.TiwariSenior Principal Scientist ,CSIR- National Botanical Research Institute, Lucknow,Uttar Pradesh

Dr. Shivani Pandey,Asstt. Prof., Deptt. of Biochemistry,K.G.Medical University, Lucknow, U.P.

Dr. B.C. Yadav,Lucknow Associate Prof. & Coordinator, Deptt. of Applied Physics, School forPhysical Sciences, Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University, Lucknow, U.P.

Dr. Anchal Srivastava,Prof., Deptt of Physics, Lucknow University,Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh

Dr. Shalini BariarAsstt. Professor, Durga Devi Saraf Institute of Management, Mumbai, India

Dr.A.K.PandeyPrincipal Scientist, National Bureau of Fish Genetic Resources,Lucknow, U.P.

Dr.S.K.PandeyG.M. LML Factory, Kanpur Uttar Pradesh

Dr. Suneet Kumar Awasthi,Asst. Prof ,Deptt.of PhysicsJ.P. University, Noida, Uttar Pradesh

Dr.G. N. PandeyAsst. Prof, Deptt. of Physics Amity University, Noida ,Uttar Pradesh

Dr. Mukesh VermaAsst. Prof., Deptt. of Physical Education, Dr. R.M.L. Avadh University, Faizabad,Uttar Pradesh

Dr. Abhay Singh,Head, Physical Education, Delhi Public School, Lucknow Uttar Pradesh

Dr. Santosh GaurAsst. Prof. Deptt. of Physical Education, Jawahar Lal Nehru P.G. College,Barabanki, Uttar Pradesh

Dr.Sanjeev Kumar JhaSenior Scientist, DEOACC Patna

Dr. Shivlok SinghScientist, DEOACC, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh

Dr. Anurag Tripathi,Asstt . Prof. , Deptt. of Electrical Engg., Institute of Engg. & Technology, SitapurRoad, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh

Prof. V.P.SharmaSenior Principal Scientist, CSIR-Indian Institute of Toxicology Research,Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh

Dr. Krishna GopalFormer Deputy Director & Head , Aquatic Toxicology Division, CSIR- IndianInstitute of Toxicology Research, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh

Dr. S.P. ShuklaProf. , Deptt. of Civil Engg., Institute of Engg. & Technology, Sitapur Road ,Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh

Dr. Ajay MishraAssociate Prof. , Deptt. of Geology, Lucknow University, Lucknow , U. P.

Dr. Ashutosh SinghProf., Deptt. of Chemistry,Saket P.G. College, Ayodhya, Faizabad, U. P.

Dr. S.K. SinghPrincipal, Gita College of Education , Nimbari, Panipat, Haryana

Shri Sudesh BhatAdvisor (Education), Sky Institute, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh

Dr. Krishna GopalAsst. Prof., Deptt. of English,Rama University, Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh

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ABOUT EDITOR-IN- CHIEF : DR. B. R. PANDEY

Dr. B. R. Pandey is a well known academician and scientist with brilliant academic career and

research accomplishments . He has done M.Sc. ( organic chemistry) from Banaras Hindu University,

Varanasi, India in the year 1972. He has done PhD in Medicinal Chemistry under the guidance of world

renowned Biochemist & Medicinal Chemist, Professor S.S. Parmar , Professor of Medicinal Chemistry &

Chemical Pharmacology, Department of Pharmacology & Therapeutics, K. G. Medical College, Lucknow (

Presently K. G. Medical University), Faculty of Medicine, University of Lucknow, Lucknow, India in the

year 1976. Dr. Pandey has all throughout first class educational qualifications and his research interest

covers medicinal chemistry, biochemical pharmacology, neurochemistry, neuro-toxicology, environmental

chemistry, herbal medicine & natural products. He is having extensive research experience of more than 40

years and published several research papers in peer reviewed journals of international repute. His research

particularly on the studies of central nervous system acting drugs and anti-inflammatory drugs and their

biochemical mode of action using animal models and enzymes such as monoamine oxidase, acetylcholine

esterase, purine catabolizing enzymes , proteolytic enzymes, membrane stabilizing enzymes, respiratory

enzymes, microsomal enzymes etc. has been well recognized as evidenced by his research publications .

Further, his research on developing herbal medicines has been found very useful in prevention and treatment

of chronic diseases and other refractory diseases for which modern system of medicine have no permanent

cure. He has worked on the position of Joint Director, Council of Science & Technology, U.P., Lucknow,

Department of Science & Technology, Uttar Pradesh Government, India from the year 1979 to 2011, where

he successfully executed several R & D projects in various disciplines of Science & Technology including

chemical & pharmaceutical sciences, medical sciences, biological sciences, environmental sciences etc.

During his tenure as Joint Director, he has been instrumental in launching and implementing important

schemes: Young Scientists Scheme, Young Scientist Visiting Fellowship Scheme, Establishment of Centre of

Excellence- Encephalitis Research Centre of Excellence in Sanjay Gandhi Post Graduate Institute of Medical

Sciences ( SGPGIMS), Lucknow , U. P. India ; Centre of Excellence in Materials Science ( nano materials)

in Z. H. College of Engg. & Technology, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, U.P. India, Establishment of

Patent Information Centre in the premises of Council of Science & Technology , U.P. He has also worked

on the post of Secretary ( as additional charge ) , Council of Science & Technology, U.P. several times and

functioned as Administrative Head of the Organization. Prior to taking over the position of Joint Director,

Council of Science & Technology, U.P. in the year 1979, he has worked as Junior Research Fellow/ Senior

Research Fellow ( Council of Scientific & Industrial Research, New Delhi ), Assistant Research Officer (

Jawaharlal Nehru Laboratory of Molecular Biology) at Department of Pharmacology & Therapeutics, K.

G. Medical College ( presently K. G. Medical University), Faculty of Medicine, University of Lucknow,

Lucknow, India from the year 1972 to 1979 and involved in multidisciplinary biomedical research leading to

drug development . He has worked as Visiting Scientist / Faculty in the Department of Physiology, School

of Medicine, University of North Dakota, Grand Forks, North Dakota, USA and also visited scientific

institutions in Sweden, U.K. and U.S.A. under Training Program on Capacity Building in Environmental

Research Management (World Bank Funding Project). After his superannuation in the year 2011, he has

been associated with International Institute of Herbal Medicine (IIHM), Lucknow, India as Professor and is

presently associated with Sky Institute, Lucknow , India as Director ( Research) and involved in programs

related to higher education and research of scientific & technological fields. He has organized several

3

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national and international conferences. He has actively participated in national and international conferences,

symposia and workshops and presented research papers and chaired scientific / technical sessions. He is

life member and fellow of many scientific societies such as National Academy of Sciences India , Society

of Toxicology of India, Indian Academy of Neurosciences, Bioved Research Society India, International

Society for Herbal Medicine (ISHM), Society of Biological Sciences and Rural Development, India. He has

been member of several scientific expert committees/ advisory committees to evaluate scientific research

proposals. Dr. Pandey has been actively associated with various universities and institutions in India as

examiner for conducting graduate, post graduate and doctoral level examinations in disciplines like chemical

sciences, pharmaceutical sciences, biochemical sciences, biotechnology and allied areas and member of

Board of Studies for the academic development in the department. He has been approved research supervisor

for guiding research in chemistry, biotechnology and related areas from various universities of India leading

to PhD Degree. In view of his vast research and administrative experience and broad R & D vision, Dr.

Pandey has been associated with International Journal of Scientific & Innovative Research (IJSIR) as

Editor-in-Chief.

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FROM THE DESK OF CHAIRMAN, SKY INSTITUTE

It is my privilege to state that I have great desire to contribute to the

development of our country and to bring about social transformation through

education, higher learning and research. This inner feeling prompted me to establish

Sky Institute in Lucknow (Uttar Pradesh), the city known for its rich cultural heritage

and vibrant academic institutions of higher learning. Sky Institute, since its inception

in the year 2006, has been functioning to impart various educational and training

courses with a vision to improving lives through education, research and innovation. The institute provides

a professional learning environment that acts as a catalyst, for the exponential growth of student as well as

extracurricular abilities. It conducts regular courses at the level of graduate and post graduate followed by

research courses leading to M Phil and PhD in all subjects in association with universities .

I feel great pleasure to highlight that Sky Institute has started to publish a bi-annual journal

“International Journal of Scientific and Innovative Research ( IJSIR ) which encourages to publish research

articles in all branches of science, technology ,engineering, health, agriculture and management. Research

articles in the field of education are also considered in order to improve educational standard in educational

institutions with innovative technologies. First volume of the journal has been successfully published. The

present issue of second volume of the journal contains useful and informative research articles which

may be interesting to readers and educational and research organizations. The association of eminent

faculty and scientists of reputed organizations with our journal is highly appreciable.

I call upon all the students who are willing to join various programs/courses being run at Sky

Institute in association with selected universities, to strive hard to gain knowledge, transform it into skills

with right attitude and inculcate the habit of learning, which will drive them to self directed learning.

My best wishes to all the aspiring students.

5

Mohit Bajpai

Chairman

Sky Institute

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CONTENTS PAGE

MICROBIAL CHOLESTEROL OXIDASES 1

AKANKSHA SRIVASTAVA, RAM NIWAS, VINEETA SINGH, AMREEN KHAN, C.K.M. TRIPATHI

VAJRADANTI -TRADITIONAL TO MODERN ERA 12

VIBHA SINGH

BIOMEDICAL APPLICATIONS OF HELIUM : AN OVERVIEW 17

B. R. PANDEY, SATENDRA SINGH, NIDHI SHARMA, SANJAY DIXIT

BIOMEDICAL APPLICATIONS OF EXIMER LASERS 27

B. R. PANDEY, SATENDRA SINGH, NIDHI SHARMA, SANJAY DIXIT

SUCCESSION AND LIFE CYCLE OF BEETLES ON THE EXPOSED CARCASS 46

REEMA SONKER, SUNITA RAWAT AND KALPANA SINGH

PUPAL DIAPAUSE IN THE FLESH FLY, SARCOPHAGA DUX 51

S. RAWAT, R.SONKER AND K.SINGH

A REVIEW OF CONTROL STRATEGIES FOR SHUNT ACTIVE POWER 55

FILTER FOR HARMONICS COMPENSATION

SANJAY MATHUR, NIYAZ HASAN KAZMI, TALAHA CHISTI, ANURAG TRIPATHI

STUDY OF DOMAIN SIZE IN ORDER- DISORDER NANO-FERROELECTRIC POWDERS 61

FROM NMR RESPONSE OF I=3/2 QUADRUPOLAR SPIN SYSTEMS

AHIRWAL P. K, CHAITANYA P., SHUKLA A. AND PANDEY L.

EVOLUTION OF WATER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM 72

NIAZ AHMED SIDDIQUI

RIGHT TO INFORMATION- A TOOL OF GOOD GOVERNACE 80

SUNIL KUMAR SINGH, RUPINDER KAUR GULATI, POOJA AWASTHI, OM PRAKASH

A COMPARISON OF SPORTS STRESS AND PERSONALITY TRAITS AMONG SPORTS COLLEGE, 88

SPORTS HOSTEL AND STADIUM BADMINTON PLAYERS

TANUJ KUMAR, SATISH SINGH, MANJEET SINGH BHANDARI, RAKESH PRASAD SEMWAL, ABHAY SINGH

STUDIES ON THE BATCH ADSORPTION OF METHYLENE BLUE FROM AQUEOUS

SOLUTIONS ONTO RICE HUSK 91

R. SRIVASTAVA, D.C.RUPAINWAR

AIRBORN BACTERIA AND FUNGI LEVEL IN INDOOR AND OUTDOOR AREAS 108

AASHISH TIWARI, DIVYA SAHNI, A.H. KHAN

IN SILICO PREDICTION OF EPITOPE-BASED PEPTIDES FROM PROTEOME OF NIPAH VIRUS 119

B. R. PANDEY, SUGANDHA SINGH, SHIPRA SRIVASTAVA, NIDHI SHARMA

A STUDY OF ENVIRONMENTAL AWARENESS AMONG B.ED. STUDENTS OF 125

DEHRADUN DISTRICT, UTTARAKHAND

SHAILJA ASTHANA AND D.K. DIVEDI

LIFE INSURANCE AND ITS PROVISION OF IN-BUILD SECURITY 131

IMRAN FAROOQ, JYOTI AGARWAL, KAMLESH KUMAR SHUKLA

AIR QUALITY INDEX FOR UTTAR PRADESH WITH A FOCUS ON LUCKNOW 134

SHUKLA S.P., SACHAN R., DWIVEDI L., SHARMA K. J., YADAV V.P., SINGH N.B.

VALUE BASED EDUCATION AND HUMAN DEVELOPMENT 152

ANSHU TRIPATHI AND B.C. TRIPATHI

6

International Journal of Scientific and Innovative Research 2015; 3(1) : 1-11,

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www.ijsir.co.in 1

MICROBIAL CHOLESTEROL OXIDASES

AKANKSHA SRIVASTAVA 1, RAM NIWAS 1, VINEETA SINGH 1,

AMREEN KHAN 2, *C.K.M. TRIPATHI 2

1Microbiology Division, CSIR - Central Drug Research Institute, Lucknow, India2Department of Biotechnology, Shri Ramswaroop Memorial University, Lucknow, India

*Address for correspondence: Dr. C.K.M. Tripathi, Department of Biotechnology, Shri Ramswaroop

Memorial University, Lucknow - Deva Road, Lucknow-225003, India, Email ID: [email protected]

ABSTRACT

Cholesterol oxidase, a bi-functional FAD-containing microbial enzyme belongs to the family

oxidoreductases which catalyzes the oxidation of cholesterol into 4-cholesten-3-one. In recent

time, cholesterol oxidase has received great attention due to its wider use in clinical

(determination of serum cholesterol) laboratories practice and in the biocatalysis for the

production of a number of steroids. Cholesterol oxidase (COD) has been shown to possess

potent insecticidal activity, besides its use to track cell cholesterol. Moreover, this enzyme is

also implicated in the manifestation of some of the diseases of bacterial (tuberculosis), viral

(HIV) and non-viral prion origin (Alzheimer’s). These applications and disease mechanisms

have promoted the need of screening, isolation and characterization of newer microbes from

diverse habitats as a source of COD to learn more about its structural and functional aspects.

In this review, we discuss microbial sources of COD, its structure and important biochemical

properties besides its broad range of biological functions and applications.

Keywords: Cholesterol, Steroids, Bio-catalysis, Microorganisms, Biosensors

INTRODUCTION

The enzyme Cholesterol oxidase (COD)

(cholesterol: oxygen oxidoreductase, EC 1.1.3.6)

catalyzes the oxidation of cholesterol to 4-

cholesten-3-one in the presence of O2[1]. COD

has wide applications in clinical, pharmaceuticals,

food and agricultural industries which has

considerably increased the demand of this

enzyme. Various microorganisms are reported

to produce COD with specific properties.

Cholesterol oxidases are used to determine

cholesterol concentration in food and blood

serum by coupling of the enzyme with peroxidase[2,3] in the production of precursors for chemical

synthesis of steroid hormones, degradation of

dietary cholesterol in foods [4] and as biological

control agent [5].

COD is a monomeric bi-functional flavinadenine dinucleotide (FAD) containing enzymewhich belongs to the oxidoreductases family andacts on the CH-OH group of donor with oxygenas an acceptor. COD catalyzes the oxidation of3 β -hydroxoysteroids and the isomerization of

5-6-ene- 3 β -ketosteroid (cholest-5-en-3-one)to produce 3-4-ene-3 β -ketosteroid (cholest-4-en-3-one) (Figure 1)

Figure 1: Breakdown of cholesterol with the help of

cholesterol oxidase

SOURCES OF CHOLESTEROL OXIDASE

Cholesterol oxidase has been isolated andcharacterized from numerous microorganismsthat are found in different environments (Figure2). The first COD enzyme was isolated from

Nocardia (later Rhodococcus) erythropolis and

oxidant effect of cholesterol was explored [6].

Mycobacterium sp. and Streptomyces sp. are

reported from soil for COD production. COD

producing microorganisms have also been

isolated from food stuffs like chicken fat, pork

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fat, butter and bacon eg. Rhodococcus strain[7].COD has also been reported in many other

microorganisms such as Arthrobacter sp. [8,9]

Corynebacterium sp. [10] Nocardia erythropolis [11],

Rhodococcus erythropolis [12,13], Mycobacterium

sp. [14], Brevibacterium sterolicum,

Streptoverticillium sp. [15], Streptomyces violascens[16] , Streptomyces sp. [17-19], and Enterobacter sp.[20]. COD has also been isolated from some gram-

negative bacteria such as Pseudomonas sp. [21],

Chromobacterium sp. [22]. COD from a eukaryotic

microorganism Schizophyllum sp. (identified as

basidiomycetes) has also been reported [23].

Table 2: Milestones of discoveries related to

cholesterol oxidase enzyme

STRUCTURE OF CHOLESTEROL OXIDASE

There are two distinct types of COD that

bind with FAD cofactor in two different ways: non-

covalently and covalently. They also differ in

terms of structure, folding, kinetic and

thermodynamic properties. Two types of

cholesterol oxidases are reported.

Class-I cholesterol oxidase

The class-I COD enzyme contains the FAD

redox cofactor which is non-covalently bound to

the enzyme. It belongs to the glucose-methanol-

choline (GMC) oxidoreductase family and has

been found mostly in actinomycetes such as

Streptomyces sp. The structural and mutational

analysis of Streptomyces sp. (class-I enzyme)

has revealed that His447 and Glu361 residues

are implicated in the activity for the oxidation and

isomerization steps[34] and reported comparison

of amino acid sequences from class-I enzymes

eg. Streptomyces sp., Rhodococcus sp. and

Mycobacterium sp. These sequences contain a

consensus sequence for FAD binding, Gly-X-

Gly-X-X-Gly, in the N-terminal region of the

COD[35].

The class-I enzyme possesses the

characteristic nucleotide-binding fold (Rossmann

fold) consisting of a -pleated sheet

sandwiched between -helices and the motif

needed for binding the cofactor. The

diphosphate group of the cofactor is positioned

closely to the N terminus of the first -helix of

the protein where the conserved GXGXG glycine

residues are located [29].

Class-II cholesterol oxidase

In the class-II enzyme the FAD cofactor

covalently linked to the enzyme [36]. The class-II

enzyme belongs to the (VAO) vanillyl-alcohol-

oxidase family. This enzyme has been found in

Brevibacterium sterolicum, Rhodococcus

erythropolis and gram-negative bacteria such as

Burkholderia sp., Chromobacterium sp. and

Pseudomonas aeruginosa showing similarity

(43% to 99%) to one another. The structure of

COD (class-II enzyme) from the Brevibacterium

sterolicum has been determined by X-ray

crystallography and refined to high resolution.

The structure suggested that the FAD was

covalently bound to an active-site histidine

(His121) via the C8 group of the flavin

isoalloxazine ring. This covalent bond is

implicated in the redox potential and contributes

to the stability of the enzyme [37].

In addition, Glu475 and Arg477, located at

the active-site cavity, were suggested to

constitute gate functioning in the control of

oxygen access. In the covalent form of the

enzyme, the diphosphate moiety is localized in

the residues found between the third and fourth

b-strands of a four-stranded -pleated sheet.


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www.ijsir.co.in 3

COD has been known in a number of

microorganisms and these flavoenzymes exhibit

different sequences that suggest structural

differences between the proteins. The

comparison of sequence alignments are

performed using CLUSTALW2 (http://

www.expasy.ch.) for different types of CODs.

Amino acids sequences are obtained using the

protein search algorithm at The National Centre

for Biotechnology Information (NCBI) [38].

MODE OF ACTION OF CHOLESTEROLOXIDASE

The CODs enzymes are bi functional,

catalyzing the oxidation of D5-ene-3b-

hydroxysteroids with a trans A±B ring junction to

the D5-3- ketosteroid and also isomerization to

the D4-3-ketosteroid [26]. The mode of action

depends on the presence of molecular oxygen

and NAD-dependent dehydrogenases e.g. the

coupled enzyme 3b-hydroxysteroid: NAD (P)

oxidoreductase-3-ketosteroid D4, D5-isomerase

(3b-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase: D5-

isomerase) from the mitochondrial fraction of

human placenta. COD catalyzes three chemical

reactions (Figure 2).

In the first catalytic step, the

dehydrogenation of the alcohol function at the

3-position of the steroid ring system occurs,

resulting in two redox equivalents which are

transferred to the (oxidized) flavin cofactor that

becomes reduced in the process. In the second

catalytic step, the reduced flavin reacts with

dioxygen to regenerate the oxidized enzyme and

hydrogen peroxide (H2O

2) (oxidative half-

reaction). Finally in the third step, the oxidized

steroid undergoes an isomerization of the

double bond in the steroid ring system from D5-

6 to D4-5 and formed the final product cholest-

4-en-3-one. In general, this isomerization

reaction occurs faster than the release of the

intermediate cholest-5-en-3-one [38].

PROPERTIES OF CHOLESTEROL OXIDASES

Cholesterol oxidases are produced from

several microorganisms and its properties have

been extensively studied. Various properties of

microbial cholesterol oxidases (molecular weight,

pH and temperature optima, effect of metal ions

and detergents) are summarized in Table 2b.

COD molecular weights have been reported to

be in the range of 47–61 kDa. Most of the CODs

are produced extracellular into the growth

medium. However some of the intracellular or

membrane-bound CODs have been reported

from Mycobacterium [39], Rhodococcus [40,41]. R.

erythropolis produces both membrane-bound

and extracellular cholesterol oxidases [41].

Effect of pH and temperature on the activity

and stability of cholesterol oxidases

Generally microbial CODs have neutral pH

optima and possess stability over a wide range.

The enzymes have temperature optima in the

range of 37–60°C. The optimum temperature

(70°C) of cholesterol oxidase from Streptomyces

fradiae is the highest among the enzymes

reported so far [42]. COD produced from

Chromobacterium sp. strain DS-1 is highly

thermo-stable [22]. The thermal stability of the DS-

1 enzyme was compared with commercially

available cholesterol oxidases from various

bacterial sources such as Streptomyces sp.,

Cellulomonas sp., Nocardia sp., Nocardia

erythropolis, Pseudomonas fluorescens, and B.

cepacia ST-200 and it was found that all of these

commercial enzymes lost most of their activities

Figure 2: Mechanism of reaction catalyzed by

cholesterol oxidase

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P-ISSN 2347-2189, E- ISSN 2347-4971

after incubation at 60–80°C for 30 min [22] while

enzyme from strain DS-1 had retained 80% of

its original activity even at 85°C after 30 min. [43]

and improved the thermal stability of

Streptomyces COD by random mutagenesis.

Effect of metal ions on the activity ofcholesterol oxidases

Generally CODs activity does not require

metal ions but some COD activity was enhanced

in the presence of metal ions. Chelating agents,

including EDTA, o-phenanthroline, and 8-

hydroxyquinoline, did not show a significant

inhibitory effect on the enzyme activity [44,45,22]. In

many cases, cholesterol oxidase activity is

remarkably inhibited by an SH inhibitor, Hg2+, or

Ag+ represented in Table 2b. Exceptionally, Cu2+

increases COD activity approximately 2-3 fold

in some strains as Streptomyces sp.

Enterobacter sp. and Bordetella sp. [18,9,20]. By

contrast Ag+ scarcely influenced the activity of

the enzyme from strain DS-1 [22]. FeSO4

remarkably inhibited the activity of the enzyme

from S. violascens and Streptomyces sp. [44.18].

CuSO4 significantly inhibited the COD activity of

Streptoverticillium cholesterolieum. In the

addition of p-chloro-mercuric benzonate partially

reduced the COD activity produced from A.

simplex [8] and B. sterolicum [24]. The activities of

the enzymes from Pseudomonas sp. COX629,

-Proteobacterium and Streptomyces parvus

were partially activated by the addition of Mn2+

[21,45,19]. SDS and β -Mercaptoethanol significantly

inhibited the COD activity produced from

Streptomyces sp. and Streptomyces parvus [19,18].

Effect of detergents and organic solventson the activity of cholesterol oxidases

Cholesterol is an insoluble compound sodetergents are often added to the reactionsolution to act as a solubilizer. For diagnosis ofhyperlipidemia or atherosclerotic diseases themonitoring of high-density lipoprotein (HDL)cholesterol and low-density lipoprotein (LDL)cholesterol in serum is important. Therefore,several methods for the separation of HDL orLDL cholesterol with various detergents havebeen presumed [46,47,48]. Since detergentsinfluence the COD activity [49,19] and ofteninactivate cholesterol oxidases as well as mostenzymes [45,22,19,18] a COD with high activity and

stability in the presence of a wide range ofdetergents is expected to improve the differentialassay method for HDL and LDL cholesterol inserum. A detergent-tolerant COD was reportedfrom -Proteobacterium Y-134 and this enzymeretained more than 80% of its original activity in0.5% Triton X-405 and sodium cholate afterincubation for 1 h at 60°C. At this experimentalcondition commercially available enzymes fromNocardia, Brevibacterium and Streptomyces lostmost of their activities. Commercially availableCODs were completely inactivated by theaddition of ionic detergents such as sodiumdodecyl sulfate (SDS) or sodium lauryl benzenesulfonate (LBS) after incubation for 1 h at 30°C.By contrast, the COD produced fromChromobacterium sp. DS-1 was relativelytolerant to SDS and LBS. In addition, thetreatment with sodium dodecyl sarcosinate orEmal 20CM completely inactivated all of theenzymes except the DS-1 enzyme after 1 h at60°C. The DS-1 enzyme was relatively tolerantto these detergents even at 60°C.

Organic solvents are also employed tosolubilize the steroids. COD has been used forthe optical resolution of non-steroidalcompounds, allylic alcohols [50,5] and thebioconversion of 3 -hydroxysteroids in thepresence of organic solvents [52]. Therefore, anorganic solvent-tolerant COD would be usefulfor several applications. Organic solvents ofteninfluence the cholesterol oxidase activity [49].Laane et al. [53] has reported that organic solventswith low log Pow values inactivate most enzymes.Pollegioni et al. [49] examined the stability of CODproduced from Streptomyces hygroscopicus andB. sterolicum in the presence of variousconcentrations of isopropanol. The activity of theB. sterolicum COD is rapidly inactivated, whereasthe S. hygroscopicus enzyme retained 70% ofthe initial activity after 5 h in the presence of 30%propan-2-ol at 25°C. Commercially availablecholesterol oxidases including Streptomyces sp.,Cellulomonas sp., Nocardia sp., N. erythropolis,and P. fluorescens, were inactivated by theaddition of 50% volume of dimethylsulfoxide,methanol, ethanol, acetone isopropanol, ethylacetate, or butanol after incubation at 37°C for24 h. By contrast, Chromobacterium sp. DS-1,B. cepacia ST-200 and Streptomyces sp.enzymes were stable in the presence of all

solvents except for acetone.


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SUBSTRATE SPECIFICITY

The oxidation rate affects length and

structure of the 17-side chain the steroid ring D.

Next to cholesterol most of the CODs oxidized

-cholestanol at a high rate. The double bond

between the positions of the 5 and 6 do not seem

to be very important for this enzyme activity.

There seems to be a tendency for sterols with

the short side chain to be oxidized at a low rate.

Although the oxidation rates of pregnenolone by

most enzymes were slow and enzymes from

Chromobacterium sp. DS-1, Streptomyces sp.

SA-COO, and S. violascens oxidized pregneno-

lone at a high rate. Substrate specificity of CODs

is briefly summarized in Table 2.

Table 2. Characterization COD produced from different microbial sources

Sources M.Wt. (kDa)

Optimum pH

Optimum Temp (°C)

Substrate Specificity Inhibitors References

Arthrobacter simplex 57 7.5 50 Cholesterol, Ergosterol and

-Stigmasterol. HgCl2 [8]

Arthrobacter sp. IM79 63 7.5-8.5 40-50 Cholesterol, Ergosterol and

-Stigmasterol. - [54]

Brevibacterium sterolicum

55 7.5 50

-Stigmasterol, Dehydroepiandrosterone,

-Sitosterol and -Cholestanol.

HgCl2 and AgNO3

[24]

Bordetella sp. 55 7.0 50 - Hg2+

and Ag+ [8]

Burkholderia cepaca ST-200

60 6.8-8.0 60

-Stigmasterol, Dehydroepiandrosterone,

-Sitosterol, -Cholestanol and

Epiandrosterone.

- [22]

Corynebacterium cholesterolicum

57 7.0-7.5 40-42

-Stigmasterol, Dehydroepiandrosterone, Ergosterol, Pregnenolone and

-Sitosterol.

HgCl2 and AgNO3

[55]

Chromobacterium sp. DS-1

58 7.0-7.5 65

-Stigmasterol, -Sitosterol,

-Cholestanol Epiandrosterone, Dehydroepiandrosterone and Ergosterol.

[22]

Enterobacter sp. 58 7.0 - Hg2+

andAg+ [20]

Nocardia rhodochrous

7.0 30 [11]

Schizophyllum commune

53 5.0 - Cholesterol, Dehydr epiandro sterone and Pregnenolone.

- [23]

Streptomyces fradiae 60 7.0 70 - [42]

Streptomyces sp. SA-COO

58 6.5-7.0 45-50

-Stigmasterol, Dehydroepiandrosterone, Ergosterol,Pregnenolone,

-Sitosterol and -Cholestanol.

Hg++

and Ag+ [21]

Streptomyces sp. 55 7.0 - [56]

Streptomyces sp. 62 7.5 37 - Ba

++, Mn

++,

Hg++

[18]

Streptomyces parvus 55 7.2 50

Cholestero -Stigmasterol, Dehydroepiandrosterone, Ergosterol, Pregnenolone,

-Sitosterol, and -Cholestanol.

Pb++

, Ag++

, Hg

++ and Zn

++

[19]

Streptoverticillium cholesterolieum

56 7.0-7.5

-Stigmasterol, Dehydroepiandrosterone, Ergosterol, Pregnenolone,

-Sitosterol, and -Cholestanol.

Hg2+

and Ag+ [67]

-Proteobacterium 58 6.5 50 -Stigmasterol and

- -Cholestanol [45]

Pseudomonas sp.COX629

56 7.0 -Stigmastero

-Cholestanol. Fe

2+, Zn

2+ and

Hg2+

[21]

Pseudomonas sp. strain ST-200

60 7 60

-Stigmasterol, Dehydroepiandrosterone, Ergosterol, Pregnenolone,

- -Cholestanol and Epicholesterol.

[58]

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APPLICATIONS OF CHOLESTEROLOXIDASES

COD of microbial origin are the enzymes of

great interest in the present era. COD is widely

used in clinical diagnosis and determining lipid

disorders. It is used as an insecticide also [59] and

plays a role in lysis of macrophages and

leukocytes as well. The important applications

of COD have been discussed below under

separate categories.

Clinical applications

COD is useful for the clinical determination

of cholesterol levels in foods, serum (HDL and

LDL) for the assessment of atherosclerotic

diseases and other lipid disorders as well as the

risk of thrombosis [60]. Analysis of serum

cholesterol is generally accomplished by using

a three enzyme assay [2,25]. Because most of the

cholesterol present in serum samples is

esterified, the incubation of serum with

cholesterol esterase (EC 3.1.1.13) is necessary

to release free cholesterol. After that peroxidase

enzyme (EC 1.11.1.7) subsequently catalyzes the

oxidative coupling reaction with hydrogen

peroxide, 4-aminoantipyrine and phenol to form

a red quinoneimine dye. This red dye is easy to

measure by spectrophotometric determination.

In recent years various electrochemical

biosensors using the immobilized CODs have

been reported for the determination of

cholesterol in serum and food.

Insecticidal activity

Bacterial COD has potent insecticidal

activity against the cotton boll weevil

(Anthonomus grandis). Purcell et al. [31]

discovered a highly efficient protein that killed

boll weevil (Anthonomusgrandis grandis

Boheman) larvae from Streptomyces culture

filtrates and identified the protein as cholesterol

oxidase. The COD is involved in the lysis of the

mid gut epithelial cells of the larvae. Cholesterol

or the related sterol at the membrane of the boll

weevil mid gut epithelium seemed to be

accessible to the enzyme and it is oxidized by

cholesterol oxidase causing lysis of the mid gut

epithelial cells resulting in larval death. Purified

COD was active against boll weevil larvae at a

concentration (LC50

of 20.9 ìg/ml), which is

comparable to the bioactivity of Bacillus

thuringiensis proteins against other insect pests.

Corbin et al. [5] studied that enzyme also which

exhibits insecticidal activity against lepidopteran

cotton insect pests, tobacco budworm

(Heliothisvirescens), corn earworm

(Helicoverpazea) and pink bollworm

(Pectinophora gossypiella). Recently, it was

reported that Chromobacterium subtsugae has

insecticidal properties [61]. Cholesterol oxidase

might be involved in this insecticidal activity

because it was recently found that

Chromobacterium strains produce cholesterol

oxidase [22] and also shows insecticidal activity.

Some insecticide proteins are vital for pest

control strategies employing transgenic crops.

Corbin et al. [5] expressed the Streptomyces COD

gene in tobacco protoplasts and Cho et al. [62]

also have succeeded in the expression of the

COD gene in tobacco cells.

Transformation of sterols and non-steroidalcompounds and production of steroidhormones precursors

Bioconversion of non-water-soluble

compounds has been hindered because of their

low solubility in an aqueous medium. Sterols

including cholesterol are insoluble compounds

so various reaction systems with COD have

been developed. COD has been used for the

transformation of cholesterol to cholest-4-en-3-

one in the presence of different organic solvents

in reverse micelles system [63] and in supercritical

carbon dioxide. COD has a broad range of

substrate specificity and can be used for the

bioconversion of a number of 3 -hydroxyster-

oids which can be used for the synthesis of

steroid hormones and other pharmaceutical

steroids in the presence of organic solvents and

in aqueous medium containing modified

cyclodextrin [64]. Also cholesterol oxidase can be

used for the optical resolution of non-steroidal

compounds allylic alcohols in the presence of

organic solvents [50]. A wide range of

microorganisms can metabolize cholesterol and

use it as a sole carbon and energy source [65].

Cholesterol degradation is achieved through a

complex metabolic pathway involving many

enzymatic steps starting with the oxidation of the

3 β -hydroxyl group by COD followed by the

oxidation of the 17- alkyl side chain and the


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steroid ring system and ultimately degrading the

entire molecule to CO2 and H

2O. A number of

Mycobacterium strains treated with mutagens

have been reported to accumulate sterol

biodegradation intermediates such as 4-

androstene-3, 17-dione and 1,4-androstadiene-

3,17-dione [66]. These intermediates may be used

as precursors for the production of steroid drugs

and hormones.

A potential target for new antibiotics

Some pathogenic bacteria which possess

cholesterol oxidases are thought to contribute

to their pathogenicity. Navas et al. [34] observed

that the COD is a major membrane damaging

factor of Rhodococcus equi which is a primary

pathogen of horses and an opportunistic

pathogen in humans. The disruption of the COD

gene was associated with a loss of cooperative

(CAMP-like) hemolysis with sphingomyelinase

producing bacteria. However the gene disruption

analysis of the choE gene in R. equi performed

by another group showed no difference between

the mutant and parent strain in cytotoxic activity

for macrophages or in intra macrophage

multiplication. Mycobacterium tuberculosis is also

a principal bacterial pathogen of humans and

has been found to possess cholesterol oxidase.[67] . It has been shown that the choD mutant of

M. tuberculosis was attenuated in peritoneal

macrophages. The mice infection experiments

confirmed the significance of choD in the

pathogenesis of M. tuberculosis. Thus, there

seems to be opposite effects of the genes

disruption in R. equi and in M. tuberculosis. S.

natalensis cholesterol oxidase (PimE) has been

described as a key enzyme in the biosynthesis

of the polyene macrolide pimaricin [68]. Pimaricin

is a macrolide antifungal antibiotic widely used

in the food industry. The antifungal activity of

pimaricin is involved in its interaction with

membrane sterols, causing the alternation of

membrane structure and leading to the leakage

of cellular materials. The pimE gene is located

in the center of the pimaricin biosynthetic cluster.

The gene disruption completely blocked the

pimaricin production, whereas gene

complementation recovered the antibiotic

production. The addition of purified PimE or

commercial cholesterol oxidases to the gene

disruptant culture triggered the pimaricin

production. These results suggested that

cholesterol oxidases could act as signaling

proteins for polyene biosynthesis. These new

findings might be important for improving the

productivity of the polyene from S. natalensis.

Studies on membrane structure

Cholesterol is the main constituent of

eukaryotic cell membrane. Cholesterol is

expected to promote and stabilize the local bi-

layer bending which is supposed to take place

during membrane fusion, since the curvature

stress is towards the negative side [69]. Many

researchers have studied the role of cholesterol

in membrane organization that has used COD

as probe [68]. COD has been used as a probe to

investigate the interaction of cholesterol with

phospholipids [70] and the eukaryotic cell

membrane structure i.e., lipid rafts. Pollegioni et

al. [49] demonstrated the inaccessibility of COD

for the outer-membrane surface of human

erythrocytes and virus. The lipid rafts are the

domains in which cholesterol and saturated lipids

present in membrane, such as sphingolipids,

promote the formation of a highly ordered

membrane structure [71]. Lipid rafts participate in

numerous cellular processes including signal

transduction, protein and lipid sorting, cellular

entry by toxins and viruses, and viral budding.

Therefore, the investigation of the lipid raft is

important with regard to the study of eukaryotic

membrane function.

Cholesterol oxidases biosensors

Cholesterol detection is important for clinical

investigation and food analysis. For cholesterol

detection different electrochemical biosensors

have been proposed. Cholesterol biosensors

based on immobilized cholesterol esterase and

cholesterol oxidase have been studied to

determine the total cholesterol content in food

stuffs and electrochemical measurements are

performed in the cholesterol analysis of food

samples. Different types of methods to use COD

as biosensors, such as screen printed electrode[72] hydrogel membranes, polymeric membrane,

self-assembled mono layers, composite sol-gel

membrane , liquid crystal cubic phase matrices

and films prepared by the layer-by-layer

technique have been developed. Generally in

electrochemical biosensor the detection was

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P-ISSN 2347-2189, E- ISSN 2347-4971

monitored on the basis consumption of oxygen

and H2O

2. Novel amperometric biosensors have

been formed by immobilizing COD in sol-gel layer

on CNT-Pt modified electrodes. This biosensor

was successfully used for serum cholesterol

determination.

A new electrochemical biosensor was

introduced in 2010, for determination of

cholesterol that combined with Fourier

transformation continuous cycle voltmeter

[FFTCCV] technique in a flow injection analysis[73]. A surface plasma resonance based biosensor

for simple, label-free, highly selective and

sensitive detection of cholesterol employing the

flavo-enzyme COD as a sensing element has

been proposed by Gehlot et al. [74]. A novel

amperometric cholesterol biosensor immobilized

with COD on electrochemically polymerized poly-

pyrole-polyvinlyulphonate (PPy-PVS) film

entrapped on platinum electrode was developed

by [75].

Commonly cholesterol biosensors have

been used in biochemical analysis owing to their

good selectivity, low cost, small size, fast

response and long term stability. The cited

literature based on cholesterol biosensors have

been mainly focused on diagnosing disorders[76].

Recently a novel COD biosensor has been

fabricated by co-immobilizing three enzymes

COD, cholesterol esterase and HRP on

nanoporous gold network directly grown on

titanium substrate [77]. This biosensor possessed

a wide linear range up to 300 mg/dl in a physical

condition (pH 7.4) for very effective clinical

determination of cholesterol. The microchip

capillary electrophoresis (MCE) was also used

to demonstrate the rapid detection of cholesterol

in serum, using (MCE) fabricated from poly

(dimethylsiloxane) (PDMS) microchip channel

successfully applied to determine cholesterol

levels. Also this developed method was used to

measure cholesterol in a bovine serum standard

solution. The developed polymer micro- fluid

biochip has more advantages like, compact size,

high sensitivity, and high selectivity, low cost and

fast response that appeared to be beneficial to

perform routine analysis in clinical laboratory.

Investigations pertaining with the isolation of

novel COD producing microbial strains having

commercial application will be welcomed in

future.

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Streptomyces cholesterol oxidase gene (ChoA),

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VAJRADANTI -TRADITIONAL TO MODERN ERA

*VIBHA SINGH

Department of Oral and Maxillo Facial Surgery, K.G.Medical University, Lucknow,India

*Address for correspondence: Dr. Vibha singh, Professor, Department of Oral and Maxillo Facial Surgery,

K.G. Medical University, Lucknow, India. Email ID: [email protected]

ABSTRACT

There are approximately 500000 plant species occurring worldwide. The World Health

Organization (WHO) estimates that 4 billion people (80% of the World’s population) use herbal

medicines for some aspect of primary healthcare. These evidences contribute to support and

quantify the importance of screening natural plants. In India 2500 plants and 100 species of

plants used as regular source of medicine .In developed countries 25% of the medical drugs

are based on plants and their derivatives. In Indian traditional systems of medicine (Ayurveda)

it is known as sahachara, baana, kurantaka, kuranta, koranda, korandaka, shairiya and pita-

saireyaka. This is a plant of miraculous nature. It has wide range of medicinal properties

which can be used for welfare of human being without any side effects. It has its traditional use

and well documented to use in modern medicine too.

Keywords: Vajradanti, Anti-inflammatory, Antidontalgic

INTRODUCTION

There are approximately 500000 plant

species occurring worldwide. The World Health

Organization (WHO) estimates that 4 billion

people (80% of the World’s population) use

herbal medicines for some aspect of primary

healthcare. These evidences contribute to

support and quantify the importance of screening

natural plants. In India 2500 plants and 100

species of plants used as regular source of

medicine. In developed countries 25% of the

medical drugs are based on plants and their

derivatives. In Indian traditional systems of

medicine (Ayurveda) vajradanti is known as

sahachara, baana, kurantaka, kuranta, koranda,

korandaka, shairiya and pita-saireyaka. In folk

medicine it is known as piyaabaasaa, jhinti and

katsaraiya. Vajradanti is plant of Ramayan Kal .

It was found near Pampa lake . It is known as

Kurant, and pita Saireyaka in Sanskrit and

vajradanti in Hindi and Baleria prointis in

English. It belongs to family Acanthaecae and

occurs in hotter part of India . Barleria prionitis

L. (Family Acanthaceae; commonly known as

Vajradanti) is an annual shrub, 1–3 feet high,

found throughout Africa, India, Sri Lanka and

tropical Asia.

The chemical constituents present in plants

are a part of the physiological functions of living

flora and hence they are believed to have better

compatibility with the human body. They have

stood the test of time for their safety, efficacy,

cultural acceptability and lesser side effects.

Plant derived medicines have been the first line

of defense in maintaining health and combating

diseases.

The herbal products today symbolize safety

in contrast to the synthetics that are regarded

as unsafe to human and environment .These

evidences contribute to support and quantify the

importance of screening natural plants.

The medicinal properties of Vajradanti are

well reported in Ayurveda as anti-inflammatory

and diuretic .Leaves are used for treating

bleeding gums and tooth ache. It has a long

history of healing and curative properties .It is al

so known as Vajradanti which means strong

teeth. Because of its antidontalgic property it is

known as ‘Vajradanti’. It is al so known as

Porcupine flower.

Oral diseases are major health problems

with dental caries . Oral health influences the

general quality of life and poor oral health is

linked with systemic diseases. The vast diversity


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of Indian forest provides several plants which

are mentioned in Ayurveda for prevention and

management of dental caries. [1] Numerous

medicinal plants have been reported in ancient

literature for the control of oral diseases. In one

of studies , seven plant extracts of Anantmul,

Lavang, Maiphal, Peelu, Trifala, Vajradanti and

Vedang were found to be effective against

Streptococcus mutans and four extracts viz

.Lavang, Maiphal, Trifala and Vajradanti were

found to be active against Candida albicans. [2]

In traditional health practice bark and leaves

of the plants are used for the management of

various diseases. Vajradanti is an annual shrub

1-3 feet in height and its leaves are chewed to

relieve tooth ache and the parts of the roots are

applied to glandular swellings and disperse boil.

It also has been reported as anti- arthritic, anti-

inflammatory and antifertility agent. Juice of the

plant is used in cataract and fever. Its leaves

are also used in some tribal communities for the

treatment of piles and to control irritation .It is

used in stiffness of limbs and enlargement of

scrotum and sciatica .The leaves of this plant

are used to provide healing of wound and relieve

joint pain and bleeding gum. [3]

In South India this plant is widely used in

neurological disorder like paraplegia, sciatica

and also in leprosy and other skin disease .The

plant formulation is available for the treatment

of dysurea ,rheumatic infections ,internal

abscess ,nervine disorders and chronic sinusitis

.The crude extract of this plant in oil is used in

arresting graying of hair, arthritis and gout.

The natural occurring enzyme inhibitors play

an important role in drug discovery program. .

Ethanolic extract of B. prionitis yielded a new

compound. Glutathione S- transferase (GSTs)

are family of enzyme that catalyze the tripeptise

.It has also anti- stress and immuno restorative

properties . Because of its antidontalgic

properties, it is known as Vajrdanti. It is also used

in management of asthma , plant ash mixed with

honey is given in bronchial asthma [4,5] .

PHYTOCHEMISTRY

Hydro methanolic extract of B. prionitis

whole plant indicates the presence of glycosides,

saponins, flavonoids, steroids and tannins. The

leaves and flowering tops were reported to rich

in potassium salt. Several phytochemicals like

balarenone, pipataline, lupeol, prioniside. A,

prioniside B and prinoside C have been isolated

from the ethanolic extract of B. prionitis. Number

of glycosides including barlerinoside

,verascoside shanzhiside methyl ester 6-O trans

–p-coumaroyl 8-O acetylshanzhiside methyl

ester, barlerin , acetylbarlerin ,7-

methoxydiderroside lupulinoside have also been

isolated from the aerial parts. Two anthrax

quinones derivatives have been also identified

in the plant and their structures were

characterized as 1,8 dihydroxy- 2,7dimethyl3,6-

dimethoxy anthraquinone and 1,3,6,8 tetra

methoxy -2, 7-methoxyanthraquinone.The

leaves were reported to contain scutellarein

,melilotic acid ,syringe acid , vanillic acid , p-

hydroxyflavones Beside these phytochemicals

luteolin -7-O beta D-glucoside 14.14

secostigmata -5 ,14-diene -3-a-ol were also

reported in B.prionitis. Methanolic extract of

whole plant indicates presence of glycosides

,saponins . Flowers are rich with potassium salt

and several phytochemicals .The crude extract

of this plant exhibited GST inhibitory activity with

ICS50 value of 160muml and results in isolation

of six natural products balarenone ,pipataline

,lupeol ,prioniside A prioniside B and prionide C

compound.

PHARMACOLOGICAL PROPERTIES

Antibacterial Properties : Ethanol extract

of the plant yielded a new compound along with

other compounds known as balarenone, which is

effective against four bacteria and three fungi viz.Picture of Vajradanti (Baleria prionitis) Plant

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Bacillus species, pseudomonas, staphylococcus

aureus, and streptococcus mutans and candida

albicans ,and saccarromyces cerevisiae. It has

been seen that crude extract of B.prrionitis

possessed good activity against dental caries

causing oral pathogens where modern therapy

has failed . The crude extract of the plant also

showed antibacterial activity against staphareus

and pseudomonas aeroginosa in initial

antibacterial screening.The antibacterial potency

of the plants are believed to be due to

tannin,saponins, phenolic compounds ,essential

oils and flavonoids present in them. The

antimicrobial potency of B.prionitis may be due to

presence of five iridoid glucoside esters, acetyl

barlerin 6,8,di-o-acetyl shanzhisisde methyl ester

,shanzhiside methyl ester verbascoide. This study

affirms that extract of B. prionits L can damage

MDR E.coli cell membrane by exerting profound

physiological changes that lead to bacterial death.

Crude methanolic extract of B. prionits L revealed

in vitro anti-oxidant, total phenol and flavonoid

contents, anti-inflammatory and antimicrobial

potential. The results are comparable to the

standard compounds such as Ascorbic acid, Gallic

acid, Quercetin and Ibuprofen to clarify the in vivo

potential of this plant in the management of UTI

infections. Thus the multi-therapeutic

characteristics of this plant extract serves as a

source of plant derived natural products that

modify antibiotic resistance of MDR E.coli. Further

investigations are in progress to find active

component of this plant extract and to confirm its

mechanism of action in vivo. Leaf juice is used in

stomach disorder and urinary infection. [6,7,11]

Ant-inflammatory Properties : It is

reported by various authors that methanolic

extract shows anti-inflammatory activities and

antimicrobial activities against staph and

pseudomonas. The plant is having anti-

inflammatory properties and is used in ulcers

and itching of leprosy ulcers. Leaves juice are

used in stomach disorder, urinary afflictions,

fever and catarrh, this plant is especially well

known for treating bleeding gum and toothache.[8]

Antihypertensive Properties : Meth-

anolic extract of B.prionitis has profound

antihypertensive activity without any side effects.

Diuretic Activity : This plant is rich in

potassium and said to contribute to its diuretic

action. Its leaves and young inflorescence are

diuretic. Leaves juice are used in urinary

afflictions. [9,10]

The diuretic property of B. prionitis flower

extract was performed . The oral administration

of aqueous flower extract (200 mg kg-1) was

significantly increased the urination and sodium

elimination but not potassium in rats. The diuretic

effect of flower extract (200 mg kg-1) was found

comparable with the reference drug furosemide

(20 mg kg-1 )

Antioxidant properties : The whole plant

extract was reported to show potent antioxidant

activity. It was observed that leaves showed

higher degree of antioxidant potential and high

phenolic content in comparison to flower and

stem. The methanolic extracts of root ,stem and

leaves show significant antioxidant properties.

Enzyme inhibitory effect–The phytoche-

miclas are reported to inhibit the clinically

significant enzymes Acetylchlolinesterase

(AChE) and glutathione S- transferase (GST). It

has been reported that the methanolic extract

of leaf and stem of the plant exhibited AChE

inhibitory activities and leaf and stem extract

exhibited higher potency of exhibition in

comparison to the root extract.

All prionside A,B and C also showed GST

inhibitory activity. B and C were more potent

GST inhibitors.

Anti- asthmatic Activity : Ash of the whole

plant mixed with honey is used for asthma in

traditional medicine. It also showed biological

activity against respiratory syncyrial virus.

Antidiabetic Activity: It was found the

alcoholic extract of leaves was effective in

reducing blood sugar in diabetic animals. Oral

administration at the dose of 200mg/kg

significantly reduced blood glucose glycosylated

hemoglobin level and increased serum insulin

and liver glycogen level in diabetic rats. It also

arrested the weight loss due to diabetes.[12]

Anti-arthritic Activity : It is reported that the

methanolic extract of the whole plant showed

dose dependent mast cells and erythrocytes

membrane protection activity in response to the

toxic chemicals.[13] It is also reported as anti-


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www.ijsir.co.in 15

arthritic, anti-inflammatory and antifertility

agent[14]

Hepatoprotective Activity : Aerial partof leaves and stem are reported to possesshepatoprotective activity by various authors.The aqueous bioactive fractions have beenshown to possess hepatoprotective activity. Theirioid fraction significantly reduced the hepatotoxin induced elevated level of serum alanineaminotransferase (ALT) aspartate transaminase(AST) , alkaline phosphatase ALP bilirubin andtriglycerides in dose dependent manner .Thefraction was also found to increase the hepaticglutathione content and reduce the hepatic lipidperoxidation in response to the hepatotoxicity inmice and rats.

Antihelminthic Activity : Chavan et al [15]

reported its anti-helminthic properties which wascompared with albendazole and it was foundthat Pheretima posthuma worms were paralyzedat lower dose and caused death on the higherdose.

Antifertility Activity: The plant wasreported to possess antifertility activity. Theoral administration of methanolic extract in malealbino rats was found to reducespermatogenesis in the albino rats. This effectof root extract may be due to presence of iridoidglycosides barlerin and acetyl barlerin viaaffecting the functions of testicular somatic cells.Verma et al [ 16 ] found methanolic extract of plantto produce anti- spermatogenic effect withoutaffecting general body metabolism.

Anti-diarrheal Activity : The anti-diarrheal potential of butanol fraction ofB.prionitis leaves has been reported . In vivostudy showed that butanol fraction dosedependently inhibited the castor oil induceddiarrhea. This also reduced the gastrointestinalmotility in response to charcoal induced guttransit changes.

Anti- nociceptive Activity : Jaiswal et al[17] reported analgesic activity of B.prionitisflowers. In vivo study showed flower extract dosedependently provide a significant increase inanalgesio -meter induced force and exhibitedsignificant resistance against pain in mice. Theflower extract also provided dose dependentsignificant reduction in acetic induced abdominalcramping . [14]

Antifungal Activity : Bark of the plant is

reported in controlling candidacies and other

fungal infections, it has both fungicidal and fungi

static activity. Acetone methanol and ethanol

extract of B. prionitis bark showed antifungal

activity against oral pathogenic fungus

Saccharomyces cerevisiae and two strains of

Candida albicans . It has been reported that

the petroleum ether dicloro methane and ethanol

extract of stem and root showed fungi static and

fungicidal activities against C.albicans [7,14]

Antiviral Activity : In India and Thailand

the decoction of the leaves and flowers of B.

Prionitis is used in the treatment of viral fever .

The plant shows biological activity against

respiratory syncytial virus.isolated two iridoid

glycosides that is 6-O trans-p-coumaroyl -8-O

acetylshanzhiside methyl ester and its cis isomer

from B prionitis .In vitro study showed that these

glycosides possess potent antiviral activity

against Respiratory Syncytial Virus (RSV)with

EC50 and IC 50 values of 2.46 and 42.2

microgrammL -1 respectively [3,14]

Toxicity : It was reported that extract of

leaves and roots of the plant did not show any

toxic effect on albino rats. No death was

observed up to the oral administration of extract

dose concentration 2.5 g/ kg body weight during

the 14 days .Singh et al [18] reported that the iridoid

gluco side rich aqueous fraction B. prionitis did

not produce any abnormality or any mortality up

the single oral administration of 3000mg kg -1

dose in mice during the 15days of study period

.However the intraperitoneal LD50 was

determined 25-30mgkg-1 for aqueous fraction in

mice.[14]

Cyto protective Mast cells play an important

role in inflammatory responses and release

histamine upon their degranulation to produce

various allergic reactions and significant

erythrocyte membrane protection against

hypotonocity hemolysis and result was

compared with reference standard

indomethasone .[14]

CONCLUSION

Vajradanti is a plant of miraculous nature.

It has wide range of medicinal properties which

can be used for welfare of human being without

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P-ISSN 2347-2189, E- ISSN 2347-4971

any side effects. It has its traditional use and

well documented to use in modern medicine too.

A wide range of phytochemical constituents

including balarenone ,pipataline ,prionisides

,barlerinoside ,verbascoside ,shanzhisde,methyl

ester, barlerin, pipataline, acetylbarlerin,

lupulinoside, scutellarein, have been isolated

from different part of the plant. Extracts and

phytochemicals isolated from the plant have been

found to possess wide range of pharmacological

activities without any side effects .It is common

plant which is found in hotter part of India, but it

needs identification and its proper use and

standardization.

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10. Ghule B.V.Yeole P.G. in vitro and in vivo

immunomodulatory activities of iridoids fractions

from Barleria prionitis journal of Ethano

Pharmacology Vol 141 ,issue 1 ,424-431.

11. Manupati Prasanth Antimicrobial efficacy of

different tooth paste and mouth rinse An in vitro

study Dental Research Journal Vol 8 no 2 Spring

2011 85-94.

12. Dheer Rana, Bhtanagar Prdeep A Study of

antidiabetic activity of Barleria prionitis Indian

Journal of Pharmacology Vol 42, Issue 2 page

70-72 .

13. Dhaked Umesh Nama Gaurav Singnh Devendra

Mishra Amit Kumar Nitin Pharmacognostical and

pharmacological profile of B areleria prionitis root

Research Journal of Pharmacognosy and

Phytochemistry 2011,Vol 3,Issue 3. Year : 2011,

Volume : 3, Issue : 3

14. D.Banerjee A.K.Maji et al Barleria prionitis Linn A

Review of its traditional use ,phytochemistry

pharmacology and Toxicity Research journal of

phytochemistry 6:31-41.

15. Chavan CB, Hogade MG, Bhinge SD, Kumbhar M

and Tamboli A. In vitro anthelmintic activity of fruit

extract of Barleria prionitis Linn. Against Pheretima

posthuma. Int. J. Pharm. Pharm. Sci. 2010; 2: 49-

50.

16. Verma PK, Sharma A, Joshi SC, Gupta RS and

Dixit VP. Effect of isolated fractions of Barleria

prionitis root methanolic extract on reproductive

function of male rats: Preliminary study.

Fitoterapia. 2005; 76: 428-432.

17. Jaiswal SK, Dubey MK, Verma AK, Das S,

Vijaykumar M and Rao CV. Evaluation of iridoid

glycosides from leave of Barleria prionitis as an

anti- diarrhoeal activity: An Ethnopharmacological

study. Int. J. Pharm. Sci. 2010; 2: 680-686.

18. Singh B, Chandan BK, Prabhakar A, Taneja SC,

Singh J, Qazi GN. Chemistry and hepatoprotective

activity of an active fraction from Barleria prionitis

Linn. In experimental animals. Phytother Res.

2005; 19(5): 391-404.


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www.ijsir.co.in 17

BIOMEDICAL APPLICATIONS OF HELIUM : AN OVERVIEW

*B. R. PANDEY 1, SATENDRA SINGH 2, NIDHI SHARMA 2, SANJAY DIXIT 1

1 Sky Institute, Lucknow, India, 2 Research Scholar, Sai Nath University, Ranchi, India

*Address for correspondence: Dr. B. R. Pandey, Director (Research), Sky Institute,

Lucknow, U. P., India,

E mail ID : [email protected]

ABSTRACT

Helium has varied applications in biomedicine. The research studies with hyperpolarizedhelium-3 (3He) and xenon-129 (129Xe ) magnetic resonance imaging ( MRI ) have been founduseful in developing non-radiation based and sensitive approaches for chronic obstructivepulmonary disease ( COPD ). The applications of atmospheric pressure plasmas ( APPs ) inbiomedicine are becoming better treatment protocols for various chronic diseases as theresearch studies have shown their potential in bacterial sterilization, blood coagulation andwound healing, dermatology and cancer treatment. It is interesting to emphasize that theatmospheric pressure helium plasma jet driven by pulsed dc voltage has been utilized to treathuman lung cancer cells in vitro. This plasma device may serve as a valuable tool for reactiveoxygen species (ROS) – promoting cancer therapy, a boon for cancer patients. Helium basedlow temperature atmospheric pressure plasma has been found to break Amyloidfibrils intosmaller units in vitro and can be used as plasma based therapy of neurodegenerative diseasessuch as Alzheimer and Parkinson’s. Attempts have been made to present the biomedicalapplications of helium and its utility in health and diseases. However, multidisciplinary scientificstudies on the interaction of helium based low temperature atmospheric pressure plasma onthe sub cellular and molecular levels in disease conditions could be useful in strengtheningits application in biomedicine to address the health challenges for ailing humanity.

Keywords : Helium, Hyperpolarized helium-3 (3He) and Xenon-129 (129Xe ) Magnetic ResonanceImaging (MRI), Atmospheric Pressure Plasmas (AAPs), Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease(COPD), Cancer, Alzheimer, Parkinson’s

INTRODUCTION

The unexpected prolonged exposure of

human beings to large number toxic chemicals

and xenobiotics present in the environment and

unhealthy life styles have become the major

cause of the complex diseases crippling the

human subjects in the world. This has also

resulted in multi -drug resistance problems in

the society .In the present situation, clinicians

and biomedical scientists throughout the world

are in search of developing suitable diagnostic

tool for the diseases .Radio- diagnosis has

emerged as more accurate diagnostic technique

for disease diagnosis at early stage and

measuring the clinical conditions of the diseased

people during treatment. X-ray and CT scan

commonly employed by clinicians in diagnosing

the diseases have been found to produce

harmful effects on the patients as they produce

radiations harming the body thereby making the

human system immunologically deficient. In this

scenario, scientists are exploring the use of

noble gases in developing non-radiation based

sensitive approaches for the diagnosis and

treatment of complex diseases.

Naturally occurring noble gases are Helium

( He ), Neon (Ne ), Argon( Ar ), Krypton( Kr ),

Xenon ( Xe) and radioactive Randon ( Rn) which

are also known as rare gases. They were once

also called as inert gases as they were said to

be incapable in producing chemical reactions

with other elements. They are a group of

chemical elements with very similar properties.

They are all colourless, odourless, monoatomic

gases and have very low chemical reactivity.

The very low boiling and melting points of these

gases make them useful as cryogenic

refrigerants. Among these noble gases, helium

has been found varied applications in health

care. Liquid helium, which boils at 4.2K (-

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P-ISSN 2347-2189, E- ISSN 2347-4971

268.95°C;-452.11°F) has been found useful for

superconducting magnets which are needed in

Nuclear Resonance Imaging and Nuclear

Magnetic Resonance. The use of liquid helium

in Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) is

continuously increasing in medical field because

of the utility of MRI in diagnosis of complex

diseases by medical profession. Helium is used

as the carrier medium in gas chromatography,

as a filler gas for thermometers and in devices

for measuring radiation, such as the Geiger

counter and the bubble chamber. Helium is

sometimes used to improve the ease of

breathing of asthma sufferers. The recent

studies with hyperpolarized helium-3 (3He) and

xenon-129 (129Xe ) magnetic resonance imaging

(MRI) have been found useful in developing non-

radiation based and sensitive approaches for

chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

(COPD). [1] Atmospheric pressure plasmas

(APPs) based on helium have also been

developed as new tools in the biomedicine and

have proved their effectiveness in biomedical

applications such as treatment of living cells,

sterilization, blood coagulation, wound healing

and air purification.[2] Attempts have been made

to present the biomedical applications of helium

and its utility in health and diseases.

SOURCES

Scientists have observed that helium is the

most abundant element found in the universe

and is extracted from natural gases. All natural

gases have trace quantities of helium.

Scientists have been able to detect the helium

in abundance by spectroscopic method in hotter

stars. Helium has been found to be an important

component in proton-proton reaction and carbon

cycle accounting for the energy of the sun and

stars. It has been found that the helium content

of the atmosphere is about 1 part in 200,000.

Helium has been found to be present in

radioactive minerals. The free world supply of

this noble gas in bulk quantity is obtained from

USA especially from wells in Texas, Oklahoma

and Kansas while outside the United States,

the only known helium extraction plants in 1984

were in Eastern Europe ( Poland ), the USSR,

and a few in India

CHEMISTRY OF HELIUM

It has been found that helium is the second

lightest and second most abundant gas in the

universe (hydrogen being one). Since no

helium compounds are known, this family of

gases was once thought to be inert. In the year

1962, scientists could be able to prepare first

noble gas compound with xenon. Helium occurs

in un-combined form. It is believed that it must

be extracted from the atmosphere by

liquefaction of air or separated from deposits

of natural gas. Research studies have predicted

that some of the terrestrial helium is the product

of the alpha decay of radioactive isotopes

beneath the crust. Helium is said to be the only

element which cannot be converted to a solid

by cooling.

Chemists have found that helium possess

lowest melting point of any element. It is widely

used in cryogenic research because its boiling

point is close to absolute zero. Helium has been

found to be a vital element in the study of super

conductivity. Research studies have revealed

that liquid helium can be used in obtaining

temperatures of a few micro kelvins by the

adiabatic demagnetization of copper nuclei.[ 3]

Helium is known to be only liquid which could

not be solidified by lowering the temperature

and remains in liquid down to absolute zero at

ordinary pressure. It has ability to solidify by

increasing the pressure while solid 3He and4He can be changed in volume in volume (more

than 30 percent) by applying pressure. The

specific heat of helium gas is high sand the

density of helium vapor at normal boiling point

is also very high with vapour expanding greatly

when heated at room temperature. Although

helium has weak chemical reactivity to combine

with other elements, scientific studies have been

carried towards preparation of helium

difluoride. [4] Further, scientists have also

investigated on molecular ions of helium like

He+ and He++. Seven isotopes of helium are

known: Liquid helium (He-4) exists in two forms:

He-4I and He-4II, with sharp transition point at

2.174K. He-4I (above this temperature) is a

normal liquid, but He-4II (below it) is unlike any

other known substance. It expands on cooling,

its conductivity for heat is enormous, and neither

its heat conduction nor viscosity obeys normal


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rules.[5,6]

BIOMEDICAL APPLICATIONS

The very low boiling and melting points of

noble gases make them useful as cryogenic




268.95°C; -452.11°F) has been found useful for

supercond-ucting magnets which are needed in






diseases by medical profession. Magnetic

resonance imaging (MRI), nuclear magnetic

resonance imaging (NMRI) or magnetic

resonance tomography (MRT), is a medical

imaging technique used in radiology to

investigate the anatomy and physiology of the

body in both health and disease . MRI scanners

use strong magnetic fields and radio waves to

form images of the body. The technique is used

in hospitals for medical diagnosis, staging of

disease and for follow- up without exposure to

ionizing radiation.

Atmospheric pressure plasmas (APPs)

based on helium have been developed as new

tools in the biomedicine and have proved their

effectiveness in biomedical applications such as

treatment of living cells, sterilization, blood

coagulation, wound healing and air purification[2].

Low temperature plasmas have potential to

produce reactive oxygen species (ROS) and

reactive nitrogen species (RNS) having diverse

biological implications such as ROS effects on

cell membrane : per oxidation of lipids, oxidation

of proteins, DNA strands and RNS effects on

biological cells : cell signalling. The applications

of helium based MRI and low temperature

atmospheric pressure plasmas in chronic

complex diseases such as chronic obstructive

disease (COPD), cancer, neurodegenerative

diseases etc. are discussed in this review article.

Pulmonary Diseases

Complex respiratory disorders like chronic

obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD)

characterized by persistent airflow limitation that

is usually progressive and associated with an

enhanced chronic inflammatory response in the

airways and lung to noxious particles or gases

present in the environment. [7] COPD has

emerged as the 4th leading cause of death

worldwide.[8,9] Several research studies have

shown the efficacy of nuclear medicine ,

computed tomography (CT) and magnetic

resonance imaging (MRI) in evaluating chronic

obstructive pulmonary disease and developing

imaging biomarkers for assessment of disease

progression and treatment response.

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) inhaled

hyperpolarized noble gases helium-3 (3He)[10-23]

and xenon-129 (129Xe)[24, 25] have been shown to

provide structural and functional measurements

in healthy volunteers as well as subjects with a

range of respiratory conditions. These strategies

are based on the research studies conducted

by Albert and colleagues [24] showing the

effectiveness of inhaled hyperpolarized or

magnetized noble gas for pulmonary magnetic

resonance imaging (MRI). It is interesting to

emphasize that hyperpolarized gas MR imaging

helps the clinicians in quantifying important

structural and functional components of the lung

such as Ventilation Defect Measurements and

Apparent Diffusion Coefficient as biomarkers[26-

30 ] which play vital role in diagnosis and treatment

of complex respiratory disorders like chronic

obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD).

The need for sensitive regional and

surrogate measurements of lung structure and

function in COPD continues to motivate the

development of non-radiation based and

sensitive imaging approaches, such as

hyperpolarized helium-3 (3He) and xenon-129

(129Xe) magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). 3He

ventilation defect measurements in COPD have

been found to correlate with spirometric

measurements of airflow limitation. [27, 31] Studies

on 3He MRI in COPD cases revealed

heterogeneous signal intensity and ventilation

abnormalities or “defects’’, representing local

hypoventilation of the lung. [10] Hyperpolarized 3He

MRI with xenon-133 scintigraphy has been found

to produce encouraging response in evaluating

ventilation abnormalities in COPD cases.[32]

Studies have shown that 3He ADC can serve as

a good imaging biomarker to measure lung

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P-ISSN 2347-2189, E- ISSN 2347-4971

tissue destruction in early disease.[31,33-38] Further,

hyperpolarized gas MR diffusion-weighted

imaging has been found useful in COPD.[39-44]

Extensive studies have been conducted to

evaluate the potential of hyperpolarized 3He MRI

in diagnosis and treatment of COPD using

various imaging biomarkers and significant

results have been achieved thereby suggesting

that hyperpolarized gas MRI can be used in

assessing the lung structural and functional

changes in chronic obstructive pulmonary

disease (COPD ).[45-53] In addition to above

mentioned studies, the experimental and clinical

applications of functional MR imaging of

pulmonary ventilation using hyperpolarized

noble gases have been studied and it has been

found that 3- helium (3 He) and 129- xenon (129

Xe) can be hyperpolarized by optical techniques

such as spin exchange or metastability exchange

in sufficient amounts and can be used for

assessment of ventilation- distribution , structural

changes of lung parenchyma, such as

emphysema and fibrosis.[54]

Cancer

Atmospheric pressure plasmas (APPs) have

been found to be of great potential in diverse

biomedical applications. Their applications in

bacterial sterilization, blood coagulation, and

wound healing, dermatology and cancer

treatment have been explored.[55-61] Atmospheric

pressure plasmas have also been found to

produce effects on living cells. [62-66] The

interactions of plasma with cancer cells have

been demonstrated to induce cell death in

different cancer cell types which might be due

to production of reactive oxygen species (ROS)

such as super oxide (O2-2 ), hydrogen peroxide

(H2O

2), oxygen atom (O), and hydroxyl radical

(OH) .[61, 67-75] Plasma-induced ROS in the gas

phase could result in intracellular ROS

generation and apoptotic cell death. Atmospheric

pressure plasmas based on helium with only

small fractions of oxygen (less than 5%) have

been studied in order to increase

concentrations of ROS and prevent plasma

instability simultaneously [76] thereby indicating

the potential of He/O2 plasmas as a good source

of reactive oxygen species. Admixture of helium

and oxygen has been used to produce more

radicals in atmospheric pressure plasma jets.[77-

79] Recently the atmospheric pressure helium

plasma jet driven by pulsed dc voltage has been

utilized to treat human lung cancer cells in vitro.

The studies have shown effects of additive

oxygen on the plasma state including helium and

oxygen – related radicals and considerable

correlation between the concentration of

intracellular and extracellular reactive oxygen

species (ROS) and also increase in expression

levels of p 53 and the phospho-53 in the

presence of additive oxygen flow compared with

those from pure helium plasma treatment

thereby representing this plasma device a

valuable tool for ROS-promoting cancer therapy.[80]

In another study, air, argon (Ar) and helium

(He) plasma sources driven by AC or micro wave

power has been found useful in the treatment of

cancer cells, sterilization, tooth whitening and

blood coagulation. Various types of non-thermal

APPs operated in low frequency (20kHz) and

microwave frequency (900MHz and 2.45GHz)

power feeding argon, helium, and even in the

ambient air have been shown to possess

biomedicine applications such as treatment of

cancer cells, sterilization, tooth whitening, and

blood coagulation. It has been demonstrated that

the antibody – conjugated GNPs have ability to

enhance to kill cancer cells exposed to

plasmas.[81]

Non-thermal atmospheric plasma jets using

helium have been extensively studied in various

kinds of cancer and antitumor effect has been

observed in vitro on carcinogenic cell lines

related to cancer of skin (melanoma), brain

( glioblastoma), colon, liver, lungs, breast, cervix,

bladder and in oral and ovarian carcinoma or

in leukemia.[82, 83, 84, 85] It is important to mention

that PG helium NTP used in this research study[87] has capability to produce reactive species and

to generate transient electric field. The results

of the study provide a novel NTP- based

adjuvant therapy for cancer treatment. [86]

Besides these studies, several studies on the

role of low temperature atmospheric air plasma

on various types cancer on animal models and

human subjects have also been conducted and

encouraging response have been achieved.[88-

92] The study has been carried out to find out the


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www.ijsir.co.in 21

effect of low-level helium-neon (He-Ne) laser in

the prevention and treatment of radiation induced

mucositis in head and neck cancer patients and

beneficial results have been obtained. [93]

Neurodegenerative Diseases

Studies have been conducted to evaluate

the potential of helium based low temperature

atmospheric pressure plasma in treatment of

neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer

and Parkinson’s which are associated with

Amyloidfibrils. It has been found that low

temperature atmospheric pressure plasma can

break Amyloidfibrils into smaller units in vitro.

The study has been able to provide the

plasma based therapy of these progressive and

debilitating diseases. [94]

Application of Helium- Oxygen Mixtures inCough, Asthma, Chronic ObstructivePulmonary Diseases (COPD), Anaesthesia

Helium-oxygen mixtures have been found

very effective in various disease conditions. It

is very interesting to mention that Heliox (a

mixture of 21% O2 and 79% He) has been used

medically since the early 1930s and it was

used in the treatment in acute asthma before the

advent of bronchodialators. [95-99] Heliox has been

found effective in conditions of large airway

narrowing such as upper airway obstruction

from tumors or foreign bodies and vocal cord

dysfunction. Heliox is also used in conditions

of the medium airways like croup, asthma

and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.

Patients with these conditions suffer a range of

symptoms like dyspnea, hypoxemia and

weakening of respiratory muscles due to

exhaustion leading to respiratory failure. Heliox

has been found very effective in reducing

these effects thereby making the patients

capable to breathe easily. [100] It is also useful in

weaning of patients off mechanical ventilation

and in the mobilization of inhalable drugs,

particularly for elderly. [101] Helium- oxygen

mixtures have also been found useful in delivery

of anaesthesia. [102]

DISCUSSION

At early stage scientists thought that noble

gases helium, neon, argon, krypton, xenon and

radon also called as inert gases or rare gases

could not have any application in daily life as

these gases are incapable to produce chemical

reactions with other elements because of their

stable electronic configurations with no unpaired

electrons to share. Later chemists found that

krypton, xenon and radon with outer electrons

held less firmly, can form compounds mainly with

fluorine. Rare though they are, these gases are

now a part of everyday life, as evidenced by

the helium in balloons, the neon in signs and

the harmful radon in some American homes.

Noble gases have very low boiling and melting

points which make them useful as cryogenic




268.95°C; -452.11°F) has been found useful for

superconducting magnets which are needed in






diseases by medical profession. Medical

professionals are using medical imaging

technique such as magnetic resonance imaging

(MRI), nuclear magnetic resonance imaging

(NMRI) or magnetic resonance tomography

(MRT) to investigate the anatomy and physiology

of the body in both health and disease. MRI

scanners use strong magnetic fields and radio

waves to form images of the body. This

technique is widely used in hospitals and clinics

for medical diagnosis, staging of disease and

for follow- up without exposure to ionizing

radiation and has become very successful in

diagnosis and treatment of chronic complex

diseases like chronic obstructive pulmonary

disease (COPD) which has emerged as the 4th

leading cause of death worldwide and is

characterized by persistent airflow limitation that

is usually progressive and associated with an

enhanced chronic inflammatory response in the

airways and lung to noxious particles or gases

present in the environment . The recent studies

with hyperpolarized helium-3 (3He) and xenon-

129 (129Xe) magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)

have been found successful in developing non-

radiation based and sensitive approaches for

chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD).

The applications of atmospheric pressure

22 www.ijsir.co.in


P-ISSN 2347-2189, E- ISSN 2347-4971

plasmas (APPs) in biomedicine are becoming

better treatment protocols for various chronic

diseases as the research studies have shown

their potential in bacterial sterilization, blood

coagulation, and wound healing, dermatology

and cancer treatment. It is interesting to

emphasize that the atmospheric pressure

helium plasma jet driven by pulsed dc voltage

has been utilized to treat human lung cancer

cells in vitro. This plasma device may serve as

a valuable tool for reactive oxygen species (ROS)

– promoting cancer therapy, a boon for cancer

patients. Various types of non-thermal APPs

operated in low frequency (20kHz) and

microwave frequency (900MHz and 2.45GHz)

power feeding argon, helium, and even in the

ambient air have shown potential in treatment

of cancer cells, sterilization, tooth whitening, and

blood coagulation. The antibody – conjugated

GNPs have ability to enhance to kill cancer

cells exposed to plasmas. Furthermore ,

helium based non-thermal atmospheric plasma

jets have been found useful in different kinds of

cancer such as skin cancer ( melanoma ), brain

cancer ( glioblastoma) ,colon, liver, lungs, breast

, cervix, bladder and in oral and ovarian

carcinoma or in leukemia and may be an

effective NTP- based adjuvant therapy for

cancer treatment. Low-level helium-neon (He-

Ne) laser has been found useful in the prevention

and treatment of radiation induced mucositis in

head and neck cancer patients. Helium based

low temperature atmospheric pressure plasma

has been found to break Amyloidfibrils into

smaller units in vitro and can be used as plasma

based therapy of neurodegenerative diseases

such as Alzheimer and Parkinson which are

progressive and debilitating diseases .

Additionally, the applications of simple helium

– oxygen mixtures in various chronic conditions

like cough, asthma and chronic obstructive

pulmonary disease etc. have enhanced the

potential of helium in biomedicine.

Although helium in various modes has been

found useful in disease conditions ranging from

simple cough to dreadful diseases like cancer,

chronic obstructive pulmonary disease,

Alzheimer and Parkinson’s , multidisciplinary

scientific studies on the interaction of helium

based low temperature atmospheric pressure

plasma on the sub cellular and molecular levels

in disease conditions may enhance its

application in biomedicine to address the

health challenges for ailing humanity.

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www.ijsir.co.in 27

BIOMEDICAL APPLICATIONS OF EXIMER LASERS

*B. R. PANDEY 1

, SATENDRA SINGH 2, NIDHI SHARMA 2 , SANJAY DIXIT 1

1 Sky Institute,Lucknow,India ,2 Research Scholar,Sai Nath University,Ranchi,India

*Address for correspondence: Dr. B.R. Pandey, Director (Research), Sky Institute, Lucknow, U.P., India,

E mail ID: [email protected]

ABSTRACT

The use of lasers in medicine and biology has demonstrated its interest through innovative

advanced technologies such as laser microdissection and /or photoablation which at different

levels of expression enable understanding of the physiological mechanisms in the evolution of

a disease. Lasers have achieved a prominent position in medical application and offer unique

advantages for medical diagnosis, therapeutic treatments and internal surgeries in most

medical disciplines including dermatology, dentistry, neurosurgery, eye surgery, cancer surgery,

urology, gastroenterology etc. because of their ability to deliver high precision treatments,

whilst remaining minimally invasive. Thus Laser- based therapies and diagnostic methods

represent an area of huge future potential.Research efforts andcontinuous improvements over

recent years have resulted in excimer lasers becoming the tool of choice for many applications

in medical sciences.Excimer lasers, which are pulsed gas lasers operating with a special

mixture of noble gases and halogens, emit laser radiation in the UV and VUV spectra, at

discrete wavelengths between 351 nm and 157 nm, have shown promise in dermatology,

angioplasty, bilary laser lithotripsy, ophthalmology and orthopedics. The principal advantage

of excimer lasers is that they are capable of producing a very small, precise spot at a very low

(UV) wavelength. Excimer lasers are excellent for removing excess material through laser ablation

due to the fact that they are able to precisely destroy material with little to no thermal buildup.In

the present review, applications of excimer lasers in biomedical sciences particularly in

dermatology,ophthalmology, angioplasty, orthopaedics, lithotripsy,dentistry, medical implants

have been presented and recent studies carried out have been reviewed.Laser-associated

micro dissection offers a rapid, precise method of isolating and removing targeted cells or

groups of cells from complex biological tissues which may be helpful in understanding

physiological mechanisms on the level of a specific cell population and even on the level of

the single cell in disease conditions. Multidisciplinary research studies on the interaction of

laser with biological tissue at molecular level using biotechnological tools will enhace the

therapeutic potential of laser technology in diagnosis and treatment of chronic complex

diseases especially cancer , genetic disorders, neurogegenerative disorders ,

multidrugresistence tuberculosis , autoimmune diseases , HIV etc. and it may also be useful

in designing new and innovative strategies in drug delivery and image-guided surgery.

Keywords: Excimer Lasers, Laser-tissue Interaction, Bio-medical Applications: Dermatology,

Ophthamology, Angioplasty, Lithotripsy, Orthopaedics, Dentistry, Biomedical Implants/ Materials/

Devices

INTRODUCTION

Laser : Light Amplified Stimulated Emission

Radiation, unlike a standard light beam, is a

source of monochromatic, coherent and

unidirectional light. Over the past 50 years,

scientific research and innovations made

revolution in laser and led to the development

of many new varieties of laser becoming an

integral part of human life with multiple

numerous applications from medicine to

manufacturing, from communication to

measurement and from research and analysis

to entertainment. The first working laser was

demonstrated on 16 May 1960 by Theodore

Maiman at Hughes Research Laboratory. Since

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then the laser was being applied in medical

procedure. In December1961, a ruby laser was

used to destroy an eye tumour at Columbia

Presbyterian Hospital. Today lasers have

achieved a prominent position in medical

application and offer unique advantages for

medical diagnosis, therapeutic treatments and

internal surgeries in most medical disciplines

including dermatology, dentistry, neurosurgery,

eye surgery, cancer surgery , urology,

gastroenterology etc. because of their ability to

deliver high precision treatments, whilst

remaining minimally invasive. Thus Laser- based

therapies and diagnostic methods represent an

area of huge future potential. Different types of

laser like Nd:YAG laser,CO2

laser, KTP laser, Ho:

YAG laser , diode lasers, excimer lasers etc. are

currently being used for various medical

applications. In the present review, different

applications of excimer lasers in various

disciplines of medical sciences have been

addressed.The main medical application is the

use of excimer lasers at 193 nm in ophthalmology

for vision-correction systems. A total of about

10,000 lasers are currently operating worldwide.

The theoretical basis for the laser was

established in 1917, when Einstein postulated

the theoretical concept of stimulated emission.[1]

The first excimer laser was built in 1971 by

Basow, 54 years later.[2]

Excimer lasers are pulsed gas lasers

operating with a special mixture of noble gases

and Halogens. They emit laser radiation in the

UV and VUV spectra, at discrete wavelengths

between 351 nm and 157 nm.The most

commonly used excimer lasers are krypton

fluoride ( KrF , 248 nm), argon fluoride ( ArF,

193 nm), xenon chloride (XeCl, 308 nm), xenon

fluoride (XeF, 351 nm). Research efforts

andcontinuous improvements over recent years

have resulted in excimer lasers becoming the

tool of choice for many applications in medical

sciences. Excimer lasers have shown promise

in angioplasty, bilary laser lithotripsy,

ophthalmology and orthopedics. It is heartening

to emphasize that the first laser eye surgery

using an excimer laser was performed in 1987,

by ophthalmologist Steven Trokel. Today

millions undergo eye surgery every year which

is a path breaking achievement in eye surgery.

Another medical application where excimer

lasers are being used is dermatology for treating

a variety of dermatological conditions including

psoriasis, vitiligo, atopic dermatitis, alopecia

areata and leukoderma.

EXCIMER LASER AND LASER – TISSUEINTERACTION

The term “excimer” is a shortened form of

“excited dimer”, which describes a molecule

formed from two identical noble gas atoms.These

atoms will only bond with each other in an excited

state. The term “excimer” was later expanded

to include all combinations of rare gases and

halides. Therefore, in laser physics, all rare-

gas halides and similar molecules are excimers,

which are not really dimers. Nowadays excimer

lasers are the dominant UV source in many

applications. Using an excimer laser is the easiest

way to generate photons in the deep ultraviolet.

Although it is possible to generate radiation below

350 nm with solid-state lasers using non-linear

optical effects, tremendous effort is involved in

this process. A frequency-tripled Nd-YAG laser,

for example, emits at 355 nm, but to generate

photons in the deeper UV the processes become

more and more inefficient. If output power is

needed, solid-state lasers are definitely no

match for excimer lasers.Due to their complex

technology, the first excimer lasers were very

sensitive devices. However, this has changed

dramatically. As a result of effective improvement

over the last 15 years, excimer lasers have now

become fully competitive with other commercially

used laser systems. Excimer lasers are pulsed

gas lasers operating with a special mixture of

noble gases and halogens. They emit laser

radiation in the UV and VUV spectra, at discrete

wavelengths between 351 nm and 157 nm.

Continuous improvements over recent years

have resulted in excimer lasers becoming the

tool of choice for many applications. The

excimer lasers produce ultraviolet light

which due to its short wavelength allows for high-

precision imaging. Different excimer laser

transitions have been used to generate light

pulses at various wavelengths between 126 nm

and about 660 nm. The most commonly used

excimer lasers are krypton fluoride ( KrF , 248

nm), argon fluoride ( ArF, 193 nm), xenon

chloride ( XeCl, 308 nm ), xenon fluoride ( XeF,

351 nm ). Laser action in an excimer molecule


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occurs because it has a bound excited state, but

a repulsive ground state which is due to the fact

that noble gases like xenon (Xe) and krypton (Kr)

do not usually form compound. These noble

gases in excited state can form temporarily

bound molecules with themselves or with

halogens like fluorine and chlorine. This bound

state is the upper laser level in the case of

excimer laser level. The excited compound can

give up its excess energy by undergoing

spontaneous or stimulated emission, resulting

in a strongly repulsive ground state molecule

which very quickly dissociates back into two

unbound atoms.Since the excimer molecule

returns to the unexcited ground state and

separates into atoms, the population inversion

condition is achieved the moment excited state

is created, since the population of ground level

is nil.

Excimer lasers are powerful ultraviolet

lasers which use a mixture of noble gases and

halogens as a gain medium.All lasers consist of

three components: a pump (energy source), a

gain (or laser) medium, and an optical resonator.

The pump provides energy which is amplified by

the gain medium. This energy is eventually

converted into light and is reflected through the

optical resonator which then emits the final output

beam.

Like most gas lasers, excimer laser power

is provided by an electrical current source. The

laser medium is a tube filled with three different

types of gases:

- A noble gas (argon, krypton, or xenon)

- A halogen gas (fluorine, chlorine, or

bromine)

- A buffer gas (typically neon or helium)

Excimer lasers rely on the interaction

between the noble gas and the halogen gas to

produce a high-powered beam. The current

source pumps the gas medium using very short,

high voltage pulses transmitted through metal

electrodes; the pulse excites the gas atoms and

causes them to fuse together into atomic pairs

called dimers. For example, pumping an argon

fluoride (ArF) laser causes asymmetric molecules

of ArF to form. Excimers only remain bound in

an excited state, so that following the pulsed

electrical discharge the atoms separate once

again. While active, though, the excimers emit a

burst of electromagnetic radiation before quickly

dissociating into separate gases. This rapid

dissociation prevents molecular reabsorption of

the emitted radiation, making it possible to

achieve high gain using a relatively small

concentration of excimers. The radiation is then

reflected by mirrors placed at both ends of the

gas tube (representing the optical

resonator) until the beam is emitted via the front

mirror.

Laser actions are governed according to the

discovery of Einstein that light does not consist

of continuous waves or small particles but it exists

as bundles of wave energy called photons.[3]

The type of interaction of laser with tissue

that occurs depends on various factors such as

the properties of laser system (wavelength,

energy pulsed / continuous mode of emission),

local blood circulation, the optical properties of

the tissues, and the immune response of the

patient.[4,5] Further such type of interaction

involves different effects like photo thermal

effect, mechanical effect, photo chemical effect

, tissue-welding effect. The understanding of

interaction of laser with tissue involving different

components viz protein, water, fat, melanin,

hemoglobin etc. has led to numerous medical

applications. Laser-tissue interaction involves

scattering, absorption, heat generation and such

properties could be harnessed for different

applications. Time of interaction of the laser

beam and intensity of the beam play critical role

in defining the application of laser in humans

subjects. These parameters need to be

selected accordingly for a given purpose. The

scattering properties of tissue could themselves

be of diagnostic interest. Many spectrometric

techniques like Laser Dopler Perfusion , Optical

Coherence Tomography, Raman Scattering

Spectroscopy etc. are based on scattering and

haves played significant role in designing the

laser of diagnostic purpose. In excimer laser

ablation, which involves ultraviolet laser action

based on a medium of noble gas halides,the

mechanism of tissue cutting by the 193 nm

eximer laser is non-thermal and involves direct

breakage of covalent bonds.Another

characteristics of ultraviolet radiation is its high

tissue absorption coefficient leading to shallow

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penetration independent of water content. The

combination of pulsed delivery, limited tissue

penetration and non-thermal mechanism of

tissue interaction seems to be ideally suited to

extremely precise layer by layer ablation and

make eximer lasers with diverse medical

applications.

BIOMEDICAL APPLICATIONS

The effective utilization of lasers in

medical sciences arises in many situations due

to the unique aspects of laser light. The

advantageous characteristic of lasers is due the

ability to deliver high energy at precise

wavelengths to minimize invasive damage. The

technology of optical fibers facilitates precise

delivery of very high energy to small regions of

the tissues. Absorption of light by the target

tissue and the depth of penetration are both

wavelength dependant and thus several kinds

of lasers have been developed for medical and

therapeutic applications. The various kinds of

lasers commonly used in many medical

applications are CO2 lasers, Argon ion lasers, Nd:

YAG lasers, KTP-532 lasers, Pulse-dye lasers,

Alexanderite lasers,

Ho: YAG lasers, Er. YAG lasers, Diode

lasers, Excimer lasers.The largest application of

Excimer lasers for medical use is in refractive

laser surgery. As an ophthalmological tool

,excimer laser has been widely used for

photoablation process. The precision of excimer

laser and, more important, the lack of damage

to surrounding tissue, are instrumental for

correction of refractive errors or optical problems

of the eye, including nearsightedness,

farsightedness, and astigmatism. Excimer laser

light is typically absorbed in less than a

nanometer of tissue. By means of intense

excimer pulses, the surface of the human cornea

is reshaped to change its refractive power and

thus to correct for short or long sightedness.





areata and leukoderma. The biomedical

applications of excimer lasers in various disease

conditions are discussed below.

Dermatology

The use of eximer laser in dermatology has

been considered more effective as compared

to conventional phototherapy and

photochemotherapy because of the lower

cumulative UV-dose involved, the shorter time

frame required for treatment and the option of

targeting individual lesions without affecting the

surrounding healthy skin.Grema and Raulin

have reviewed the application of eximer laser in

various skin diseases such as psoriasis vulgaris,

vitiligo and atopic eczema and it has been found

very useful in these skin diseases. The eximer

laser has also been found effective in case

studies ranging from post-operative

hypopigmentation to acne vulgaris and from

alopecia areata to parapsoriasis en plaque.[6]UVB

phototherapy has been found effective for the

treatment of psoriasis. It has been observed that

for patients with localized plaque-type lesions,

308-nm excimer laser phototherapy offers rapidly

delivered, targeted, high UVB doses, while

sparing adjacent healthy skin.Studies have been

conducted to compare the advantages and

disadvantages of the 308-nm xenon chloride

(XeCI)UVB excimer laser with non targeted

broadband UVB (BB-UVB), narrowband UVB (NB-

UVB), and psoralen plus UVA (PUVA)

phototherapies and it has been proposed that

excimer laser exclusively treats diseased skin

with better response rates, split-body trials

revealed no differences.[7] Narrowband UVB (311

nm) phototherapy is a well-established, widely

used and highly efficient treatment for psoriasis

which is a chronic, genetically determined

inflammatory disease, characterized by an

immunomediated pathogenesis, but a big

disadvantage of this therapy is that large areas

of unaffected skin are also irradiated along with

the psoriatic lesions. Keeping in view of this

disadvantage studies have been conducted to

evaluate a 308-nm excimer laser and a 308-nm

excimer lamp in comparison with 311-nm

narrowband UVB in the treatment of patch

psoriasis by using two different dose-increase

schemes and the results of the study revealed

that both 308-nm light sources can clear patch

psoriasis in a similar manner to standard

phototherapy, with the advantage of the ability

to treat exclusively the affected skin and with a

reduced cumulative dose, thus perhaps


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reducing the long-term risk of carcinogenicity.[8]

Recently Mehraban and Feily have

reviewed the efficacy of 308nm xenon-chloride

excimer laser in treatment of dermatological

disorders and found that 308-nm excimer laser

has currently a verified efficacy in treating skin

conditions such as vitiligo, psoriasis, atopic

dermatitis, alopecia areata, allergic rhinitis,

folliculitis, granuloma annulare, lichen planus,

mycosis fungoides, palmoplantar pustulosis,

pityriasis alba, CD30+ lympho proliferative

disorder, leukoderma, prurigo nodularis,

localized scleroderma and genital l ichen

sclerosus.[9]

Park et al has reviewed the application of

monochromatic excimer light (MEL) in

dermatology which has been found effective for

the treatment of vitiligo. The specific 308-nm

radiation wavelength is delivered in a targeted

form by the xenon-chloride excimer laser and is

also available in an incoherent form that is

commonly referred to as the excimer lamp. MEL

administered by both laser and lamp has shown

efficacy superior to NB-UVB for the treatment of

vitiligo and induces more changes at the cellular

level than conventional UVB modalities. The

excimer laser has been found effective in adults

and children with vitiligo in all skin types as

monotherapy or in combination with other

established vitiligo therapeutics.[10]Studies have

been conducted to analyze the efficacy of the

308 nm excimer light in psoriasis, palmoplantar

pustulosis, vitiligo, mycosis fungoides and

alopecia areata and to examine potential new

indications in patients and the results of the

study confirm the use of monochromatic excimer

light as a valid choice for the treatment of

psoriasis, vitiligo, and mycosis fungoides and it

has also been observed that monochromatic

excimer light produces a therapeutic response

in prurigo nodularis, localized scleroderma,

genital l ichen sclerosus, and granuloma

annulare on the assessment of clinical response

using photos, biopsies and specific clinical

scores.[11]John et al studied the response of

308nm Excimer Laser to facial Vitiligo and the

results of the study revealed encouraging

response in the treatment of male patients with

Fitzpatrick skin types IV to VI undergoing

combination treatment utilizing excimer laser with

calcipotriene.[12] It is interesting to note that the

308nm excimer laser is a newer treatment option

that can yield impressive results in an

abbreviated time frame. [10] Nicolaidou et

al[10] reviewed the use of excimer laser and

demonstrated that 15 to 50 percent of patients

achieved greater than 75-percent repigmenta-

tion. Notably, excimer laser treatment periods

were 15 weeks or less in the overwhelming

majority of the studies analyzed.[10] Additionally,

there has been some evidence that excimer laser

treatment causes faster, more complete

repigmentation in patients with higher Fitzpatrick

skin types. [13,14,15] Passeron et al has conducted

the studies to compare the efficacy of combined

tacrolimus and 308-nm excimer laser therapy vs

308-nm excimer laser monotherapy in treating

vitiligo and the studies revealed that the

combination treatment of 0.1% tacrolimus

ointment plus the 308-nm excimer laser is

superior to 308-nm excimer laser monotherapy

for the treatment of UV-resistant vitiliginous

lesions. Further the results of the study also

confirm the efficacy and the good tolerance of

the 308-nm excimer laser in monotherapy for

treating localized vitiligo but this treatment

regimen should be proposed only for UV-

sensitive areas.[16] A prospective clinical study has

been conducted in patients with vitiliginous

patches to investigate the clinical efficacy, safety,

and psychosocial impact after treating vitiligo with

the 308-nm excimer laser and the results of the

study indicate that the treatment of vitiligo using

the 308-nm excimer laser is effective and safe

and improves psychosocial quality of life. It has

also been observed that lesion location, duration

of disease, and treatment duration are factors

affecting the clinical and psychological

outcome.[17] Hofer et al has conducted the

study to determine the optimal frequency of 308-

nm excimer laser therapy for vitiligo and

observed that 308-nm excimer laser therapy is

effective against viti l igo. Although

repigmentation occurs fastest with 3x weekly

treatment, the ultimate repigmentation initiation

seems to depend entirely on the total number of

treatments, not their frequency. On the basis of

the results of the study it has also been argued

that treatment periods of more than 12 weeks

may be necessary to obtain a satisfactory clinical

repigmentation, particularly when vitiligo lesions

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are treated only 1x or 2x compared with 3x

weekly.[18] Alhowaish et al has reviewed the

effectiveness of 380-nm excimer laser in the

treatment of vitiligo based on the available

studies and case series and found that the

excimer laser most likely constitutes the

treatment of choice for localized vitiligo as

compared to other treatment modalities and its

efficacy can be further improved in combination

with other therapies such as corticosteroids,

pimecrolimus, or tacrolimus.[19]Bronfenbrener et

al has studied the efficacy of 308nm excimer

laser in treatment of Granuloma Annulare

Granuloma annulare (GA) which is a relatively

common disorder with a female predominance

that usually presents as 1 to 5cm skin-colored

or erythematous annular plaques with peripheral

papules and a 73-year-old woman with a long-

standing history of GA presented to the

dermatology clinic complaining of gradual

worsening of her condition was treated with the

excimer lesser and this case of generalized GA

treated with the excimer laser resulted in

resolution of lesions that had been refractory to

other therapies.[20]

Goldinger et al in their study indicated that

monochromatic phototherapies such as 311-nm

narrowband ultraviolet B therapy and 308-nm

xenon chloride excimer laser have been found

an effective and safe therapeutic option in

children and adult patients with vitiligo and the

addition of topically applied calcipotriol to

phototherapy may increase its effectiveness.

The results of the study showed that the addition

of calcipotriol ointment to 308-nm xenon chloride

excimer laser phototherapy does not significantly

enhance its efficacy and small additive effects

must be investigated in a larger trial.[21]Low dose

excimer 308 nm laser has been studied for its

effectiveness in treatment of lichen

planopilaris (LPP) which is a difficult to treat,

chronic, inflammatory autoimmune disease

targeting the hair follicle that eventually leads to

permanent irreversible scarring alopecia and

commonly affects adult women on the central

scalp with multifocal patches, perifollicular

erythema, hyperkeratosis, and subjective

complaints like pruritus or pain. The results of

the study have shown that for chronic

inflammation UV-B excimer laser treatment might

also be effective in LPP, since it has proven

beneficial for certain inflammatory skin disorders

that are mediated by lymphocytes and are

responsive to psoralen plus UV-A

therapy.[22]Tejaswi et al reviewed the studies

describing excimer laser treatment protocol with

particular attention to dosage determination,

dose adjustment, dose fluency, number of

treatments, and maintenance with an aim to

characterize treatment parameters for 308 nm

excimer laser phototherapy and found that the

308 nm excimer laser is an effective therapy for

psoriasis regardless of the method used to

determine initial dosage, dose fluency, or

number of treatments. As its usage as a targeted

monotherapy increases, future trials should

consider evaluating and modifying these

parameters to determine the most optimal

management of localized psoriasis. They have

observed that there is no consensus for a single

excimer laser therapy protocol and as a result,

patient preferences should continue to be an

important consideration for phototherapy

regimen planning.[23] Besides above studies,

several other studies have been conducted to

evaluate the therapeutic efficacy of 308 nm

excimer laser in treatment of alopecia areata

(AA ) and psoriasis and it has been effective in

the treatment of these skin disorders .[24-32]It has

been shown that 193 nm excimer laser irradiation

has potential to cleanly and effectively ablate a

vascular tissue with minimal thermal damage to

surrounding adjacent structures and the 193 nm

excimer laser has been used to remove guinea

pig epidermis in vivo. The results of the study

indicate that the epidermis can be totally ablated

with thermal damage extending only superficially

into the dermis and this technique may be

applicable to the removal of benign epidermal

lesions.[33,97]Gattu et al has reviewed the studies

of the 308-nm excimer laser in the treatment of

psoriasis vulgaris, palmoplantar psoriasis, and

psoriasis of the scalp. The XeCl excimer emits a

308-nm wavelength beam of light that is

monochromatic and coherent which allow

selectivity when used as phototherapy against

a psoriatic lesion while sparing healthy

surrounding tissue.[34]Clinical studies have been

conducted to evaluate the therapeutic efficacy

and safety of a 308-nm excimer laser for the

treatment of scalp and palmoplantar psoriasis

and the results of the study revealed that the


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308-nm excimer laser is an effective, safe, easy,

and relatively quicker method for the treatment

of psoriasis at difficult to treat sites, with good

results in a somewhat short time.[35] An open level

pilot study has been conducted to assess the

efficacy of combination therapy using 308-nm

excimer laser, clobetasol propionate spray and

calcitriol ointment for the treatment of moderate

to severe generalized psoriasis and the results

of the study revealed that excimer laser therapy

combined with an optimized topical regimen that

includes clobetasol spray followed by calictriol

ointment appears to be an effective treatment

for moderate to severe generalized psoriasis that

avoids the risk of serious internal side effects

associated with many systemic agents.[36]Han et

al conducted studies to evaluate the efficacy and

safety of 308-nm monochromatic excimer light

(MEL) in the treatment of psoriasis vulgaris and

palmoplantar psoriasis and found that the MEL

therapy is well tolerated with a low incidence of

side effects, which included pruritus, erythema

and blister formation. The results of the study

revealed that the 308-nm MEL can be utilized

as an effective and safe treatment modality for

patients with mild-to-moderate psoriasis vulgaris

and palmoplantar psoriasis. [37]Kawada has

reviewed the efficacy of light sources targeted

phototherapy which include broad-band UVB,

narrow-band UVB, 308-nm excimer laser and

light, 307-nm excimer light and 312-nm flat-type

fluorescent lamp for the treatment of

psosriasis.[38]308 nm excimer laser has been

found effective for the treatment of Atopic

dermatitis (AD) which is a chronic, inflammatory

skin disease affecting 3% of adults and 20% of

children .[39]

Ophthalmology

Argon fluoride excimer lasers operating at

a wavelength of 193 nm are being used

extensively throughout the world for both

photorefractive (PRK) and phototherapeutic

(PTK) keratectomies.Study has been

conducted to assess the visual outcome of

excimer laser photorefractive keratectomy ( LPK

) and laser in situ keratomileusis (LASIK) for the

correction of moderate and high myopiain where

the LASIK technique included a nasally based,

150 microns thick, 8.0 x 9.0 mm diameter,

truncated, disc-shaped corneal flap created with

a microkeratome and the ablation of the stroma

with a 193-nanometer ArF excimer laser and the

photorefractive keratectomy technique included

mechanical removal of the epithelium and

ablation of the stroma with a 193-nanometer ArF

excimer laser. The results of the study revealed

that LASIK was more effective than

photorefractive keratectomy in higher myopes.It

was also observed that LASIK created less

corneal haze and the refraction was more stable

with LASIK in the correction of high myopia and

its predictability was found three times that

of PRK.[40] The argon fluoride excimer laser emits

radiation in the far ultraviolet part of the

electromagnetic spectrum (193 nm). Each

photon has high individual energy. Research

studies have shown that exposure of tissues

with peak absorption around 193 nm results in

removal of surface layers (photoablation) with

extremely high precision and minimal damage

to non-irradiated areas and this precision is

confirmed in a series of experiments on cadaver

eyes and the treatment of eyes with anterior

corneal disease and found that multiple zone

excimer laser superficial keratectomy is

considered the treatment of choice for rough,

painful corneal surfaces. Where good visual

potential exists, ablation of a single axial zone is

recommended and results in improved visual

acuity and reduction of glare. [41] In addition to

above studies, several studies have been

conducted to assess the effectiveness of

excimer laser in surgery of cornia and

correction of astigmatism and excimer laser has

been found useful. [42-51]Studies have been

conducted to evaluate epithelial wound healing

and visual outcome of excimer laser

photorefractive keratectomy (PRK) performed on

high myopic eyes with contact lens intolerance

due to dry eye and the results of the study have

revealed that PRK is effective for patients with

high myopia and contact lense intolerance due

to dry eye.[52] Taylor et al conducted the studies

to assess the safety and efficacy of excimer laser

treatment of myopic astigmatism and to compare

this with the excimer laser treatment of myopia

where A VISX Twenty/Twenty excimer laser was

used to perform either photo astigmatic

refractive keratectomy or photorefractive

keratectomy and the results of the study

revealed that excimer laser surgery offers an

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effective option in the treatment of myopic

astigmatism.[53]In an another study a series of 122

eyes with band keratopathy was treated by

excimer laser phototherapeutic keratectomy

(PTK), with a mean follow up of over 12.3 months

(range 3 to 60 months) which revealed that

excimer laser PTK is a safe and effective

outpatient treatment for band

keratopathy.[54]Laser intrastromal keratomileusis

(LASIK) has been found an evolving technique

enabling high degrees of myopia and myopic

astigmatism to be corrected. Clinical studies

have shown that for the correction of high myopia

and myopic astigmatism, LASIK results in less

postoperative pain and relatively little

subepithelial haze compared with high myopic

photorefractive keratectomy. Furthermore, a

stable refraction and reasonably predictable

outcome occurs much earlier and high myopia

up to -37.0 D can also be corrected.[55] In a

comparative study of excimer laser ablation of

the cornea and crystalline lens using 193 nm

and 248 nm radiation, it has been found that

threshold fluence for corneal and lens ablation

was higher at 248 nm than at 193 nm. conforming

that the excimer laser is effective in producing

well controlled ablation of the crystalline lens in

vitro, with effects parallel to those seen in the

cornea. [56]The 193 nm excimer laser has

generated much interest as a rapidly developing

new technology for the correction of refractive

errors.Previously published reports have

demonstrated the efficacy of excimer laser

photorefractive and phototherapeutic

keratectomy in the treatment of low myopia, high

myopia, and comeal scars.Photorefractive

keratectomy using the 193-nm excimer laser

appears to be a safe, effective treatment for the

reduction of low, moderate, and high myopia.

The results are more predictable in low and

moderate myopia, than in higher degrees of

myopia. [57-64]

Angioplasty

Excimer Laser Angioplasty has become now

a days a powerful tool for treating heart disease.

It has been found that other laser types are too

hot for delicate coronary surgery and could

damage tissue, cause blood vessel spasms, or

create blood clots. The excimer is a ‘cool‘ laser

that uses ultraviolet light energy to operate at

65° C, a temperature human tissue can

tolerate.Laser angioplasty is a procedure where

a thin fiber-optic catheter is inserted into an

artery in the leg and threaded to a blockage in a

coronary artery. A tiny optical assembly diffuses

the laser strand into a small cone-shaped laser

beam as it is emitted from the catheter. The non-

thermal laser vaporizes blockages in the artery

without damaging delicate tissue. The procedure

can be performed in a non-surgical setting using

a local anesthetic. The hospital stay is minimal,

and there is less post-operative pain, discomfort,

and risk to the patient. Developed by Advanced

Interventional Systems, Inc., the Dymer 200+

excimer laser angioplasty system vaporizes the

buildup of fatty deposits - called plaque - in the

arteries. It is safer than coronary bypass

operations and offers wider utility than balloon

angioplasty. In clinical trials the success rate in

opening blocked coronary arteries was shown

to be 85 percent, with fewer complications than

in balloon angioplasty. In January 1992, the

system received Food and Drug Administration

approval for treatment of coronary disease.

Excimer laser–facilitated coronary angioplasty

has been found clinically beficial in treating

heart disease as reported by many research

workers. This technology has great use in tubular,

diffuse, calcified, total, subtotal, and ostial

lesions. In addition to these advantages , the

photoablative properties of excimer lasers result

in precise atheroablation, including calcium,

without harmful thermal injury. [65-71]The studies

conducted on the feasibility and safety of

excimer laser angioplasty in selective patients

with complicated acute myocardial infarction

have revealed that application of excimer laser

coronary angioplasty is feasible and safe in

patients with acute myocardial infarction who

either fail to respond to thrombolytics or have

contraindications to these agents and

intracoronary thrombus at the target lesion can

be successfully dissolved with this wavelength

laser energy without adverse effect on the

procedure results.[72]In a clinical multicentric trial

study conducted to evaluate safety and

efficacy of excimer laser angioplasty in patients

with acute myocardial infarction (AMI) with

thrombus-laden lesions,95% device

success,97% angiographic success, and 91%

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recorded.[73]Mintz et al studied the mechanisms

of excimer laser coronary angioplasty (ELCA) in

human coronary arteries in vivo selecting to treat

202 lesions in 190 patients and it was found that

ELCA increased lumen CSA by both

atheroablation and vessel expansion without

calcium ablation and superficial fibrocalcific

deposits developed a characteristic fragmented

appearance which support both photoablation

and forced vessel expansion as mechanisms of

lumen enlargement and plaque dissection after

ELCA.[74]In a clinical study conducted to evaluate

the efficacy and safety of percutaneous coronary

excimer laser angioplasty in patients with

coronary artery disease it has been observed

that coronary excimer laser angioplasty for

ablation of obstructive lesions is feasible and safe

in patients with stable angina.[75]

Lithotripsy

Weiqiang et al studied the use ofa XeCl

(308 nm) excimer laser in fragmentation of biliary

stones and found that sixty biliary calculipigment

(n=40) and cholesterol (n=20) were fragmented

in vitro. The results of the study indicate that the

308 nm excimer laser may be effective as a laser

lithotriptor with low threshold and good efficiency

for biliary stone fragmentation.[76] A study has

been conducted where a long pulse XeCl excimer

laser (200 ns) has been used to induce

fragmentation of human urinary stone and

artificial model during in vitro experiments and it

has been found that total fragmentation was

always successfully achieved, requiring a

variable number of pulses (10-100) depending

on the pulse energy and the hardness of the

sample.[77] Gundlach et al. conducted an in vitro

study to evaluate the application of a laser beam

for the fragmentation of salivary stones where

optimal fragmentation was achieved using a

pulsed excimer laser with a pulse width of 60 ns

and a wave-length of 308 or 351 nm and a new

“sialoendoscope” technique was developed.

Laser lithotripsy of salivary stones with

endoscopic monitoring represents a novel

method that permits treatment on an outpatient

basis under local anaesthesia.[78]

Orthopaedics

Landsman etal has reviewed the

applications of various kinds of lasers including

excimer lasers in podiatric and orthopedic

csurgery.[79]The excimer lasers have been

found very useful in orthopaedic surgery. It has

been shown useful to provide forth edenudingof

cartilage from bone due to its having an

irradiation range approximately the same as

cartilage’s absorption pattern.This would allow

fortheablation of cartilage with minute amounts

of peripheral necrosis or structural change of

the adjacent bone. The excimer laser has been

found to be of great benefit compared with with

the CO2 and Nd-YAG lasers for fibrocartilageabla-

tion.[80-84] Glossop et al has reviewed clinical and

laboratory experience with the 308 nm XeCl

excimer laser in arthroscopy and found that this

ultra violet laser is extremely proficient for

debridement of degenerate articular cartilage

and meniscus. Preliminary in vitro and in vivo

studies were performed to investigate the

character of laser-irradiated articular cartilage

and to search for evidence of regeneration and

the results of autoradiographic and histologic

studies showed no evidence of cartilage

regeneration.[85]Beke et al has conducted studies

to demonstrate high-resolution photocross-

linking of biodegradable poly(propylene

fumarate) (PPF) and diethyl fumarate (DEF)

using UV excimer laser photocuring at 308 nm

in a human osteosarcoma (HOS) cell line where

cell adhesion and viability have been

demonstrated showing that the produced

scaffolds are suitable for assisting bone cell

attachment and proliferation.Preliminary cell

tests have proved that PPF : DEF scaffolds

produced by excimer laser photocuring are

biocompatible and are promising candidates to

be applied in tissue engineering and

regenerative medicine.[86]An in vivo study has

been conducted to see the effect of excimer

laser (xenon chloride ultraviolet, 308-nm)

irradiation on degenerate rabbit articular

cartilage where adult rabbits with mechanically

induced degenerative arthritis of one knee were

used as experimental model and the results of

the study revealed that in the laser-irradiated

group initially there was macroscopic and

microscopic smoothing of the fibrillated surface

while in the control group there was no

improvement in the macroscopic or microscopic

appearance of the articular surface and by 6

weeks the surface had begun to show the

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reappearance of fibrillation.[87]Andreas has

studied the application of various lasers

including excimer lasers in orthopaedic surgery

and found them clinically useful for meniscal

cutting and ablation, lateral retinacular release,

release of posttraumatic fibrosis, chondroplasty,

synovectomy, debridement, labral tear ablation

in a shoulder, subacromial decompression,

rotator cuff debridement, tissue tightening

(collagen shrinking), ankle impingement

decompression and debridement, and

percutaneous nucleotomy. The results of the

study with laser tissue-photoagglutination and

tissue welding may make it possible to repair torn

meniscus by tissue welding with laser energy. [88]

Dentistry

One of the milestones in technological

advancements in dentistry is the use of lasers

which have been found to provide more

efficient, more comfortable and more predictable

outcomes for the patient.Cutting in soft tissue,

hard dental material ablation, caries removal and

root canal therapy are only a few examples of

dental laser uses.Excimer Lasers in dentistry are

normally used for hard tissue ablation/ dental

caries removal. Argon fluoride / Xenon fluoride

lasers are used. They have a wave length

from193nm to308nm.It has been shown that all

the excimer lasers and especially the argon

fluoride excimer laser at 193 nm are

characterized by its nonthermal photoablation

interaction with polymers[89,90].Pini et al studied

the application of excimer lasers in dentistry for

the treatment of dental root canals and the results

of the study revealed that high-energy ultraviolet

(UV) radiation emitted by an XeCl excimer laser

(308 nm) and delivered through suitable optical

fibers can be used to remove residual organic

tissue from the canals.[91]A study has been

conducted to see the effect of ArF excimer laser

on human enamel where human enamel surface

was irradiated with ArF excimer laser and

examined under light microscopy and scanning

electron microscopy (SEM) and the influence

of the laser irradiation was confined to the

irradiated area only with no visible heat damage

to the surroundings. The results of the study

revealed that excimer laser may be applied in

a controlled and defined manner for tooth

enamel treatments in dentistry. [92]Joseph et al

has studied the use of short pulse ArF excimer

laser to ablation of dentin and enamel with

emphasis on the effect of laser pulse repetition

rates (PRR) and fluence levels on the efficiency

of the ablation process and on the average

thermal response of ablated surfaces. The

results of the study showed that ablation of

dentin was found to be considerably more

efficient than the ablation of enamel and

depends exponentially on the laser fluence and

also tissue ablation rates were found to be

comparable to or better than other nanosecond

lasers and left smooth surfaces, free of thermal

damage. With the application of short pulse

ArF excimer laser the ablated surfaces appear

to be very smooth, highly polished and glossy

looking as if they were subjected to thermal

melting.[93]

Biomedical Implants/Materials / Devices

Laser surface texturing can be used to

produce well defined micro-grooves on

biomedical materials such asTi-6Al-4V. Such

micro-grooves can be optimized to improve the

integration with surrounding tissue. Research

studies have demonstrated that excimer lasers

or large area masking techniques, grooves

produced with Nd:YVO4 has potential to exhibit

improved roughness parameters and to reduce

heat-affected zones. Further, processing

parameters have also been established for the

fabrication of micro-groove geometries on flat

geometries having relavence to biomedical

implants and devices. [94]Studies conducted by

Waugh and Lawrence to see the wettability and

osteoblast cell response modulation through UV

laser processing of nylon 6,6 have revealed

that the laser-induced modifications have given

rise to modulated osteoblast cell response in

terms of cell proliferation and differentiation and

laser surface treatment holds a large potential

to be widely employed within regenerative

medicine as laser surface treatment offers a

unique means of varying biomimetic properties

to determine generic parameters to predict cell

responses.[95] Segmented polyurethane (SPU)

films with round micropores have been prepared

and a quantitative assay method of endothelial

cell (EC) migration through micropores of and

growth on microprocessed SPU films as an in

vitro model of transmural endothelialization in


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open-cell-structured small-diameter vascular

grafts has been developed using excimer laser

which have great relevance in medicine and

biology. [96] A micropatterned microporous

segmented polyurethane film (20×12 mm in size,

30 ìm thick) with four regions was prepared by

excimer laser microprocessing to provide an in

vivo model of transmural tissue ingrowth in an

open cell–structured scaffold specially designed

for cardiovascular tissue engineering which has

great clinical relevance in medicine.[98]

Pyrenedecanoic acid and pyrene lecithin are

optical probes well suited to investigate lipid

bilayer membranes. The method is based on the

determination of the formation of excited dimers

or excimers. Applications of the excimer-forming

probes have been reviewed and they have great

relevance in biomedical research particularly in

understanding phase separation phenomena

and lipid-protein interactions in biological

system.[99]

A microprocessing method has been

developed to prepare microporous polymer films

by an excimer laser ablation technique, which

may enable the fabrication of functional

biomedical devices such as advanced artificial

organs having relavence in medicine.[100]The

sheltered transfer and immobilization of rabbit

anti-human antiserum immunoglobulin G (IgG)

by matrix-assisted pulsed laser evaporation

(MAPLE) have been studied and it has been

found that IgG transfer and immobilization

onto substrates are improved by addition of lipid

to MAPLE solutions.[101]Simulated body fluid (SBF)

has been used as a screening method in

determining the bioactivity of numerous

biomaterials. Owed to insufficient surface

properties of polymers it has been seen to be of

great advantage to modify the surfaces of these

materials to allow the polymer to become more

biomimetic.Waugh and Lawrence has conducted

the studies on the enhancement of biomimetic

apatite coatings by means of KrF excimer laser

surface treatment of nylon 6,6 and the results

of the study suggest that through excimer laser

surface treatment osteoblast cell adhesion and

proliferation can be enhanced.[102]

DISCUSSION

Lasers are concentrated beams of

electromagnetic radiation (light) travelling in a

particular direction. The defining properties of

laser light are that the light waves are coherent

(all travelling in harmony with one another) and

that they are usually of one wavelength, or

colour.By harnessing these properties in a

device that reflects light back and forth through

a special material, it is possible to generate an

amplified light source, or laser.Such light can be

concentrated in time and space to create truly

extreme conditions, or be used to provide

exquisite imaging and analysis capability across

a wide range of applications.The type of

interaction of laser with tissue that occurs

depends on various factors such as the

properties of laser system (wavelength, energy

pulsed / continuous mode of emission), local

blood circulation, the optical properties of the

tissues, and the immune response of the patient.[4,5]Further such type of interaction involves

different effects like photo thermal effect,

mechanical effect, photo chemical effect, tissue-

welding effect . The understanding of interaction

of laser with tissue involving different

components viz protein, water, fat, melanin,

hemoglobin etc. has led to numerous medical

applications. Laser-tissue interaction involves

scattering, absorption, heat generation and such

properties could be harnessed for different

applications. Time of interaction of the laser

beam and intensity of the beam play critical role

in defining the application of laser in biomedical

field. In the medical field, lasers are diagnostic

and therapeutic instruments that offer a whole

range of solutions. The laser which enables for

greater surgical precision is less invasive and

promotes healing time or cure. This technique

is generally much less traumatic than traditional

surgical techniques. The first use of lasers in

medicine was to damage the retina to

understand ocular injury due to accidental

exposure. [103] Since the first ruby laser, several

devices have been improved placing

ophthalmology at the forefront of medical

specialties using this technology. The laser has

also many applications in the field of biology.

Researchers take the technology to its limits by

playing on two main parameters, the short laser

pulses-to the femtosecond, and energy beams.

Since then, pulsed lasers have become

increasingly popular for their ability to ablate

38 www.ijsir.co.in


P-ISSN 2347-2189, E- ISSN 2347-4971

biological tissue. For patient diagnosis and

experimental studies, biological tissue can be

either analyzed under a microscope after

immuno-histostaining or crushed for further

molecular analysis. Laser-Assisted microdissec-

tion (LAM) provides a valuable link between

these two approaches. It gives new insights into

cellular mechanisms, genetic disorders, tumor

biomarker identification patient-tailored therapy.

The development of light-absorbing

nanoparticles that are nontoxic to biological

tissue has provided further potential for a more

targeted delivery of heat with minimal damage

to healthy tissue. At an appropriate wavelength,

exposure of a nanoparticle to a laser can trigger

a photothermal effect in the particle whereby

electronic oscillations at the particle surface are

converted to heat.[104] The applications of laser

technology in biology and medicine have been

found great therapeutic potential in treatment

of variety of disease conditions such as

angiomas in children and infants; spider naevi,

treatment of rosacea, psoriasis,aesthetic

treatment of superficial veins of the skin, acne,

rosacea, warts, birthmarks; ablation of hard

dental tissues without the risk of micro- and

macro-fractures , ablation of the epithelium on

the non-pigmented skin of the eyelid in

preparation for melanocyte transplantation in the

treatment of segmental eyelid vitiligo, in the

treatment of superficial pigmented lesions,

pregnancy mask (melasma), dermatitis ocher,

some pigmentation related to drugs, certain

types of scarring or ulcers etc.[105]The advantages

of laser in ophthalmology have been well

demonstrated particularly in the treatment of

myopia and cataract where they enable patients

with visual impairment to regain a clear vision

and forget the stress of wearing glasses or

contact lenses.[106]In the field of dermatology, it

has great potential in treatment of vascular

lesions such as angiomas, telangiectasias,

spider naevi, treatment of pigmented lesions

(brown spots, naevus of ota, freckles) and tattoo

or hair removal targeting the melanin stored in

the hair follicles in order to destroy the hair matrix

to enable permanent hair removal

.[107]Furthure,laser surgery has the advantage of

reducing the risk of infection and it promotes

healing. It is used in cosmetic surgery to erase

cellulite and superficial wrinkles. Often less

invasive than conventional surgery, laser surgery

is however not without risks. [108] Lasers can also

be used in dentistry (gum care and treatment of

tooth decay) and phlebology (treatment of

Varicose veins)). [109,110] Lasers have achieved a

prominent position in medical application and

offer unique advantages for medical diagnosis,

therapeutic treatments and internal surgeries in

most medical disciplines including dermatology,

dentistry, neurosurgery, eye surgery, cancer

surgery, urology, gastroenterology etc. because

of their ability to deliver high precision

treatments, whilst remaining minimally invasive.

Thus Laser- based therapies and diagnostic

methods represent an area of huge future

potential. Different types of laser like Nd : YAG

laser,CO2

laser, KTP laser, Ho : YAG laser, diode

lasers, excimer lasers etc. are currently being

used for various medical applications. Excimer

lasers, which are pulsed gas lasers operating

with a special mixture of noble gases and

halogens, emit laser radiation in the UV and VUV

spectra, at discrete wavelengths between 351

nm and 157 nm. The most commonly used

excimer lasers are krypton fluoride ( KrF, 248

nm), argon fluoride ( ArF, 193 nm), xenon

chloride ( XeCl, 308 nm ), xenon fluoride ( XeF,

351 nm ). The principal advantage of excimer

lasers is that they are capable of producing a

very small, precise spot at a very low (UV)

wavelength. Excimer lasers are excellent for

removing excess material through laser ablation

due to the fact that they are able to precisely

destroy material with little to no thermal buildup.

This contrasts with carbon dioxide lasers, which

rely heavily on thermal buildup to “boil off”

material during ablation. Research efforts over

recent years have resulted in excimer lasers

becoming the tool of choice for many

applications in medical sciences. Excimer lasers

have shown promise in angioplasty, bilary laser

lithotripsy, ophthalmology and orthopedics.





areata and leukoderma.In the present review,

applications of excimer lasers in biomedical

sciences particularly in dermatology,

ophthalmology, angioplasty, orthopaedics,

lithotripsy, dentistry, medical implants have been


P-ISSN 2347-2189, E- ISSN 2347-4971

www.ijsir.co.in 39

presented and recent studies carried out have

been reviewed.The largest application of

excimer lasers for medical use is in refractive

laser surgery. As an ophthalmological tool,

excimer laser has been widely used for

photoablation process. The precision of excimer

laser and, more important, the lack of damage

to surrounding tissue, are instrumental for

correction of refractive errors or optical problems

of the eye, including nearsightedness,

farsightedness, and astigmatism. Excimer laser

light is typically absorbed in less than a

nanometer of tissue. By means of intense

excimer pulses, the surface of the human cornea

is reshaped to change its refractive power and

thus to correct for short or long

sightedness.Another medical application where

excimer lasers are being used is dermatology

for treating a variety of dermatological conditions

including psoriasis, vitiligo, atopic dermatitis,

alopecia areata and leukoderma.Excimer lasers

are very powerful UV sources. [111 ]and they can

also emit nanosecond pulses, with average

output powers between a few watts and hundreds

of watts. Typical wavelengths of excimer lasers

are between 157 and 351 nm. The 308-nm

excimer laser and a related 308-nm excimer

lamp have been approved to treat psoriasis and

vitiligo. [112]Recently Gupta et al has reviewed

the effects of UV radiation on wound healing

which is a very complex process involving

multiple tissue types influenced by local as well

as systemic components [113] where the effects of

UV irradiation on skin cells in vitro, UV-induced

damage and its repair, potential effects of UV

irradiation for treatment of microbial infected

wounds, especially those caused by antibiotic-

resistant pathogens, effects of UV irradiation on

wound healing, UV phototherapy for

dermatological and other disorders, novel UV

light sources to improve selective penetration

and reduce the side effects have been

discussed with an aim to provide nontoxic,

minimally invasive and economically feasible

technology for improving wound healing.[114] Laser

interaction with biological system is a very

complexphenomena involving various factors

having multiple therapeutic potencial in disease

conditions. These are photochemical ,

biostimulation - stimulatory effects of laser on

biochemical and molecular processes that

normally occur in tissues such as healing and

repair, photodynamic therapy inducing reactions

in tissues for the treatment of pathologic

conditions, tissue fluorescence useful as a

diagnostic method to detect light reactive

substance in tissue, photo thermal interactions

useful for photoablation to remove tissue by

vaporization and super heating of tissue fluids ,

coagulation, and hemostasis ; photopyrolysis

;photo disruption - breaking apart of structures

by laser light; photoaccoustic interaction-

involving removal of tissue with shock wave

generation, photoelectrical interaction including

photoplasmolysis which describes how tissue is

removed through the formation of electrically

charged ions and particles that exist in a semi

gaseous high energy state; photocoagulation :

laser heats the tissues to 600 C for a limited time

leading to coagulation of the tissues with minimal

alteration in the appearance of tissue structure.

As a result of these proteins enzymes cytokines

and other bioactive molecules get denatured. It

has been demonstrated that high power

lasersare used for surgical purposes and low

power lasers are used to promote tissue

regeneration. UV irradiation may cause both

beneficial and damaging effects, which depend

on wavelength, radiant exposure, and UV

sources.Laser is a device producing a very

intense and very narrow (collimated) beam of

electromagnetic radiation in the wavelength

range 180 nm to 1 mm and its important

properties are monochromaticity (narrow

wavelength range), directionality(high

collimation) and coherence (propagation in

same phase) and laser light isnot an ionizing

type of radiation.Interaction of laser with the

body is generally at the surface.The eye and

the skin are critical organs for laser radiation

exposure, and the resultant effects vary

depending on the type of laser (frequency or

wavelength of the radiation) and beam energy

output. Laser radiation of the proper wavelength

and energy may be focused by the lens of the

eye onto the retina causing severe damage. If

laser radiation is of high enough energy, skin

burns may also result if extremities or other body

parts are placed in the laser beam.

Thereforejudicious application of laser

technology may be beneficial in disease

conditions.It should be used in a manner such

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P-ISSN 2347-2189, E- ISSN 2347-4971

that the side effects would be minimized.

Althoughlaser technology including excimer

laser has made great progress in diagnosis

and treatment of variety of complex diseases

and its usehas now been well-demonstrated in

ophthalmologic and dermatologic treatments,

and surgery, this technology has enormous

scope in medicine and biology and could be

explored towards the development of targeted

therapy for complex chronic diseases.In the field

of medicine, the energy delivered by the laser,

whose intensity can be modulated, can cut,

destroy or alter the cellular or extracellular

structure of biological tissue. This unique

property of laser opens a vast scope in the field

of medicine. Further the ability of laser

applications in reducing the risk of infection and

promoting healing may delever better

therapeutic protocol in treatment of chronic

diseases such aslocalized infectious diseases,

especially those caused by antibiotic-resistant

pathogens. Recent research studies have

shown the potential of laser in destroying cancer

cells which opens apath breaking approach in

the treatment of dreadful disease cancer.

However, high power lasers have been found to

act indiscriminately and thus destroy cancer cells

but also the surrounding tissue.Laser-associated

micro dissection offers a rapid, precise method

of isolating and removing targeted cells or

groups of cells from complex biological tissues

which may be helpful in understanding

physiological mechanisms on the level of a

specific cell population and even on the level of

the single cell in disease

conditions.Multidisciplinary research studies on

the interaction of laser with biological tissue at

molecular level using biotechnological tools

will enhace the therapeutic potential of laser

technology in diagnosis and treatment of

chronic complex diseases especially cancer ,

genetic disorders, neurogegenerative disorders

, multidrugresistence tuberculosis , autoimmune

diseases , HIV etc.and it may also be useful in

designing new and innovative strategies in drug

delivery and image-guided surgery.

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INTRODUCTION

Forensic entomology is a branch of forensic

science in which insects occurring over and

around a corpse can be used for the

determination of post mortem interval both on in

land and in water [1, 2]. Forensic entomology is

not a new concept, in 13th century a case of

murder was solved with the help of forensic

entomology [3]. Arthropods are the largest and

most important group of animals found

everywhere [4] and some species actively

participate in decomposition of dead animals [5]

.These are primary colonizers over a dead body[6].The different species of insects invade on the

different stages of decomposition and present

on the carcass from the very beginning till the

last stage of decomposition. On the basis of

physical appearance of carcass internal

temperature and characteristic insects’

population the process of decomposition can be

divided into different sub stages as fresh,

bloated, active decay, advance decay and dry

SUCCESSION AND LIFE CYCLE OF BEETLES ON THE

EXPOSED CARCASS

*REEMA SONKER, SUNITA RAWAT AND KALPANA SINGH

Biocontrol and Forensic Entomology Laboratory, Department of Zoology,

University of Lucknow, Lucknow, India

*Address for correspondence: Reema Sonker , Department of Zoology,

University of Lucknow, Lucknow,India, Email ID: [email protected]

ABSTRACT

Various species of insects attract on the dead and decomposing body in a sequential manner,

thisprocess is termed as succession. Necrophagous insects mainly Coleopterans are attracted

to carcasses at specific stages of decomposition. Many types of beetles arrive on carcasses

mainly belong to family Histeridae, Dermestidae, and Cleridae. Dermestid beetles feed on

various things like animal’s decomposing remains and skin etc. Dermestid beetles are elongate

broadly oval, covered with hairs or scales, with short, clubbed antennae fitted in grooves and

of black or brownish colour. Beetle specimens were collected from exposed animal carcasses

in Kanpur city and prepared for farther taxonomic study. The investigation started from

February2012 to January2013. Most of the specimens collected were found in abundance

during spring and summer season. In this investigation, succession and life history of the

species Dermestes maculates (family: Dermestidae) is elaborated. As the PMI is based on the

lifecycle and behaviour of necrophagous insects, this study may help as an important tool for

estimation of the post-mortem interval (PMI) in forensic science.

Keywords: Forensic entomology, Post-mortem interval, Carcass, Succession, Decomposition,

Dermestidae, Dermestes maculates

remain stage [7]. These arthropod species invade

the corpse for breeding, feeding and shelter

purposes. Their arrival preference on carcass

depends upon the particular stage of

decomposition [8. The entomofaunal succession

of carrion insects is key factor for the process of

decomposition [9]. The two most important factors

which regulate the process of decomposition and

invasion of insects on carcass are temperature

and relative humidity [10].Rainfall also reduces the

abundance and richness of insects on carrion[11] .The insects are attracted over different

stages of decomposition [12, 13] and are categorised

on the basis of their ecological role during

decomposition [14] .This succession pattern of

insects is usually a source of valuable

information in suspicious death cases [15]. Carrion

entomofauna also provide very useful

information in drugs treated death [16]. The

succession pattern of insects on dead body, their

life cycle and development period provide useful

information regarding manner and cause of

death, place of death, transfer of dead body from

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www.ijsir.co.in 47

one place to another and in determination of

postmortem interval [17,16,18].Out of all the insects

invading a dead body members of Diptera and

Coleoptera constitute the major portion of

carrion entomofauna [19].The primary colonizers

on carrion are adults and larvae of flesh flies

and blowflies[ 20] .These larvae consume most of

the soft tissues of carrion [21] ,so a huge mass of

larvae can be observed on the carcass. The

presence of larvae and adults of flies represent

the fresh stage of decomposition .Beetles are

next to arriving on scene. Larvae of blow flies

and flesh flies are stimulating factor for the arrival

of large number of predatory beetles. Many types

of beetles arriving on carcasses mainly belong

to family Histeridae, Dermestidae, and Cleridae

of order Coleoptera. Beetles belonging to the

family Dermestidae feed on various things like

animals’decomposing remains and skin etc.

Dermestid beetles are elongated broadly oval,

covered with hairs or scales, with short, clubbed

antennae fitted in grooves and of black or

brownish colour. The post bloated stage of

decomposition is preferred stage of theses

beetles [22]. Arrival of beetles on cadaver depends

upon speed of decomposition which in turn is

influenced by environmental conditions [23, 24]. Both

adults and larvae of Dermestes species occur

on carrion. The hairy segmented larvae of

Dermestes species are indication of dry stage

of decomposition. The objective of this study is

to determine the succession and life cycle of

beetles on pig carrion. This entomological

information may be useful for the forensic

investigation in this region.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

The studies were carried out in forest area

of Forest Research Institute, Kanpur (260280S,

800250E).The investigation started from February

2012 to January 2013. The flora of investigation

area mainly consists of xerophytic herbs and big

trees of various plant species. Two piglet of

approximately 10 kg weight were used in

experiment. An iron cage of 82cmx79cmx64cm

dimension was used in the experiment to avoid

scavenging activity of vertebrate predators. The

pigs were killed by a veterinary expert employed

at Municipal Corporation. Study site was visited

daily three times to observe the activity of insects

and condition of carcass. The adults and larvae

of insects were collected daily with forceps. Some

larvae were killed by dipping in boiling water and

preserved in 70 percent alcohol and some were

taken to laboratory for rearing and identification

purposes.

RESULT AND DISCUSSION

Dermestes maculates is dominating insect

species associated with later stages of

decomposition [25]. Adult beetles of Dermestes

species are observed on the carrion when large

maggot masses of flies are present, but the

highest infestation of Dermestes species

resulted in reducing the population of flies’

maggots. These insects are attracted toward the

carrion by the specific odour of decomposing

remains. This odour of specific volatile compound

is characteristic of particular stage of

decomposition [26]. The combined odour of post

bloated cadaver and male pheromones of

Dermestes species act as attractant for virgin

females [26]. The arrival of males on cadaver

before the females is supported by the fact that

males of Dermestes maculates were seen on the

cadaver after 9-10 days of pig sacrifice but larvae

infestation occurred after15 to 21 days, as

reported by Early and Goff [25].The adult males

and females copulated multiple times and

females lay eggs after 24 hours of first mating in

conformation with an earlier study [27]. The female

laid eggs in batches and segmented worm like

larvae of Dermestes were seen below the carrion

after one day. Initially the larvae were creamy

white in colour but after few hours they got

darken to light grey colour. The cannibalism of

eggs by larvae has been observed in the

experiment. Similar cannibalism was also

reported by other workers. [28] During the larval

development, 5 to 11 instars had been observed

but the number of instars can be different in

unfavourable conditions[29].

During the development of larvae, no

physical and morphological changes has been

observed except the change in size. The full

grown larvae can pupate either in feeding site

or on some other substrate. Delay in pupation

due to non-availability of pupation site was also

observed. The pre -pupation stage of the

species was C- shaped, thickened and reduced

in length as also seen in earlier studies [30,31],

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pupa were oval in shape but smaller than larvae.

It did not have hair like projections as also

reported in other studies [32], after elusion the

adult beetles migrated to other food sources as

also observed in earlier studies [29]. The life cycle

of Dermestes maculates takes approximately five

to seven weeks under optimal conditions in and

around Kanpur area.

The dry stage of decomposition was

characteristic of presence of Dermestes species[33]. Normally the duration period of their life cycle

is 21 to 51 days but the rate of development

was influenced by the temperature of habitat.

The short duration larval stages were recorded

in high lipid content diet [30]. The fully grown

larvae migrated to pupation site to avoid

cannibalism. A delay in pupation up to 20 days

was also observed if they were unable to find a

suitable place for pupation [34] .These beetles

were able to tolerate a range of temperature and

relative humidity [32]. The duration period of life

cycle increased with lower temperature [35]. Under

laboratory conditions at 250C-300C the duration

period of average life cycle of Dermestes beetle

recorded is 35.1-43.9 days [36], while it has been

reported that at 180C the life cycle is completed

in 96 days. [37] At 300C the life cycle period is 38

day [38]. The adult beetles have shown negative

response towards high temperature. In morning

they had been observed above the surface of

carcass but at afternoon they migrated towards

the inner side of carcass [39]. Duration of larval

period were also affected by the population size

of beetles on carcass.

CONCLUSION

The different life stages and even the shed

cuticle of larvae of Dermestes species are

important tools in estimation of post-mortem

interval [40]. This species of beetle is dominant

from mid to late decay stages of decomposition

and is forensically important [38]. The succession

pattern of insects was stage specific so in medico

legal cases the post-mortem interval is possible

even in badly decomposed body [ 41]. As the PMI

is based on the lifecycle and behaviour of

necrophagous insects, this study may help as

an important tool for estimation of the post-

mortem interval (PMI) in forensic science.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Authors are highly grateful to the Head,

Department of Zoology, University of Lucknow,

Lucknow , India and officials of Forest Research

Institute, Kanpur for providing necessary space

for experiment.

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indicators. Journal of Medical Entomology.

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of decomposition in exposed cadavers.

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dipterology. In Contributions to a manual of

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scrofa Linnaeus. Ecology1965; 46,592-602.

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Forensic entomology. Determining time of death

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Ontario. 1996;

24. Vanlaerhoven, S. L., and Anderson G. S. Insect

succession on buried carrion in two

biogeoclimatic zones of British Columbia.

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B.,Ayasse M.,The importance of carcass

volatiles as attractants for the hide beetle

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INTRODUCTION

Adverse winter conditions in the temperate

regions have channelled the evolution of a pupal

diapause in flesh flies of the genus Sarcophaga.

Diapause in Sarcophaga is generally found in

the young phanerocephalic pupa, it is the pupal

stage in which adult development has not been

initiated [1]. Various studies have been conducted

on the incidence of diapause in the genus

Sarcophaga [1-8]. Effect of cold temperature and

short photoperiod on pupal diapause induction

in S. argyrostoma was studied by many workers[3,7], whereas in S. bullata larval photoperiod was

not shown to influence diapause. Denlinger

revealed the importance of photoperiod received

by developing embryos within the uterus of the

ovoviviparous females in the S.crassipalpis. [5, 6]

If the larvae are exposed to a short photophase

at 250 C, the pupae will not enter diapauses [5,6].

In various groups of S.crassipalpis males enter

diapause at a higher rate than females,

experiments revealed a similar pattern in the

other species of Sarcophaga [1]. In the Pieris napi,

Pararge aegeria and P. c-album a higher

tendency of males to enter diapause is also

found[9].

PUPAL DIAPAUSE IN THE FLESH FLY, SARCOPHAGA DUX

*S. RAWAT, R.SONKER and K.SINGH

Biocontrol and Forensic Entomology Laboratory, Department of Zoology,

University of Lucknow, Lucknow, India

*Address for correspondence: S. Rawat , Department of Zoology,University of Lucknow, Lucknow, India,

Email ID: [email protected]

ABSTRACT

Blow flies (family-Calliphoridae) and flesh flies (family-Sarcophagidae) are amongst the first

wave of insects which arrive on a corpse for feeding and breeding purposes. Development

rates of these flies are frequently used to determine post-mortem interval (PMI) in forensic

entomological investigations. The rate of larval growth is directly affected by environmental

conditions such as photoperiod and ambient temperature. In the flesh fly, Sarcophaga dux,

short-day photoperiods and low temperature induce pupal diapause. Diapause is a form of

dormancy in insects which confer survival during unfavourable environmental conditions. Distinct

genetic traits and endocrinological factors are found responsible for the induction and regulation

of diapauses in different insect species. The life stage at which the insect exhibits diapause is

also species specific. Present study investigates the incidence of diapause in the laboratory

reared populations of S. dux and define further the factors responsible for induction and

termination of pupal diapause in flesh flies.

Keywords: Forensic entomology, Post-mortem interval, Flesh fly, S. dux, Diapause

Quality and quantity of the food provided

may also be a factor in diapause influence in

some insects. The role of water in diapause

termination has been well studied.[10]Addition of

10% water to larval medium increases diapause

incidence10%[5], however opposite effect of

moisture content in Lucilia sericata has been

observed, incidence of larval diapause was

increased when the larvae were fed dry meat.[11,12]

Mature third instar larvae are inhibited to become

pupae by contact with a little water.[13] The adults

of S. argyrostoma are capable of producing

viable eggs without an adult protein diet, the

incidence of diapause in this species is not

affected due to presence or absence of protein

diet.[14] Ecdysone is found to act as an accelerator

for diapause termination in Sarcophaga.[4]

If the flesh flies S. bullata having history of

pupal diapause are mated and their larvae

reared in a strongly diapause-inducing

environment, the offspring do not enter pupal

diapauses. It is due to maternal effect transmitted

by the female parent prior to ovulation and

therefore directly affects the germ line.[15] In S.

bullata probably gamma amminobutyric acid

(GABA) and octopamine are involved in the

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transfer of information from mother to next

generation. Other experiments on flesh flies, S.

crassipalpis and S. bullata also confirm the

influence of maternal effect in the induction of

diapauses. [5, 16] The progeny of silkmoth B. mori

will enter embryonic diapause or not is

determined by the photoperiod received by the

female silkmoth during her embryonic and larval

development.[17, 18] A neurohormone from the

suboesophageal ganglion of the female silkmoth

mediates the maternal effect. [19]

At the hormonal level pupal diapause is

characterized by failure of the brain to stimulate

the prothoracic gland to secrete ecdysone [20-

23].Juvenile hormone (JH) profile is also

associated with the incidence of pupal diapause

in flesh flies. Flies destined for direct

development lack JH activity while flies

programmed for pupal diapause show major

pulses of JH activity [23].

MATERIALS AND METHOD

Stocks were maintained in an insectary at

room temperature in normal day night conditions.

Environmental cabinets were used to maintain

a temperature of 20±0.5°C, 17±0.5°C, 15±0.5°C.

Groups of about 100 adult flesh flies were kept

in cages. Sugar and water were provided ad

libitum throughout adult life and chicken liver was

provided as a source of protein. The species S.

dux are ovoviviparous, embryonic development

occurs within a sac-like uterus. Larvae were

reared on fresh chicken liver, when the third

instar larvae cease feeding they crawl out and

pupariate in the vermiculite. Pupae were

examined every day to record the time required

for diapause termination.

RESULT S AND DISCUSSION

Table 1: Influence of Larval Photoperiod andTemperature on Incidence of PupalDiapause in S. Dux.

Photoperiod Temp. No. of pupae % Diapause

12 : 12 25°C 540 0

12 : 12 20°C 240 0

16 : 8 17°C 225 100

16 : 8 15°C 192 100

Under an LD 12:12 h photoperiod, no pupae

enters diapause when the temperature is above

20°C, whereas all the pupae enter diapause

below 20°C. The duration of diapause is longer

than 90 days. Under experimental conditions the

incidence of diapause increases with a decrease

in temperature. Thus, the combination of short

days and low temperature (170C and 150C)

caused maximum diapause response. The

temperature influences the effect of photoperiod.

These results indicate that S. dux is sensitive to

the direction of change in photoperiod. Different

diapause characteristics were observed among

different species of Sarcophaga, S.

argyrostoma, S. crassipalpis, and three strains

of S. bullata [1]. A comparatively high incidence

of pupal diapause was observed in S.

argyrostoma at 17°C and 12 hour photoperiod.

Significant differences were observed among wild

strains and lab strain of

S. bullata [1].

Pupariation is observed to be delayed in the

larvae destined to diapause and occurs over a

period of many days, this was also supported

by Denlinger and Beck[1,10]. Post feeding or

wandering stage is found prolonged. Delay of

pupariation is strongly correlated with induction

of pupal diapause, as this delay may provide the

larvae some more time to find a suitable place

to pupariate. This may be a preparative phase

and involves in the deposition of additional fat

reserves, extra hydrocarbons for water proofing

the cuticle and some storage proteins present

in the hemolymph may also be synthesized

during this phase[24-26]. These reserves may help

in survival during dormancy and in the metamor-

phosis at the termination of diapauses [27]. Larval

injections of juvenile hormone [28] and exposure

to the moisture can cause the delay in

pupariation in Sarcophaga [29-31]. By reducing the

rearing temperature pupariation is delayed, and

incidence of diapause increases [7].

Termination of diapause is temperature

dependent. The duration of diapause decreases

with an increase in temperature and is terminated

at the temperature around 25° C. Since the

pupae of Sarcophaga are buried under the soil

surface, soil temperature rather than

photoperiod could provide appropriate

information of the favourable season. Ecdysone


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can terminate pupal diapause in H. cecropia [32]

and Sarcophaga [4]. Immediate termination of

diapause can be brought by giving topical

treatment of hexane [33].

The phenomenon of diapause can be

regulated by many factors; these may be

environmental regulators, hormonal regulators

as well as molecular regulators. At the molecular

level, expression of some genes is silenced, and

some others are expressed during diapause.

Some upregulated genes are expressed

throughout diapause, and others are expressed

in early diapause, some in late diapause whereas

some genes expressed intermittently. The

termination of diapause is brought about by

expression of many down regulated genes, while

decline in expression of the diapause-

upregulated genes is observed during diapause

termination [27].

Moribayashi et al have studied the

physiology of flesh flies, Boettcherisca peregrina

and Parasarcophaga similis, and of blow flies,

Aldrichina grahami and Calliphora nigribarbis [13].

At 20°C larvae of the flesh fly enter pupal

diapause on exposure to short photoperiod but

do not enter diapause in long photoperiod, at

this temperature larvae destined non-diapause

develop adults in 4 weeks [13]. Future diapause

research may be helpful to have a better

understanding of seasonality in insects and

applicable in the field of medical and forensic

entomology.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Authors are thankful to Head, Department

of Zoology, University of Lucknow India for

providing necessary laboratory facilities.

REFERENCES

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in the flesh fly Sarcophaga bullata. Ann. Ento,nol.

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JAPAN.

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1982; 28, 881-884.

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Physiol. Entomol. 1998; 23,184- 91.

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J. Fac. Agric, Tottori Univ. 1952; 1, 83-l24.

19- Yamashita O.,Yaginuma T. and Flasegawa K.

Hormonal and metabolic control of egg diapause

of the silkworm, Bombyx mori (Lepidoptera:

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20- Fraenkel G. & hsiao C. Morphological and

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21- Ohtaki T. and Takahashi M. Induction and

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change of ecdysone titer in the fleshfly,

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24- Chippendale G. M. Role of proteins in insect

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Physiological ecology, ed. F Sehnal, A Zazba, D L

Denlinger. 1988; pp. 331-46. Wroclaw Tech. Univ.

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associated with pupal diapauses in the flesh fly,

Sarcophaga crassipalpis. J. Insect physiol. 1985;

31, 229-33.

26- Yoder J. A., Denlinger D. L., Dennis M. W.,

Kolattukudy P. E. Enhancement of diapausing

flesh fly puparia with additional hydrocarbons and

evidence for alkane biosynthesis by a

decarbonylation mechanism. Insect Biochem.

Mol. Biol. 1992; 22, 237-43.

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Entomol. 2002; 47, 93-122.

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juvenile hormone on the metamorphosis of

Sarcophaga bullata. J. Insect Physiol. 1969; 15,

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Meig. II. The influence of humidity and temperature

on prepupae and pupae. Parasitology. 1935; 27,

291-298.

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Dynamics of ecdysone secretion and action in the

fleshfly Sarcophaga peregrina. Biol Bull. 1968;

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worm Manduca sexta. Physiol. 1980; Ent. 5, 7-15.


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www.ijsir.co.in 55

INTRODUCTION

Nonlinear loads produce the harmonics into

the power system and these harmonics create a

lot of disadvantages in the system. Supply gets

distorted and unbalanced when application of

unbalanced and nonlinear loads increases.

These currents pollute the supply point of the

util ity. Therefore, it is very important to

compensate unbalance, harmonic and reactive

component of the load currents. Whereas when

supply is unbalanced and distorted, these

problems worsen the system. [13] By the

application of shunt active power filters can

eliminate harmonic, reactive and unbalanced

currents, improve the power supply performance

and the stability of system. Today, the soft

computing techniques are used broadly for

optimization of the system applied or in control

system. Some of them are such as adaptive tabu

search[48] used for finding the optimized values

of the controllers variables,[412] optimization of

active power filter using GA,[912] power loss

minimization using particle swarm optimization,[13]

neural network control [1418] applied in both

machinery and filter devices.

In this paper, two different control

techniques i.e. constant instantaneous power

A REVIEW OF CONTROL STRATEGIES FOR SHUNT ACTIVE POWER

FILTER FOR HARMONICS COMPENSATION

SANJAY MATHUR1, NIYAZ HASAN KAZMI1, TALAHA CHISTI1, *ANURAG TRIPATHI2

1Research Scholar Sai Nath University, Ranchi, 2 Department of Electrical Engineering Institute of Engineering. &

Technology, Lucknow, India.

*Address for correspondence: Dr .Anurag Tripathi, Assistant Professor, Department of

Electrical Engineering, Institute of Engineering. & Technology, Lucknow, India,


ABSTRACT

This paper proposes two different current control based controllers for a shunt active power

filter system. A shunt active power filter system has been designed, built to work under balanced;

unbalanced and distorted supply conditions to meet IEEE 519 recommended harmonic

standards. The shunt active filter is mainly controlled by two different control schemes i.e.

constant instantaneous power and sinusoidal current control based controller to act as a

harmonic isolator between the supply and load. This paper discusses about both the current

controllers.

Keywords: Active power filter (APF), Constant instantaneous power control strategy, Sinusoidal

current control strategy, Harmonic compensation, IEEE 519.

control strategy (CIPC) and Sinusoidal current

control strategy (SCC) have been discussed

which are used for reduction of harmonics and

others problem created into the supply system

due to the nonlinear loads.[1] The paper has been

organized in the following manner. The APF

configuration is discussed in Section I. Section II

presents constant instantaneous power control

strategy and the Section III discusses about

Sinusoidal current control strategy. Section IV

concludes the paper.

SYSTEM DESCRIPTION

The supply system is a threephase system

with source frequency of 50 Hz. Figure 1 shows

the APF applied for improvement of the power

quality under all supply conditions. Shunt APF

compensates the harmonic currents in the

system [22,24,25,27,28,30] and thus improves the power

quality. The shunt APF is realized by using one

voltage source inverters (VSIs) connected at

point of common coupling (PCC) with a common

DC link voltage [2023].The loads generally used are

three types of nonlinear loads i.e. 6pulse current

source Converter Bridge, three phase diode

bridge rectifier with inductance of 300mH and

three phase diode bridge rectifier with

capacitance of 1000uF.

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Figure 1: Shunt Active Power filter

Constant Instantaneous Power ControlStrategy

Figure 2 presents the control diagram of the

shunt active filter using constant instantaneous

power control strategy. We can observed that

four low pass filters have been shown in the

control block; in which, three with cut off of 800

Hz has been applied to filter the voltages and

one for the power p0. Direct application of the

phase voltages cannot be used in the control

due to instability problem. There may be

resonance between source impedance and the

small passive filter. Low pass filters have been

applied to the system to attenuate the voltage

harmonics at the resonance frequency which are

higher than 800 Hz. p, q ,p0 ,

va and v

b are obtained

after the calculation from ab0 transformation and

send to the ab current reference block, which

calculates i’ca

and i’cb

. Finally, ab0 inverse

transformation block calculates the current

references and applied to the PWM current

control i.e. hysteresis band controller.

Figure 2: Control block diagram of the shunt active filter using constant instantaneous power

control strategy

In a real realization, these lowpass filers may

be removed, depending on system parameters

such as a switching frequency of the PWM

converter and a frequency response of the

electronic circuit for voltage measurement.

With this approach, the active filter supplies

the whole i0 to the load. If no zerosequence

voltage is present, the zerosequence power p0

is zero. In this case, the zerosequence current i0

of the load is completely compensated without

the need for energy balance inside the active

filter, since p0 = 0. This operation takes place

only under the supposition that the threephase

system is balanced and that the voltage

waveforms are purely sinusoidal. If, on the other

hand, this technique is applied to contaminated

supplies, the resulting performance is proven to

be poor.

The above compensation principle that

provides constant source instantaneous power

is an extended version of the original control

strategy. The control technique does not use any

RMS value calculation, even though it uses a

low and a highpass filer to separate the powers

p0 and , which influence the dynamic response

of the active filer. Figure 3 presents the MATLAB/

Simulink Model of Constant Instantaneous Power

control strategy.


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www.ijsir.co.in 57

Figure 3: Shunt active filter model using constant instantaneous power control strategy

SINUSOIDAL CURRENT CONTROL STRATEGY

With some modification in constant

instantaneous power control strategy, the new

strategy can be used under unbalanced

conditions too. The new strategy has been

named as Sinusoidal current control strategy.

Figure 4 shows the control diagram of shunt

active filter using sinusoidal current control

strategy which is modified version of constant

instantaneous power control strategy and able

to compensate load currents under unbalanced

conditions too. The modification includes a

positive sequence detector which replaced the

800 Hz cutoff frequency lowpass filters and

correctly finds the phase angle and frequency

of the fundamental positive sequence voltage

component and thus shunt active power filter

compensates the reactive power of the load.

While designing this detector, utmost care

should be taken so that shunt active filter

produces ac currents orthogonal to the voltage

component, otherwise it will produce active power.

i ,i , p’ and q’ are obtained after the calculation

from 0 transformation block and send

to the voltage reference block, which

calculates v’ and v

’. Finally, 0 inverse

transformation block calculates the , , and

. In place of the filtered voltages usedpreviously, and, are considered as input to the

main control circuit of figure 4 Now fundamental

negative sequence power, harmonic power, and

the fundamental reactive power, are also

included in the compensating powers. It should

be noted that the controller for supply systems

can be treated as a simplification, just

considering v0 =i

0 =p

0 = 0 and the elimination of

signal.

The sinusoidal current control strategy

makes the active filer to compensate the current

of a nonlinear load to guarantee balanced,

sinusoidal current drawn from the network, even

under an unbalanced and/or distorted system

voltage. We know that neural current is a big

problem for aircraft system and this strategy

compensates also the neutral current of the load.

At this point, it is important to remark that

the voltage regulator of Fig.5 that generates the

signal ploss

has received an additional task

besides those listed in the last sections: to

correct errors in power compensation. This

occurs because the feed forward control circuit

is now unable to supervise the zerosequence

power. Since the active filer compensates the

whole neural current of the load in the presence

58 www.ijsir.co.in


P-ISSN 2347-2189, E- ISSN 2347-4971

of zerosequence voltages, the shunt active filter

eventually supplies. ∆p is replaced simply by

ploss. Therefore, if the active filer supplies p0 to

the load, this causes dc voltage variations, which

are sensed by the PI controller of the dc voltage

regulator. Hence, an additional amount of

average real power, numerically equal p0 , is

automatically added to the signal plot that is

mainly used to provide energy to cover for losses

in the power circuit of the shunt active filter.

Figure 5 presents the MATLAB/Simulink model

of Sinusoidal current control strategy.

Figure 4: Control diagram of the shunt active filter controller using sinusoidal current control strategy

Figure 5: Shunt active filter model using Sinusoidal current control strategy

CONCLUSIONS

This paper presented an innovative

technology management by criticaly analyzing

about power quality improvement using different

control strategies applied in supply system. CIPC

and SCC control techniques are discussed in

detail, which can be remedy for power quality

problems generated in different equipment. This

paper will help research workers, users and

suppliers of electrical power to gain a guideline

about the power quality.

REFERENCES

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Heumann, “ThreePhase FourWire Shunt Active

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March 1997.

2. Koteswara Rao Uyyuru, Mahesh K. Mishra, and

Arindam Ghosh, “An OptimizationBased Algorithm

for Shunt Active”, IEEE Transactions on Power

Electronics, Vol. 24, No. 5, pp. 12231232, May

2009.


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3. Habi, M. Bouguerra, D. Ouahdi, and H. Meglouli,

“Using the Schunt Active Power Filter for

Compensation of the Distorted and Unbalanced

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152156, 2006.

4. S.Khalid, Niraj Kumar, V.M.Mishra, “Application of

Adaptive tabu Search Algorithm in Sinusoidal Fryze

Voltage Control based Hybrid Series Active Power

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and Engineering (IJEOE), USA, Volume 3, No 2,

pp. 6075, OctDec 2014.

5. Saifullah Khalid, Niraj Kumar, V.M.Mishra,

“Performance Evaluation of Adaptive Tabu Search

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control based Hybrid Series Active Power Filter,”

International Journal on Electrical Engineering and

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pp. 511520, September 2014.

6. KN.Areerak, S.V.Bozhko, G.M.Asher, and D.W.

P.Thomas, “DQTransformation Approach for

Modelling and Stability Analysis of ACDC Power

System with Controlled PWM Rectifier and

Constant Power Loads”, Proceedings of 13th

International Power Electronics and Motion

Control Conference (EPEPEMC 2008), 2008,pp.

20492054.

7. T.Kulworawanichpong, KL.Areerak, KN.Areerak,

and S.Sujitjorn, “Harmonic Identification for Active

Power Filters Via Adaptive Tabu Search Method”,

LNCS (Lecture Notes in Computer Science) ,

SpringerVerlag Heidelberg, Volume 3215, 2004,

pp. 687694.

8. D.Puangdownreong, KN.Areerak, A.Srikaew,

S.Sujijorn, and P.Totarong, “System Identification

via Adaptive Tabu Search, Proceedings of IEEE

International Conference on Industrial Technology

(ICIT02), 2002, pp. 915920.

9. Babak Keshavarz Hedayati, Abdolreza Rahmati,

“Genetic Algorithm Application in Controlling

Performance and Power Dissipation of Active

Power Filters”, Canadian Journal on Electrical &

Electronics Engineering, Vol. 1, No. 1, pp. 1519,

February 2010.

10. Saifullah Khalid, Bharti Dwivedi, “Application of AI

techniques in implementing Shunt APF in Aircraft

Supply System,” SOCROPROS Conference

(Springer Lecture Notes), IITRoorkee, Dec 2628,

2013, Volume 1, pp. 333341, 2013.

11. Saifullah Khalid, Bharti Dwived, “GAFUZZY

Application in SAF & Its Comparative Study with

Conventional Techniques in 400 Hz Aircraft

System,” IEEE – CARE 2013, Dec 1618, pp. 15,

2013.

12. M. ElHabrouk and M. K. Darwish, “A New Control

Technique for Active Power Filters Using a

Combined Genetic Algorithm/Conventional

Analysis”, IEEE transactions on Industrial

Electronics”, Vol. 49, No. 1, pp. 5866, February

2002.

13. Radha Thangaraj, Thanga Raj Chelliah, Millie

Pant, Ajit Abraham and Crina Grosan, “Optimal

gain tuning of PI speed controller in induction

motor drives using particle swarm optimization,”

Logic Journal of IGPL Advance Access, pp.114,

July 2010.

14. Avik Bhattacharya, Chandan Chakraborty, “A Shunt

Active Power Filter With Enhanced Performance

Using ANNBased Predictive and Adaptive

Controllers,” IEEE Transactions on Industrial

Electronics, Vol. 58, No. 2, pp. 421428, February

2011.

15. Saifullah Khalid, Bharti Dwivedi, Dharamveer,

“Performance Evaluation of GA Optimized & Fuzzy

Logic Control based Shunt Active Power Filter for

Constant Frequency Aircraft Power System,” IEEE

International conference on “Emerging Trends in

Communication, Control, Signal Processing and

Computing Applications” (C²SPCA 2013), pp. 16,

2013.

16. Jiang YouHua, Chen YongWei, “Neural Network

Control Techniques of Hybrid Active Power Filter,”

Proceedings of International Conference on

Artif icial Intell igence and Computational

Intelligence, 2009, pp. 2630.

17. Saifullah Khalid, Bharti Dwivedi, Bhim Singh, “ New

Optimum ThreePhase Shunt Active Power Filter

based on Adaptive Tabu Search and Genetic

Algorithm using ANN control in unbalanced and

distorted supply conditions,” Elektrika : Journal of

Electrical Engineering, Vol. 14, Issue 2, pp. 0914,

2012,.

18. R. Dehini, A. Bassou, B. Ferdi, “Artificial Neural

Networks Application to Improve Shunt Active

Power Filter,” International Journal of Computer

and Information Engineering, Vol. 3, No. 4, pp.

247254, 2009.

19. Maurício Aredes, Luís. F. C. Monteiro, Jaime M.

Miguel, “Control Strategies for Series and Shunt

Active Filters,” IEEE Bologna Power Tech

Conference, June 23th26th, Bologna, Italy, 2003,

pp. 101106.

20. Murat Kale, E. Ozdemir, “Harmonic and reactive

power compensation with shunt active power filter

under nonideal mains voltage”, Electric Power

Systems Research, Vol. 74, pp. 363–370, 2005.

21. S.Khalid, Bharti Dwivedi, “Power Quality Issues,

Problems, Standards & Their Effects in Industry

with Corrective Means”, International Journal of

Advances in Engineering & Technology, Vol. 1,

Issue 2, pp.111, May 2011.

22. F. Z.Peng, , H.Akagi, , and A.Nabae, “A New

Approach to Harmonic Compensation in Power

Systems a Combined System of Shunt Passive

60 www.ijsir.co.in


P-ISSN 2347-2189, E- ISSN 2347-4971

and Series Active Filters”, IEEE Trans. on Industry

Applications, Vol. 6, No. 26,pp. 983990, 1990.

23 B.K.Bose, “Recent Advances in Power

Electronics,” IEEE Trans. on Power Electronics,

Vol. 7, No.1, pp. 215, Jan.1992.

24. R. C. Dugan, M. F. McGranaghan, and H. W. Beaty,

Electrical Power Systems Quality. New York:

McGrawHill, 1996.

25. S.Khalid, N.Vyas, Application of Power Electronics

to Power System, University Science Press, INDIA,

2009.

26. IEEE Recommended Practices and

Requirements for Harmonic Control in Electrical

Power Systems, IEEE Standard 5191992, 1992.

27. H. Akagi, E.H. Watanabe and M. Aredes,

“Instantaneous Power Theory and Applications to

Power Conditioning,” John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New

Jersey, 2007.


P-ISSN 2347-2189, E- ISSN 2347-4971

www.ijsir.co.in 61

INTRODUCTION

Ferroelectrics are a very important class of

materials having wide variety of applications in

various technological devices such as electro–

optic materials, infrared sensors, ultrasonic

systems, actuators, electric field and strain

sensors, nonvolatile memory devices etc. [10, 25, 28,

29, 35, 36, 38,46]. A material is said to be ferroelectric

when it has two or more orientational states of

electric polarization and can be reoriented from

one state to another by an electric field. If the

STUDY OF DOMAIN SIZE IN ORDER- DISORDER

NANO-FERROELECTRIC POWDERS FROM NMR RESPONSE OF

I=3/2 QUADRUPOLAR SPIN SYSTEMS

AHIRWAL P. K.1, CHAITANYA P.2, SHUKLA A.3 AND *PANDEY L.1

1Department of Physics & Electronics, Rani Durgavati University, Jabalpur-482001, India2Department of Physics, St. Aloysius College (Autonomous with Potential for Excellence), Jabalpur-482001, India

3Department of Physics, National Institute of Technology, Mizoram, Aizawl-796012, India

*Address for correspondence: Dr .L .Pandey, Professor, Department of Physics & Electronics,

Rani Durgavati University, Jabalpur-482001, India,


ABSTRACT

The effect of domain walls on the NMR response of center line transition in I=3/2 quadrupolar

spin system has been studied and a method is proposed for the measurement of domain width

in order-disorder nano-ferroelectrics. A ferroelectric domain is represented by a one dimensional

chain of equidistant nuclear spins having dipolar coupling. Spin populations as function of

position, time and ratio of quadrupolar to dipolar transition probabilities are obtained by forming

rate equations and solving them for a sample subjected to selective rf pulses by using Laplace

Transform. Based on the fact that the electric polarization in an order-disorder ferroelectric

undergoes a spiral orientation as one moves from one domain to the adjacent one making the

flipping motion of electric dipoles near the domain walls easier due to low activation barrier, it is

assumed that at low temperatures the spins near domain walls still undergo relaxation while

such a relaxation in the main body of the domain would have almost ceased. The spins present

inside the domain undergo relaxation through transfer of magnetization to the domain walls

through a spin diffusion process by nearest neighbor interaction. The change produced in

central line population by such a process is studied. This is further used to calculate the

magnitude of the NMR signal from a powdered sample by summing the contributions from

crystallites oriented in all the directions. It is found that the domain width can be estimated by

noting the relative amplitude of the pulsed NMR signal at low temperatures provided that relative

amplitude of such a signal from a sample of same material with known domain width is also

known. The method illustrated by making calculations for ferroelectric NaNO2,is quite general

and can be applied to any order disorder ferroelectric with nano sized domains and having

spin I=3/2 quadrupolar nuclei.

Keywords: Spin-lattice relaxation, Spin diffusion, Order-disorder ferroelectrics, Domain width,

Nano-ferroelectrics, Spin I=3/2 quadrupolar system.

spontaneous polarization arises due to the

ordering of ions or some group of ions, then the

ferroelectric is said to be order–disorder

ferroelectric. [10, 25, 29]. The thermal motions tend

to destroy the ferroelectric order and

ferroelectricity usually disappears beyond a

certain temperature Tc, called the transition

temperature. Below Tc, a ferroelectric material

comprises regions of uniform polarization, called

domains. Within each domain, the polarization

is in the same direction, but in the adjacent

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P-ISSN 2347-2189, E- ISSN 2347-4971

domain it is in different direction. The region

joining two adjacent domains is called domain–

wall. If the spontaneous polarizations in the

adjacent domains are in opposite directions, the

domains are called 180o domains and the region

joining two 180o domains are called 180

odomain-

walls. The technological applications of a

ferroelectric greatly depend upon its domain

structure and behavior and shape of hysteresis

loop (polarization vs electric field plot) that in turn

is governed by how fast the domains can be

switched from one direction to the other. The

switching process involves building up of the

favorable domains at the expense of the

unfavorable ones starting from nucleation and

growth at the domain-walls.[29] Also the properties

of a ferroelectric tend to change over period of

time due to gradual buildup of inhibiting structure

at domain walls reducing their mobility.[25,29]

Due to miniaturization trend in device size,

many recent research efforts have been focused

on the size dependent evolution of

ferroelectricity in nano crystalline and thin films

samples.[6,11,26,31,38,40, 48,52,53] Single crystalline

ferroelectric nano wires and nano tubes having

retention time for the induced polarization

exceeding several days have been produced.[52]

Nano sized nonvolatile polarization domains can

be induced on these nanowires indicating that

ferroelectric nano wires may be used to fabricate

nonvolatile memory devices with an integration

density approaching 1 terrabit/cm2. The potential

for application as nonvolatile random access

memory has stimulated great interest in the

integration of ferroelectric thin films and nano

structures .[13,27,39,51] For ultra-high density

integration of ferroelectric memories the

investigation of size effect and the estimation of

domain width has become extremely important.[27]

The ferroelectric properties of thin films

samples are studied by using ultra high vacuum

Scanned Probe Microscope (SPM). The written

polarization is read by using electrostatic force

microscopy (EFM) [52] by measuring the shift in

the resonance frequency of a SPM cantilever

while scanning it with a small tip voltage. The

shift is directly proportional to the electrostatic

force experienced by the tip and thus to the

magnitude of the electric polarization of the nano

wire. A plot of the shift as a function of tip position

provides a spatial map of electric polarization

direction on the nano wire. It has been shown

that measured domain size as observed through

the EFM is limited by the tip-sample distance (~

few tens of nm) due to long ranged nature of

electrostatic interaction. Similarly it has been

demonstrated that induced ferroelectric domains

as applied through the AFM tip formed

information bits with size of 60 nm diameter in

PZT. The formed bits were recorded back with

high spatial resolution of ~10 nm. Also the

polarization retention time is dependent on size

of domains.[41] Thus the determination of the size

of domains is very crucial for a strategy to

achieve maximum integration density.

Study of ferroelectric domains and domain

walls including the local dynamics has been

drawing considerable attention of research

workers in the past as well as in recent years.[12,15,16,17,32,37,38,42,46,50,54] For this various techniques[25]

such as optical birefringence, second harmonic

generation, electron microscopy, chemical

etching, X-ray topography, U.V. photoemission,

electrostatic force microscopy, atomic force

microscopy etc. have been used for different

materials. Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR)

has been a very powerful tool for studying the

local environment. [1,8,25,45]

Nuclei with spin I > 1 possess magnetic

dipole moment as well as electric quadrupole

moment. Such nuclei respond to the local

environment through the interaction of the dipole

moments with the local magnetic fields and of

the electric quadrupole moments with the electric

field gradients. As a result these nuclei can sense

subtle changes taking place in the local

environment and these changes are recorded

through the NMR amplitudes, line widths and

relaxation times. The NMR studies of nuclei with

I > 1 have therefore proved to be a very

powerful tool for the study of local structure and

dynamics including phase transitions. A large

number of reports are available on successful

use of NMR for such investigations in

ferroelectrics; a few illustrative ones are given

in the reference. [5, 7, 8, 14, 18, 33] Not much work on

the study of effect of domain walls on the spin

relaxation is available in literature except those

by Kotecha and Pandey [19] and few others [3, 34, 43]

for spin I=3/2 systems. In their study the


P-ISSN 2347-2189, E- ISSN 2347-4971

www.ijsir.co.in 63

contribution of the domain walls to the spin lattice

relaxation time related to satellite lines and the

central line transitions in the NMR spectrum in

an order-disorder ferroelectric crystal has been

theoretically studied and a method has been

proposed for the determination of domain size

in nano ferroelectrics. In this paper we present

an extension of the work cited above. The NMR

signal arising due to population differences in

the central line transitions is calculated keeping

in mind the nuclear spin relaxation of spin I=3/2

quadrupolar system due to domain walls in order

disorder ferroelectrics. The possible application

for the determination of domain size in nano

ferroelectrics powders possessing spin I=3/2

nuclei is discussed. Wherever necessary the

equations and their solutions are reproduced

from our earlier paper [43] for completeness. The

necessary rate equations for the change of

population of various levels in I=3/2 spin system

are written as earlier [3, 20, 43] and solved in the next

section followed by results and discussions.

CALCULATION OF POPULATION DIFFERE-NCES FOR SPIN I=3/2 SYSTEM IN AN ORDER-DISORDER NANO FERROEELCTRIC

Let us consider a ferroelectric material of

order disorder type having 1800 domains

possessing I=3/2 nuclei. The 1800 domain–

domain wall structure is schematically shown in

Fig 1.

Figure 1: Schematic diagram of 180° domain (d) domain-wall (dw) structure. The arrows indicate the electricpolarization. The electric polarization has a spiral orientation as one move from one domain to the adjacent

domain.

In order to make the calculations tractable

we assume that a 1800 domain can be

represented by a one-dimensional array of

equidistant nuclei situated at …x-2a, x-a, x, x+a,

x+2a ... as shown in Fig 2. The I=3/2 spins would

have four Zeeman levels [1,45] with populations

Figure 2: Schematic energy level diagrams of spins (I= 3/2) in a one - dimensional chain. W

0

1, W

0

0, W

0

-1 are the

transition probabilities of 3/2

→← ½, ½ →← -½, -½ →← -3/2

levels respectively for the case where one spin

undergoing an upward transition while the other spin undergoes downward transition (usually called flip-flop

term). W2

1, W

2

0, W

2

-1 represent simultaneous upward (or down ward) flip of the pair of spins. W

1

1, W

1

0, W

1

-1

represent the single spin transition probability for the spin pairs and counted twice for each pair of spins.

64 www.ijsir.co.in


P-ISSN 2347-2189, E- ISSN 2347-4971

n3/2

, n1/2

, n-1/2

and n-3/2

corresponding to the

quantum numbers m=3/2, 1/2, -1/2, -3/2 in an

external magnetic field. We further assume that

each nucleus interacts with its nearest

neighbours only.

The rate of change of deviations of

populations from thermal equilibrium values can

be written as [1, 4, 19, 23, 24, 43,44]

Where N = n3/2

+ n1/2

+ n-1/2

+ n-3/2,

and W10, W0

0,

W-10

are the transition probabilities of 3/2 →←

1/2, 1/2 →← -1/2, -1/2 →← -3/2 levels respectively

for the case where one spin is undergoing an

upward transitions while the other spin

undergoes downward transition (usually called

flip-flop term).[1,45] The probabilities W12, W0

2,

W-12 represent simultaneous upward (or down

ward) flip of the pair of spins. Similarly W11, W0

1,

W -11 represent the single spin transition

probability for the spin-pairs and counted twice

for each pair of spins. Here we have used the

same symbols and notations as used earlier in

Ref. [20, 43]

Defining the polulation differences as

N+1

= n3/2

– n1/2

N0

= n+1/2

– n-1/2

N-1

= n-1/2

– n-3/2

And assuming that

Wi

0º W

i

0 (x

, x+a) º W

i

0(x

, x-

a) (for i = 1, 0, -1)

Wi

2º W

i

2 (x

, x+a) º W

i

2 (x

, x-

a)

As adjacent neighbors have identical

interactions, we can rewrite Eq. (1) as

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

( ) ( ) ( )

∂

∂ρ σ σ

ρ σ σ

N

tx t N x t N x a t N x a t

N x t N x a t N x a t

+

+ + += − − + − −

+ + + + −

1

1 1 1

0 0 0

2 2 2, , , ,

' , ' , ' ,

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

( ) ( ) ( )

( ) ( ) ( )

∂

∂ρ σ σ

ρ σ σ

ρ σ σ

N




0

1 1 1

0 0 0

1 1 1

, , , ,

' , ' , ' ,

" , " , " ,

+

2 2 2

+ +

= + + −

− − + − −

+ + −

+ + +

− − −

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

( ) ( ) ( )

∂

∂ρ σ σ

ρ σ σ

N



−

− − −

= + −

− + −

1

0 0 0

1 1 1

, ' , ' , ' ,

" , " , " ,

+ +

- 2 2 - 2

where

ρ σ

ρ σ

ρ σ

= + + =−

= + + =−

= + + =−−

− − − −

22 2 4

22 2 4

22 2 4

1

1 0

1

2

1

2

1

0

1

1

0 0

0

2

0

2

0

0

0

1

1 0

1

2

1

2

1

0

1

WW W W W

WW W W W

WW W W W

,

' , '

" , "

After Taylor series expansion of the terms N+1

(x+a, t), N-1

(x+a, t), N0 (x+a, t), N

0 (x-a,t), N

-1 (x-a,

t), N+1

(x-a, t) about x and retaining the terms up

( )( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

( ) ( )

∂

∂

n x t

tn x t W n x t W

Nn x t n x a t W

Nn x t n x a t W

Nn x t n x a t W

Nn x t n x a t W

Nn

3 2

3 2 1

1

1 2 1

1

3 2 1 2 0

1

1 2 3 2 0

1

3 2 1 2 0

1

1 2 3 2 0

1

2 21

1 1

1 1

/

/ / / /

/ / / /

/ /

,, , , ,

, , , ,

, ,

= − + − +

+ + − −

+ − −

( ) ( )

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

( ) ( )

3 2 3 2 2

1

1 2 1 2 2

1

3 2 3 2 2

1

1 2 1 2 2

1

1 1

1

/ /

/ / / /

/ /

, ,

, , , ,

, ,

x t n x a t W

Nn x t n x a t W

Nn x t n x a t W

Nn x t n x a t W

+

+ + − −

+ −

( )( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

( ) ( )

∂

∂

n x t

tn x t W n x t W n x t W n x t W

Nn x a t n x t W

Nn x t n x a t W

Nn x t n x a t W

Nn

1 2

1

1

1 2 1

1

1 2 1

0

1 2 1

0

3 2 1 2 0

1

1 2 3 2 0

1

1 2 3

2 2 2 2

1 1

1 1

3/2

3/2 01

/

/ / /

/ / / /

/ /

,, , , ,

, , , ,

, ,

= − − +

− − − +

+ − +

−

( ) ( )

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

( ) ( )

2 1 2 0

1

1 2 1 2 0

0

1 2 1 2 0

0

1 2 1 2 0

0

1 2 1 2 0

0

3 2 3 2

1 1

1 1

1

x t n x a t W

Nn x t n x a t W

Nn x t n x a t W

Nn x t n x a t W

Nn x t n x a t W

Nn x t n x a t

, ,

, , , ,

, , , ,

, ,

/

/ / / /

/ / / /

/ /

+

+ + − −

+ − − +

+ +

− −

− −

( ) ( )

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

+

WN

n x t n x a t W

Nn x t n x a t W

Nn x t n x a t W

Nn x t n x a t W

Nn x t n x a t W

Nn x

2

1

1 2 1 2 2

1

3 2 3 2 2

1

1 2 1 2 2

1

1 2 1 2 2

0

1 2 1 2 2

0

1 2

1

1 1

1 1

1

− +

− − −

− + + +

−

− −

/ /

/ / / /

/ / / /

/

, ,

, , , ,

, , , ,

( ) ( ) ( ) ( ), , , ,/ / /t n x a t WN

n x t n x a t W 1 2 2

0

1 2 1 2 2

01

− + −− −

( )( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

( ) ( )

∂

∂

n x t

tn x t W n x t W n x t W n x t W

Nn x a t n x t W

Nn x t n x a t W

Nn x t n x a t W

−

− −

−

−

−

− −

−

= − − +

− − − +

+ −

1 2

1 2 1

0

1 2 1

0

1 2 1

1

3 2 1

1

1 2 1 2 0

0

1 2 1 2 0

0

1 2 1 2 0

0

2 2 2 2

1 1

1

/

/ / / /

/ / / /

/ /

,, , , ,

, , , ,

, ,

( ) ( )

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

+ +

+ + − −

+ − − +

+

−

− −

−

− −

−

− −−

− −−

1

1 1

1 1

1

1 2 1 2 0

0

3 2 1 2 0

1

1 2 3 2 0

1

3 2 1 2 0

1

1 2 3 2 0

1

1

Nn x t n x a t W

Nn x t n x a t W

Nn x t n x a t W

Nn x t n x a t W

Nn x t n x a t W

Nn

/ /

/ / / /

/ / / /

/

, ,

, , , ,

, , , ,

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

( ) ( ) ( )

2 1 2 2

0

1 2 1 2 2

0

1 2 1 2 2

0

1 2 1 2 2

0

1 2 1 2 2

0

1 2 1 2

1

1 1

1 1

x t n x a t WN

n x t n x a t W

Nn x t n x a t W

Nn x t n x a t W

Nn x t n x a t W

Nn x t n x a

, , , ,

, , , ,

, , , ,

/ / /

/ / / /

/ / / /

+ − +

− − −

− − −

− −

− −

− −

+

+ ( )

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

t W

Nn x t n x a t W

Nn x t n x a t W

Nn x t n x a t W

Nn x t n x a t W

2

0

1 2 1 2 2

1

3 2 3 2 2

1

1 2 1 2 2

1

3 2 3 2 2

1

1 1

1 1

− + + +

− − + −

− −−

− −−

− −−

− −−

/ / / /

/ / / /

, , , ,

, , , ,

( )( ) ( )

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

∂

∂

n x t

tn x t W n x t W

Nn x t n x a t W

Nn x t n x a t W

Nn x t n x a t W

Nn x t n x a t W

−

−−

−−

− −−

− −−

− −−

− −

= −

+ − +

+ − − −

3 2

1 2 1

1

3 2 1

1

1 2 3 2 0

1

3 2 1 2 0

1

1 2 3 2 0

1

3 2 1 2 0

2 2

1 1

1 1

/

/ /

/ / / /

/ / / /

,, ,

, , , ,

, , , ,

+

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

−

− −−

− −−

− −−

− −−

+ + − +

+ − − −

1

1 2 1 2 2

1

3 2 3 2 2

1

1 2 1 2 2

1

3 2 3 2 2

1

1 1

1 1

Nn x t n x a t W

Nn x t n x a t W

Nn x t n x a t W

Nn x t n x a t W

/ / / /

/ / / /

, , , ,

, , , ,

Eq. (1)

Eq. (2)


P-ISSN 2347-2189, E- ISSN 2347-4971

www.ijsir.co.in 65

to the second order the set of Eq. (2) reduces

to

Where

σρ 21 +=a '2'2 σρ +=a ''2''3 σρ +=a

2

1 aD σ−= 2

2 ' aD σ−= 2

3 '' aD σ−=

Now these coupled simultaneous partial

differential equations representing spin diffusion

are solved by using Laplace Transform. [22, 2, 21, 43]

Taking the Laplace Transform of Eq. (3) over

the variable t and denoting the transforms as

Z+1

= Λ { N+1

(x, t)}, Z0 = Λ{ N

0(x, t)}, Z

-1 = Λ{ N

-1(x, t)},

Eq. (3) yields

Eq. (4)

With

k1 = 3 N

+1(x, 0) + N

-1(x, 0) +2N

0(x, 0)

k2 = N

+1(x, 0) + N

-1(x, 0) +2 N

0(x, 0)

k3 = N

+1(x, 0) + 3N

-1(x, 0) +2N

0(x, 0)

For the given I = 3/2 system, the value of

the probabilities can be written as [43, 45]

where , q is the polar angle

of the radius vector joining two nuclei with respect

to the external magnetic field and is the

correlation time. The internuclear spacing is

denoted by r and is the gyromagnetic ratio.

The Eq. (4) are coupled partial differential

equations and were difficult to solve analytically

for the general case. So we made a simplifying

assumption that only those transitions where

Eq. (3)

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P-ISSN 2347-2189, E- ISSN 2347-4971

one spin is undergoing an upward transitions

while the other spin undergoes downward

transition (the so-called flip-flop terms) [1, 43, 45] are

important. We therefore set C1, C

3 and C

5 in Eq.

(4) equal to zero. The Eq. (4) can then be written

as

The Eq. (4) can then be written as

[ ]Z Z Z Z+1

"= -

1

93 2

1 1 0 1b

k s s s− − −+ −

[ ]Z Z Z Z0"

= -1

8

22 1 0 1

bk s s s− − −+ −

( )ba W

W WA

= = =

−

2

00

00 0

0 0

2

2

2

16

21 3, cos

hθ

[ ]Z Z Z Z-1

"= -

1 3

92

3 1 0 1b

k s s s− − −+ −

Eq. (5)

Where

( )ba W

W WA

= = =

−

2

00

00 0

0 0

2

2

2

16

21 3, cos

hθ

‘s’ being the Laplace variable.

The set of Eq. (5) can be solved for different

initial and boundary conditions. For an easy

comparison of the results with the generally

performed pulsed NMR relaxation measurements

or devising new experiments and also to study

the domain-wall effects, we consider the following

situations.

An intense radio frequency pulse is applied

to the sample at a frequency that would be equal

to the central line frequency in a crystal of same

material. We make a crude assumption to begin

with that it causes a fraction a of spins flip from

the lower state I = 1/2 to the higher state I = -1/2

and the population differences become

N0(x, 0) = -2 , N

-1 (x, 0) = , N

+1 (x, 0) =

Eq. (6)

The time t = 0 corresponds to the end of

the pulse. To demonstrate the procedure of

calculations the value of is chosen to be 0.5

which corresponds to a /2 pulse for crystals.

A single 180o domain with the domain-wall at its

end is considered. The origin of the coordinates,

x = 0, is taken at the domain-wall and the wall is

taken to be thin.

Quadrupolar nuclei such as 23Na in NaNO2

possess both magnetic moment and electric field

gradient. It is known that spin lattice relaxation

of quadrupolar nuclei in ferroelectrics usually

occurs predominantly through interaction of

quadrupole moment with the fluctuating electric

field gradients that are created by local motions

of ions or group of ions. For example, it has been

shown that 23Na nuclei in NaNO2, which is an

order-disorder ferroelectric, undergo spin-lattice

relaxation due to flipping motions of NO2

[33]. Also

it was shown by Hughes and Pandey[14,33] that in

order-disorder ferroelectrics the electric

polarization undergoes a spiral orientation as

one move from one domain to the other. If we

visualize the whole sample to be made up of thin

slices, then it means that the polarization in

adjacent slices in the larger body of the domains

are almost parallel to each other, whereas the

polarization in the slices close to the domain wall

have progressive relative tilts so that it gets

completely reversed in the adjacent domain. As

a result, the activation barrier Ea for the flipping

motion of group of ions in the regions close to

the domain-wall would most likely be lower as

compared to that for the regions deep inside the

domain. As the flip probability at any temperature

T would vary as exp(-Ea/kT),it is implied that at

lower temperatures, when the flips in the interior

body of domain would have almost ceased the

groups near or inside the wall may still be

executing some flipping motions. This in turn,

implies that nuclei near the walls would be still

experiencing relaxation whereas those deep

inside the domain would not be relaxing. Further,

it has been recently found by Blinc and

coworkers [49] that 23Na spin-lattice relaxation rate

in micro confined NaNO2

in the ferroelectric is

similar to that in the bulk. Therefore, we liberally

assume that the nature of quadrupolar relaxation

for nuclei at the domain-wall is similar to that for

those deep inside the domain for order-disorder

ferroelectrics in general. Therefore we further

assume that the populations at the domain-wall

follow the time dependence [4, 30, 43]

N±1

(0, t)= e-2W1t

N0(0, t) = [e-2W

1t + e-2W

2t]

Eq. (7)


P-ISSN 2347-2189, E- ISSN 2347-4971

www.ijsir.co.in 67

Where W1

and W2

are the quadrupolar

relaxation probabilities corresponding to the

transition m = ±3/2 →← ±1/2 and m = ± 3/2 →←

+1/2 respectively. It should be noted in deciding

the location of the origin, i.e. x = 0, that the NMR

of nuclei lying inside the wall would not be usually

observable due to structural disorders. So, x =

0 would correspond to the region near the wall.

At present we are assuming that the wall

thickness is negligible.

Using the above boundary conditions, Eq.

(5) were solved to yield

Eq. (8)

Where

a

k k k

s

k k k

s

s W s W

k k k

s s W s W

3

2

2

1

2

1 2 3 1

2

1 2 3

1

2

1

1

2

2

1 2 3

1 2

18

2

4 181

4

4

18 2 181

2

4

4 2 2

= −−

−− +

− −

− +

++

+ −

+

+− +

−+

−+

ϕ ϕ

ϕ

ϕ α ϕ α

α α

a

k k k

s

k k k

s

s W s W

4

2

2

1

2

1 2 3 1

2

1 2 3

1

2

1

1

2

2

18

2

4 181

4

4

18 2 181

2

=−

−− +

− −

− +

++

+ −

+

ϕ ϕ

ϕ

ϕ α ϕ α

By taking the inverse Laplace Transform [2] of

Eq. (8) the values of N±1

(x, t) and N0(x, t) can be

written as

N+1(x, t) = C11 φ1(x, t) + C12φ2(x, t) + C13φ3(x, t) + C14φ4(x, t) +

C15φ5(x, t) + C16φ6(x, t) + C17φ7(x, t) + C18

N-1(x, t) = C21 φ1(x, t) + C22φ2(x, t) + C23φ3(x, t) + C24φ4(x, t) +

C25φ5(x, t) + C26φ6(x, t) + C27φ7(x, t) + C28

N0(x, t) = C31φ1(x, t) + C32φ2(x, t) + C33φ3(x, t) + C34φ4(x, t) +

C35φ5(x, t) + C36φ6(x, t) + C38

Eq. (9)

Where

( )

( ) ( )

C C C

k k k

k k k k k k

11 21

1

2

31

1

2

1 2 3

2

2

1

2

2

2

1

2

1

2

1 2 3 1 2 3

118

118

18

42

18

181

4

4

4

4

= = − −

= − −

− +

−+

−× −

− ++

− +

ϕ

ϕ ϕ ϕ ϕ ϕ

ϕ

C C C12 22

1

2

32

1

2

1

21

181

18 = = − −

= −

−

ϕ ϕ ϕ

ϕ ϕ2

2

2

2

C C C13 23

1

2

33

1

2

1

2

2

2

1

21

181

18 181

181 = = − −

= −

−

−+

ϕ ϕ ϕ

ϕ ϕ

( )

( )

C C C

k k k

k k k

14 24

2

2

34

2

2

1 2 3

2

2

1

2

2

2

1

2

1

2

1 2 3

118

118

18

42

18

181

4

4

= = − −

= − −

− − +

−−

−×

−

− +

ϕ

ϕ ϕ ϕ ϕ ϕ

ϕ

C C C15 25

2

2

35

2

2

1

21

181

18 = = − −

= −

−

ϕ ϕ ϕ

ϕ ϕ1

2

2

2

C C C16 26

2

2

36

2

2

1

2

2

2

2

21

181

18 181

18 = = − −

= −

−

−

ϕ ϕ ϕ

ϕ ϕ

Ck k

Ck k

Ck k

Ck k

Ck k k

17

1 3

27

1 3

18

1 2

28

3 2

38

1 2 3

4 4 4 4

4

4

= −−

=−

=−

=−

= −− +

, , , ,

And f1(x, t), f

2(x, t) etc. are complicated

functions involving error functions as given below

( )φϕ

1

1

72

1

2x t erfc

x

b t, =

( )φα

ϕ

ϕ

ϕ

ϕ2

2

72

1

1

72

1

12

272

1

2

272

1

2

1

1

1

x t e

erfc W tx

b t

erfc W tx

b t

W t

x

b

x

b

,

e

=

− − +

− +

−

e

+

- -2W

-2W

1

1

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P-ISSN 2347-2189, E- ISSN 2347-4971

( )φα

ϕ

ϕ

ϕ

ϕ3

2

72

2

1

72

2

12

272

1

2

272

1

2

2

1

1

x t e

erfc W tx

b t

erfc W tx

b t

W t

x

b

x

b

,

e

e

=

− − +

− +

−

- -2W

-2W

2

2

+

( )φϕ

4

2

72

1

2x t erfc

x

b t, =

( )φα

ϕ

ϕ

ϕ

ϕ5

2

72

1

2

72

1

22

272

1

2

272

1

2

1

2

2

x t e

erfc W tx

b t

erfc W tx

b t

W t

x

b

x

b

,

e

e

=

− − +

− +

−

- -2W

-2W

1

1

+

( )φα

ϕ

ϕ

ϕ

ϕ6

2

72

2

2

72

2

22

272

1

2

272

1

2

2

2

2

x t e

erfc W tx

b t

erfc W tx

b t

W t

x

b

x

b

,

=

− − +

− +

−

e

+ e

- -2W

-2W

2

2

( )φ7

2

9

1

2x t erfc x

b t, =

The functions 2(x, t),

3(x, t),

5(x, t) and

6(x, t) can be simplified using the numerical

expansion of complex error function.

The average values of the population

differences for the entire domain would then be

given by

Eq. (10)

Where i =1, 0 or –1 and L is the thickness

of the domain. In our treatment domain-wall

thickness has been ignored. For clarity and ready

reference the symbols and useful expressions

have been kept same as taken in the Ref.[19, 43]

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The time dependence of the population

differences N+1

(t), N-1(t) and N

0(t) as given by

Eq.(9) and (10) were evaluated numerically

using 32 point Gaussian quadrature [Abramowitz

1972] for different values of the ratios W1/W

00

taking W2/W

1 = 1 and various values of L/a by

Shukla et al. [43] and Pandey et al. [34].The

necessary computer programs were developed

in BASIC language. Wherever needed relevant

data for ferroelectric NaNO2

were used just to

see the behavior. It was found that N±1

(t) and N0(t)

are in general non exponential. Treating the

quantity (W00

a2)1/2 as the diffusion coefficient D,

the function (W00

a2t)1/2 becomes the diffusion

length and provides an estimate of the distance

up to which the magnetization would have

diffused from the domain-walls (x = 0) into the

domain in time t. The quantity ( W00

a2t)/L then

gives an estimate of the portion of the domain

of length L getting affected in time t due to

relaxation occurring in the domain wall. Values

of the population differences N±1

(t) and N0 (t) were

calculated for various values of L/a and were

plotted (L ranging approximately from 1 nm to

20 nm, a = 3.56 A0 for NaNO2). These plots can

be found in references [34, 43]. It was further

found that N±1,0

(t) follow a power law dependence

on ‘t’ given by

Eq. (11)

The values of C1 and p would depend upon

the ratios W2/W

1 and W

1/W

00. Relaxation time was

chosen to be equal to the duration in which N±1,

0(t) has decayed to e-1 of some initial value [43].

Based on the theoretical studies it was

proposed that, if the spin lattice relaxation time

for a ferroelectric of usual domain size is known,

then the domain width of an unknown sample of

the same ferroelectric having nano-sized

domains can be estimated by measuring the

value of relaxation time for that sample at low

temperatures. This was further proposed that

these results were quite general and can be

applied to any ferroelectric system having 180o

domains. For applying these results to powders

an averaging over various orientations has to

be carried out.

A crystalline powder is an assembly of single

crystals randomly oriented in different directions.

The satellite signals would not be clearly visible

in the spectrum. However a calculation can be

done to get an approximate behavior of the time

dependence of the NMR signal arising due to

domain wall effects after radiating the sample

by a radio frequency pulse applied close to the

centre line frequency of spin I=3/2 system and


P-ISSN 2347-2189, E- ISSN 2347-4971

www.ijsir.co.in 69

calculating N0(t). The calculations can be

simplified by treating the powder as made up

of single crystals possessing domains of length

L having one dimensional array of spin I=3/2

nuclei as shown in Fig 2. And obtaining the sum

over all orientations (0 to 1800) and (0 to

3600). The signal is approximated by the

population difference N0(t) as given by Eq (9).

However, Eq (10) is modified to

Eq. (12)

The numerical calculations were performed

by utilizing trapezoidal rule for integration over

the angles ( 0 to 1800 ) and (0 to 3600 )

and using the 32 - point Gaussian Quadrature

program employed for single crystal calculations

described in the previous section as a

subroutine. The computer program was

developed in house in BASIC.

It was observed that the time dependence

of N0(t) is non-exponential. An attempt was made

to get an empirical relation representing this time

dependence. Since, now we are treating the

powder as an assembly of one dimensional

arrays oriented in various directions, the quantity

(4 /3)( W00

a2t)/L)3,which is nothing but the

volume fraction, would then give an estimate of

the portion getting affected in time t due to

relaxation occurring in the domain wall.The

variation of N0(t) as function of(4 /3)( W

00a2t)/

L)3, is shown in Fig. 3 in logarithmic plots for

various values of the ratio of domain width to

internuclear spacing a denoted by L/a . For

plotting value of W00

is chosen as 0.005[47] and

the values of N0 at various times (denoted by N

0

(T) (II) where T= W00

(t) have been normalized

by dividing by the value, N0 (T) (1), just after the

pulse.

It is noted that the plots in Fig 3 are almost

linear and N0 (t) can be empirically represented

as

Eq. (13)

Figure 3. Variation of Log( Abs (N0(T)(II)/N

0(T)(1)) as function of (4 /3)[ (W

00t)/(L/a)]3 for various

values of the ratio of domain width to inter nuclear spacing , L/a (ie L= 1.068 nm to 20.648 nm )

using a= 3.56 A0 for NaNO2. T=0.005 t.

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P-ISSN 2347-2189, E- ISSN 2347-4971

Where C is a constant and m is the slope

that depend upon the domain width. N0(1) is the

value of N0(t) just after the pulse and has been

used to normalize the values for easy

comparison. It is clear from Eq. (13) that it can

be used to compare the domain widths in

samples of same material since values of W00

and the interatomic spacing ‘a’ would be the

same. Also, using this equation domain width in

a sample of unknown domain width can be

estimated by noting the signal amplitude after

the NMR pulse provided that corresponding

signal amplitude in a sample of known domain

width is available.

It may be mentioned that these results are

quite general and can be applied to any

ferroelectric system having 180o domains. It is

worth mentioning here that spin lattice relaxation

for I=3/2 system in a ferroelectric would get

contributions from various mechanisms. However

as mentioned earlier, in most of the ferroelectrics

the relaxation is usually quadrupolar and

proceeds through the interaction between

nuclear electric quadrupole moment and the

fluctuating electric field gradient which generally

arises due to flipping/tumbling motions of ionic

groups (for example NO2 group in NaNO

2 ). As

these flipping/tumbling motions almost cease at

low temperatures the relaxation rate becomes

very small at low temperatures in a quadrupolar

system. Thus the method that we propose here

involves two steps: first the pulsed NMR signal

amplitude of I=3/2 nuclei in the ferroelectric

material of known domain width should be

measured at low temperatures, second the

corresponding value is measured again at same

temperature for the same nuclei but in the

sample with unknown nano sized domains. Then

the width of the nano domains is obtained from

the Fig. 3 just by comparison and Eq. (13). The

values of constants appearing in eq. (13) would

be constant for a given material and would in

general be different for different materials.

Therefore we would have specific graph such

as fig.3 for different materials. These results are

general and are expected to prompt

experimentalists to verify them.

CONCLUSIONS

The pulsed NMR signal of I=3/2 quadrupolar

spin system due to domain-walls in order-

disorder ferroelectric was theoretically studied

by representing the 1800 domain by a chain of

equidistant I=3/2 spins. The electric polarization

undergoes spiral orientation as one moves from

one domain to the adjacent one. This implies

that if we treat the domain to be made up of thin

slices, then the polarization in the slices deep

inside the domain would be almost parallel to

each other whereas the polarization in slices near

the domain-wall would undergo larger relative

tilts. Therefore owing to the lower activation

barrier near the walls the probability of activated

reorientational flipping motions of group of ions

near the wall would be more. As a result at a

given temperature, the nuclei near the walls

would be experiencing quadrupolar relaxation

whereas those inside the domain would not do

so. This would lead to spin diffusion from the

domain-walls. Rate equations are formed for the

population difference for I=3/2 quadrupolar

nuclei and are solved analytically using Laplace

Transform. Expression for signal amplitude

taking into account relaxation due to domain-

walls is derived in terms of domain width. A

general method is proposed for estimation of

domain width of a nano-ferroelectric powder by

measuring the NMR signal at low temperatures

and using the corresponding value for the same

ferroelectric having domains of known width. This

may also be used for estimating the extent of

poling of a powder sample of order-disorder

nano-ferroelectrics.

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INTRODUCTION

Water distribution system is an integral part

of present society and civilization. The system

supplies water for different uses such as

domestic, public, commercial, industrial and fire

fighting purposes. Presently,water distribution

system includes the following features –

1. Collection and Storage:Collection and

storage include construction of dams, ponds,

lakes, reservoirs, wells, bawlis etc.

EVOLUTION OF WATER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

*NIAZ AHMED SIDDIQUI

Research Scholar, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Sai Nath University, Ranchi, India

*Address for communication: Niaz Ahmed Siddiqui, Research Scholar,

Department of Mechanical Engineering, Sai Nath University, Ranchi, India,

email ID:[email protected]

ABSTRACT

Water distribution system is an integral part of present society. It includes the features likeCollection and Storage, Transportation, Treatment, Distribution .Water distribution systemscan be classified according to the source of water that they use, like – Surface Water DistributionSystems, Groundwater Distribution Systems, Regional Rural Water Distribution Systems, andPurchased Water Distribution Systems. There are many piping systems through which wateris distributed. Few main piping systems are listed as Transmission Lines, In-plant Piping Systems,Distribution Mains, and Service Lines. There are various types of layouts for water distributionnetwork, suiting to different types of populations, communities and terrains. They can beclassified as Serial Network, Branched Network, and Looped Network. The design aspect ofwater distribution system is an important area to tackle with. The designer decides about aparticular type of design depending upon the various controlling factors, the various optionsare listed as System-Wide Master Planning, Transmission – Main Design, Sub-division Design,Rehabilitation and Strengthening .There are many methods for optimization of water distributionnetworks. All methods of optimization are not fully successful but have some drawbacks too.The designer must take into notice the various limitations/drawbacks before deciding a particulartype of optimization method. There are certain myths about the optimization methods whichare listed as Optimization models do not provide solutions to practical problems, Solutionsobtained by optimization approaches do not give better solution that those obtained usingtraditional approaches, Optimization approaches are too difficult to use in practice, Practicingengineers are not comfortable with optimization approaches Optimization methods are notwell suited for strengthening and expansion of existing looped water distribution network .Eventhough mankind has known transportation of water through rivers, canals, streams etc. formany centuries, the transportation of water through pipelines and its distribution throughnetworks is of recent origin. Even though developed nations have piped water supply, developingnations also have started providing water through pipe networks. Even consumers in remotevillages have started getting water, if not in their residences, at least near to it. Thus, waterdistribution networks have been a part of modern living.

Keywords: Water, Distribution, Network, Optimization, Loop, Method, Solution, Pipe, Series,Link, Rural, Urban, Flow, Reliability, Design, Flexibility, Cost, Performance.

2. Transportation: Transportation means

transporting of water from source to consumer

centre by some means, like - canals, aqueducts,

pumping mains etc.

3. Pumping:Pumping includes pumps and other

ancillary units for pumping water.

4.Treatment: Treatment includes

screening,filtration,sedimentation,disinfection,

softening and aeration.

5. Distribution: Distribution means distribution


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pipes, valves, fire hydrants, equalizing reservoirs

and other accessories.

HISTORY

The systems for collection, transportation

and distribution of water existed in ancient

civilization also. Modern distribution systems

supplying water to consumers for domestic and

other uses are of recent developments. British

Parliament passed an act in 1544 ‘. . . . . to

provide for clear water for residents’ and started

issuing directives to public and private water

works companies. In USA, the earliest water

supply dates back to 1652 for the cities, like

Boston and Massachusetts. In 1746, the first

piped supply for an entire population was built

in Schaeffer city of Pennsylvania, USA.

In both these systems of Britain and USA,

water moved from higher elevation by gravity and

was stored in wooden tanks from where people

filled buckets. Steam operated pumps were first

used in 1764 to raise water in the city of

Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, USA. Winston-Salem

of North Carolina, USA, had the first complete

water distribution system by 1776. However, the

earlier systems were originally built for ‘fire

protection’ and ‘dust suppression’ with little

consideration for domestic services.

Provision of water distribution system for

urban population started in India in the

nineteenth century i.e. 1800 onwards. However,

it was the latter half of the twentieth century, i.e.

1950 onwards, that water distribution systems

became a necessity in urban areas and was also

being provided for semi-urban and selected rural

areas.

The International Drinking Water Supply and

Sanitation Decade, 1981-1990, gave thrust to

water distribution systems in the developing

countries like India and many more. About 250

crores of people in the developing countries were

provided piped water during this decade and an

additional 200 crores were provided piped water

in the last decade of the twentieth century i.e.

1990-2000.

The water distribution networks in USA used

wooden mains even up to 1940s. Even though

a cast iron main was laid in Versailles, France in

1664. The first cast iron main was laid in USA in

Philadelphia in 1817. Modern water distribution

networks throughout the world now use pipes of

iron, steel, asbestos, cement, concrete and

plastics.

Of the total expenditure incurred on

different facilities of a water distribution system,

the expenditure incurred on transportation and

distribution of water is quite large and may even

exceed 70% of the cost of total water distribution

system. It is, therefore, necessary to design new

systems as well as expand and strengthen old

ones to cut the cost drastically, as far as possible.

TYPES OF WATER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS

Water distribution systems can be classified

according to the source of water that they use,

like-

1. Surface Water Distribution Systems

When water is available in sufficient quantity

from a natural stream, river, canal or a reservoir,

like pond, lake, dam etc, the system has surface

water as source of distribution (Fig. 1) [1].

Fig. 1

SW: Surface Water

T: Treatment plant

P: Pump

R: Reservoir

D: Distribution network

The quality of water is average, hence it

requires conventional treatment to remove mud

and other impurities. The treatment plant is

usually located on one end of the distribution

network and large transmission mains and

several service reservoirs are required if the

population is large and spread in wide area.Since,

the water tariff is reasonable, the consumers tend

to use large quantities of water if the usage is

not controlled. Therefore, in almost all areas the

timings of water distribution is restricted. It is not

a 24 hours supply any more. The surface water

distribution system can also meet the needs of

industries that require large quantities of

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processed water.

2. Ground Water Distribution Systems

Water distribution systems for small

population can use ground water as source, if

sufficient quantity of ground water of good quality

is available (Fig.2). [1]

Fig. 2

W: Well


WF: Well Field

However, as the population grows and water

consumption exceeds, additional source of water

becomes a necessity. Sometimes, water can be

used directly without any treatment but treatment

is necessary to remove hardness and other

impurities. If the ground water is available at

several locations, wells can be spaced around

to avoid the need of large transmission mains.

However, if large quantity of water is available in

one area, water from all wells in this area, termed

as ‘well field’, is collected and treated at one

location. This reduces operating costs and

allows a better control on water quality but

requires large transmission mains.

2. Regional Rural Water DistributionSystems

When ground water is scarce or of poor

quality, several rural communities in a region are

grouped together and are served through a

system that is termed a ‘Regional Rural Water

Distribution System’ (Fig. 3). [1]

Fig. 3

SW: Surface Water

T: Treatment plant

P: Pump

R: Reservoir


If the system is large and the terrain isuneven, the services of booster pumps are,generally, availed to tackle the problem.Although, the consumers within a community areclose to one another, the communitiesthemselves are spread wide apart and thesource is also far away. It is usually not possibleto provide mains of enough capacity to providefire requirements.

3.Purchased Water Distribution Systems

Sometimes, when a water system finds that

its distribution has become inadequate or has

become contaminated, it purchases water from

another system (Fig. 4). [1]

Fig. 4

PW: Purchased Water

M: Meter


For such a purchased water distribution

system, little or no treatment is required.

However, disinfection and re-pumping to boost

the pressure up is necessary. Since all water

leakages and wastages have to be paid for, strict

water accountability is necessary.

TYPES OF PIPING SYSTEMS

Piping systems used in water distribution

systems can be classified in four categories-

1. Transmission Lines:

Transmission lines are pipes that carry raw

water from source to treatment plants and

treated water from treatment plants to pumping

stations, service reservoirs and distribution

networks as shown in Fig.5. [1]

Fig. 5


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S: Source

T: Treatment plant

P: Pump

R: Reservoir


RW: Raw Water

TW: Treated Water

They are usually long, large in diameter

(>400 mm) and carry large quantities of water.

They carry water from one point to another; have

few side connections except when they supply

water to bulk consumers or service reservoirs.

2. In-plant Piping Systems

In-plant piping systems usually consists of

pipes in treatment plants and pumping stations.

They are larger in diameter but small in length

and contain several outlets, valves, meters and

bends.

3. Distributions Mains

Distributions mains are pipes that carry

water from transmission mains or service

reservoirs and distribute it to the consumers.

They are laid along the roads, have several sideconnections for consumer services. They are

100 or 150 mm and larger in diameter.

4. Service Lines

Service Lines are small diameter pipes and

carry water from distribution mains to consumer

premises.

TYPES OF WATER DISTRIBUTION NETWORKS

Water distribution networks are classified

according to their layout, like-

1. Serial Networks

A serial network has no branches and loops

(Fig. 6) [1].

Fig. 6

It is the simplest of all types of water

distribution networks. Generally, it has one

source node, one sink and one or more

intermediate nodes. First link starts at a source

node and the last link ends on a sink. All

intermediate nodes are connected by two links,

a supply link on the upstream and a distribution

link on the downstream. The direction of flow in

all links is fixed and is along the direction from

the source node to the sink.

2.Branched Networks

A branched or a dead-end network is a tree

like network and has no loops (Fig. 7) [1].

Fig. 7

It consists of several serial networks.

Usually it has one source node, one or more

intermediate nodes, and has more than one

sink. Each intermediate node is connected on

the upstream by one supply link and on the

downstream by one more distribution links. The

direction of flow in all links is fixed and is along

the direction from the source node to the sink.

Since serial and branched networks are

similar from design purposes. The term

branched networks is often used to denote both

– serial and branched networks.

3. Looped Networks

A looped network contains loops (Fig. 8) [1].

Fig. 8

S: Source

A, B, C, E, F: Nodes

D: Sink

G: Node/Sink

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It has one source node in a single source

network, but has several source nodes in a

multiple source network. A looped network must

have at least one sink. The node that behaves

as a sink depends on the nodal demands. For

example, node D in Fig. 8 behaves as sink.

However, if demand at node G increases, the

flow direction in link DG is reversed and node G

behaves as a sink.

For a particular demand pattern, the

direction of flow in a link is fixed, however, it may

change for another demand pattern. Thus, for

a node, a link that behaves as a supply link for

one demand pattern may behave as a

distribution link for another demand pattern.

Similarly, when the direction of flow changes in

a link, the upstream node becomes a

downstream node and vice versa.

Looped water distribution network in

practice seldom consist of loops only. In addition

to loops, they contain branched and serial

networks.

NETWORK COMPONENTS

Water distribution networks contain several

components. Each network is unique in source,

layout, topography, pipe material, valves, meters

and consumer connections.

A small water distribution network[3] may have

a single source node, such as an elevated

service reservoir or a pumping arrangement

directly supplying water from the treatment plant

to the network. A large network, however, may

have several nodes, service and balancing

reservoirs and pumping stations.

Layout of a distribution network depends on

the existing pattern of streets and highways,

existing and planned sub-division of the service

area, possible sites for ground and elevated

service reservoirs and locations and density of

demand centers.

Topography of the service area may be

even or uneven. In an uneven terrain, booster

pumps are necessary for pumping water to high

level areas. Similarly, it may be necessary to

provide pressure reducing valves for areas with

lower elevation to reduce pressure. Check valves

may also be necessary to maintain flow in the

selected direction.

Pipes in distribution networks may be of cast

iron, steel, concrete, asbestos, cement or PVC.

Pipes may be un-lined or lined with cement

mortar.

Valves are provided in water distribution

networks to –

(a) Control flow.

(b) Shut off pipelines during repairs or

replacements.

(c) Drain pipelines during cleaning.

(d) Reduce pressure for low lying areas.

(e) Maintain flow in selected direction.

(f) Suppress water hammer effects.

(g) Allow air to enter pipelines while emptying.

(h) Release air from pipelines at higher

points.

(i) During filling.

Meters are provided to measure flow of

water from a source, transfer of water between

different zones and the supply of water to

consumers.

Water distribution to the tapping points of

the consumers may be direct or indirect. For

direct supply, sufficient pressure is required in

the network so that the tapping points at different

elevations get water. For highrise buildings,

however, the supply is indirect. The distribution

system supplies water to sumps at the ground

level, while lifting of water from these sumps to

the individual tapping points and overhead tanks

is left to the consumers.

NETWORK MODEL

A factual water distribution network is

extremely complex involving a large number of

different components. It is extremely difficult to

consider all such Components in the optimal

design of a water distribution network. Therefore,

a designer prepares a mathematical model of

the network and designs it.

The mathematical model of a water

distribution network is a network consisting of

nodes and links. The network include all services,

reservoirs, pumping stations, links in the main


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direction of flow and loop forming links. Bulk

consumptions are considered individually while

small demands such as domestic consumption

are put together and are assumed to occur at

demand nodes. Depending on the topography,

booster pumps and pressure reducing valves

are included in the model. Check valves, if

necessary, are also included.

While preparing a mathematical model of a

water distribution network, it must be seen that

the model is neither too elaborate to pose

problems working on it, nor too sketchy to distort

the behavior to unacceptable limits. The model

should rather include important elements so that

the results obtained from it can describe the

behavior of the real-life water distribution

network.

DESIGN REQUIREMENTS

The design of a water distribution system

for a small community is rather simple since this

primarily involves deciding sizes of different pipes

in the system. The design of water distribution

system [2, 3] for a large community is rather

complex. In addition to the usual pipe sizing, the

design involves decision regarding –

(a) Location of sources of water.

(b) Division of community in different

zones.

(c) Location and capacity of distribution

reservoirs.

(d) Locations, types, capacity and operating

schedule of pumps.

(e) Locations, types and settings of different

valves.

There are many requirements for properly

designing a complete water distribution

network. The network should be able to:

(a) Determine optimal pipe layout and sizes.

(b) Design both – new networks and extension

of existing ones.

(c) Select existing pipes for cleaning and

relining as part of an optimal solution.

(d) Analyse the network under several demand

patterns, including fire-flow requirements.

(e) Handle all types of networks and network

complexities.

(f) Determine the location, size and heights of

reservoirs and their operations.

(g) Assist in the selection of pumps and pump

stations.

(h) Determine the optimal settings of all types

of valves in the operation of the network.

(i) Determine optimal designs and operations

of networks containing a large number of

pipes, pumps, valves and reservoirs.

DESIGN PROBLEMS

The design of water distribution system is

classified into four types of design problems –

1. System – Wide Master Planning

Master planning of system to determine the

general layout of water distribution system, like

locations, sizing and construction schedule of

major elements over a period that may be as

long as 10 years. The pipe diameters are large

(>400 mm) and are mainly controlled by future

demand of domestic and industrial nature. Since

the construction will be in stages, modification

in pipe sizes is permitted at the time of installation,

taking into consideration the latest data

regarding water demands.

2. Transmission – Main Design

Using the master plan as a guideline, the

design of transmission mains is finalized.

The design has better idea of the temporary

demands, routes along which the pipes will be

laid, and the field data regarding different lengths

and levels. Since the pipe sizes are large, fire

flows are usually satisfied. However, the behavior

of an element during peak flows must be

considered.

3. Sub - division Design

Considering different sub-divisions, such as

residential, industrial and commercial and the

corresponding demands, the sizes of pipes within

the sub-division are decided. The ‘transmission

main’ network should be studied deeply and the

pressure obtained at junction points, connecting

a sub-division to the ‘transmission main’ system,

should be used in the design of pipes in the sub-

division. Pipe sizes are controlled by

simultaneous peak flow without any interruption

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of an element. Minimum pipe diameter is 100 or

150 mm.

4. Rehabilitation and Strengthening

Loss of carrying capacity because of pipes

may need rehabilitation and strengthening of an

existing network. Such pipes may be completely

replaced by new pipes, cleaned, lined or

strengthened by parallel piping. In such a

design, calibration of existing network is

essential. The design is governed by

simultaneous peak and fire flows.

OPTIMIZATION OF WATER DISTRIBUTIONNETWORK AND ITS LIMITATIONS

Several methods have been developed,

since 1960s, for the optimal design of water

distribution networks. However, optimization

approaches have not been widely used in

practice. Some genuine reasons for not

supporting the optimization approaches has

already been elaborated. [5]

The details are discussed below:

1. Optimization models do not providesolutions to practical problems -

It is true that no optimization model neither

presently exist nor would be available in near

future that would give optimal solution to all the

types of design problems discussed in [2] and also

for all the design requirements proposed in.[4]

However, as observed in [5] optimization models

can give reasonably good solutions to practical

problems, if the solution is not desired for the

water supply system as a whole but for a single

type of design problems.

2. Solutions obtained by optimizationapproaches do not give better solution thanthose obtained using traditionalapproaches

This is not quite true. An experienced

designer may obtain by traditional method, a

design that maybe cheaper in cost to that

obtained through optimization techniques.

However, as has been observed in practice,

Lauria 1993, designs through optimization

approaches can result in savings, sometimes as

high as 20 to 30%, over traditional designs, for

the desired level of performance.

3. Optimization approaches are too difficultto use in practice –

This is true. Optimization approaches are

mainly confined to research work, the algorithms

are developed and used for research purposes.

Computers programs are not easily available for

practical applications.

4. Practicing engineers are not comfortablewith optimization approaches –

This is true. Unless system analysis,

operations research and optimization processes

applicable to water distribution networks are

introduced in engineering studies, practicing

engineers would not be comfortable with

optimization approaches and would be reluctant

to use them.

5. Optimization methods are not well suitedfor strengthening and expansion of existinglooped water distribution net work –

As stated in earlier study [2], this is to be

one of the main reasons for not adopting

optimization processes by practicing engineers.

This is not wholly true, optimization methods can

be successful when used for strengthening and

expansion of existing water distribution networks.[6]

6. Clients do not insist on competitivedesigns-

This is partly true. In developing countries

wherein cost is of primary concern, the planning

agencies, mostly the state water supply and

sewerage boards have started insisting on

competitive designs obtained through

optimization approaches.

CONCLUSION

Even though mankind has known

transportation of water through rivers, canals,

streams etc. for many centuries, the

transportation of water through pipelines and its

distribution through networks is of recent origin.

Even though developed nations have piped

water supply, developing nations also have

started providing water through pipe networks.

Even consumers in remote villages have started

getting water, if not in their residences, at least

near to it. Thus, water distribution networks have


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been a part of modern living.

It is seen that it is matter of time before

optimal design of water distribution networks

becomes common in practice. It is, therefore,

preferable if engineers concerned with water

distribution networks, in general, and those

concerned with their design, in particular, have

good knowledge of optimization approaches and

their application to water distribution networks.

Several publications as detailed in ‘References’

are available on this topic, which may help and

guide the practicing engineers to design

successfully the optimization approach of water

distribution network.

REFERENCES

1 . Bhave, PR, Optimal Design of Water Distribution,

Published by Narosa Publishing House, India,

ISBN 81-7319-505-6, (2003), 1-15.

2. Chase, D. V., and Ormsbee, L. E. 1993. “Computer

generated pumping schedules for satisfying

operation objectives.” Journal American Water

Works Association,857, 54–61.

3. Jowitt, P. W., and Germanopoulos, G. 1992.

“Optimal pump scheduling in water supply

networks.” Journal Water Resource Planning

Management,1184, 406–422.

4. Lansey, K. E., and Awumah, K. 1994. “Optimal

pump operations considering pump switches.”

Journal Water Resource Planning Management,

1201, 17–35.

5. López-Ibáñez, M., Prasad, T. D., and Paechter, B.

2005. “Optimal pump scheduling: Representation

and multiple objectives.” Proc., 8th Int. Conf. on

Computing and Control for the Water Industry, D.

A. Savic,

6. Walters, G.A., King, R. and Khu,S.T. ,eds.,

University of Exeter Press, Exeter, U.K., 117–122.

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INTRODUCTION

Right to information (RTI) is harnessed as

a tool for promoting participatory development,

strengthening democratic governance and

facilitating effective delivery of socio-economic

services. In the knowledge society, in which we

live today, acquisition of information and new

knowledge and its application have intense and

pervasive impact on processes of taking

informed decisions, resulting in overall

productivity gains. The Constitution of India has

guaranteed (u/s 19) the freedom of expression

and speech. Even then, a citizen had no legal

right to know about the details of public policies

and expenditures. And, therefore, it was not

possible for a common man to observe and

scrutinize the public actions with a view to

developing an understanding about the outcome

of public activities and/or providing feedback for

rectifying the deficiencies in policy planning and

the execution of programs.Despite planned

efforts of six decades, over one-third of the total

population is illiterate, poor and un-healthy. In

order to rectify the deficiencies in the

RIGHT TO INFORMATION- A TOOL OF GOOD GOVERNACE

*SUNIL KUMAR SINGH1, RUPINDER KAUR GULATI2, POOJA AWASTHI3, OM PRAKASH4

1 Geeta College of Education, Panipat ,Haryana, India, 2Research Scholar, F.M. University, 3

Research Scholar, Sai Nath University, Ranchi, India 4

Research Scholar, Dakashin Bharat Hindi Pracharini Sabha University,Chennai, India

*Address for Correspondence : Prof. Sunil Kumar Singh, Principal, Geeta College of Education,

Panipat, Haryana, India,

E mail ID: [email protected]

ABSTRACT

Corruption today is the greatest enemy of good governance and causing harm to democracyand development. People in India must bow their heads in shame as they are living in a countrywhere every organ, activity and functions are conducted with corrupt practices. Whatever thenumber of institutions we create, they themselves become other dens of corruption. It seemsthat good governance and corruption cannot co-exist. If it cannot which is that elementsupporting such corrupt practices? The Answer is SECRECY. Secrecy in Government is themost important cause of corruption, inefficiency and irresponsiveness and an enemy to goodgovernance. The purpose of this study to create the awareness in people about RTI. RTI hasenabled people to participate in the process of development which has resulted in educationof corruption and established an open and participatory governance system. Hence, in effect,RTI Reflects and promotes the social income interest of every citizen, particularly the poor,who are receiving the benefits of development as per their entitlements. RTI is potential toolwhich indicated with a view to expediting the process of human development.

Keywords: Right to information, Good governance

mechanisms for ensuring the reach of

entitlements, particularly the basic human needs,

the people in general and NGOs, in particular,

demanded for a greater access to the

information held by the public bodies, which was

acceded to by the Government in 2005.

In this backdrop, the Right to Information

Act 2005, the RTI hereinafter, was passed by

the National Parliament to dismantle the culture

of secrecy and to change the mindset of the

bureaucrats and political leaders and to create

conditions for taking informed decisions.The

major concern of the Act is to allow for greater

probity in the functioning of the government

departments so as to promote transparency and

accountability in the working of the public bodies

and contain the scourge of corruption, which are

critical for ensuring good governance and

development. In view of the foregoing, the major

objective of this paper is two folds: one is to

assess the impact of RTI on the elements of good

governance; and the other is to examine the

extent to which RTI induced governance has

strengthened the indicators of developments.


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Finally, measures for utilizing the potential tool

of right to know are indicated with a view to

expediting the process of human development.

In inaugural address to the newly constituted

Parliament on June 4, 2009, the Hon’ble

President of India, Smt Pratibha Patil,

underscored the commitment of the new

government to governance reforms as one of

the top ten priorities of the new government in

Delhi.

The Eleventh Plan presents six benchmarks

of such democratic governance:

n Free and fair and timely elections of all

spheres of political authority.

n Transparency and accountability of all

institutions of the state to citizens.

n Efficient and effective delivery of socio-

economic public services.

n Effective devolution of authority, resources

and capabilities to PRIs and municipalities.

n Rule of law, where legal rights are clear and

understood, and legal compliance and

enforcements of those rights is time-bound

and swift needs and interests of hitherto

excluded sections of society are privileged

and included, with dignity.

It is clear that the Government of India is

following a set of standards for reforming

governance in the country, which are essentially

citizen-centric—transparency, accountability and

efficiency of all institutions, agencies and actors

of the government, with particular attention to

those citizens who have been largely excluded

so far.

RTI AND ELEMENTS OF GOODGOVERNANCE

The RTI Act was implemented in October

2005. Though a period of three years is too a

short period to assess the success of this Act, it

may be worthwhile to analyze some evidences

for developing an understanding on how it works

and what it does or does not do. We, therefore,

propose to find an answer to the question:

whether the objectives of the Act are being

realized?

n It must be admitted that the assessment of

the RTI on good governance and

development is indeed a daunting task,

since data are lacking to permit

methodological rigor of analysis. However,

reliance is made on

n The responses of the RTI requesters and

the activists, particularly during the course

of hearings conducted by the Author in the

cases listed before the commission to

resolve the disputes between information

seekers and providers;

n Media reports on the issues pertaining to

RTI matters; and

n Preliminary research studies and

publications of results, mainly those relating

to corruption and accountability of public

bodies. the major objectives of the Act are:

Greater Transparency in functioning of

public authorities; Informed citizenry for

promotion of partnership between citizens

and the Government in decision making

process; Improvement in accountability and

performance of the Government; and

Reduction in corruption in the Government

departments. All these parameters are

critical elements of good governance.

LINKS BETWEEN RTI AND THE ELEMENTS OFGOOD GOVERNANCE

RTI Promotes Accountability: With

empowered citizens and free flow of information,

there is significant quantitative and qualitative

improvement in the delivery of services.

For instance, disclosure of information

relating to:

n attendance of staff in schools has helped

in checking teachers’ absenteeism and

students’ drop out;

n attendance of doctors and nurses at

primary health centers has led to

improvement in health care facilities in rural

areas;

n the details of supplies and distribution of

food grains through ration shops has

assured the reach of entitlements to the

beneficiaries;

n the supply and demand for petroleum

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products, such as, domestic gas has

reduced black marketing;

n muster rolls and beneficiary of employment

guarantee schemes has exposed

corruption and ensured effective delivery

of services to the poor who are entitled for

wage employment on demand for at least

100 days in a year @ Rs.60 – 80 per day,

which means additional income of Rs.6000

– 8000 per year; and

n Allotment of retail outlets (petrol pumps)

and agencies for distribution of LPG gas,

including the registered beneficiaries has

ensured fair play and objective decisions,

as reflected from substantial reduction in

litigation cases in the matter.

As a result of increased Government’s

accountability in delivery of services, rural to

urban migration has, of late, decelerated, as

widely reported in the media. This is also

corroborated by the findings of a national level

survey conducted by the Transparency

International and the Centre for Media Studies.

The survey has revealed that in the opinions of

40 per cent of respondent (all below the poverty

line), corruption and mal-practices in

implementation of poverty alleviation programs

have declined due to RTI induced accountability

of the Government and its functionaries at

various levels.

RTI Promotes Transparency: Due to

perceived benefits of transparency and

accountability, RTI applications have annually

increased by 8 to 10 times. There is thus

massive use of the right to know. Of the millions

of applications for information, less than 5

percent have been denied information under

various exemption categories, u/s 8(1) of the Act,

on the grounds of national interest, personal or

third party information or those pertaining to

commercial confidence, the disclosure of which

would affect competitiveness of public

authorities.

In effect, thus, there is greater transparency

than ever before in the working of the public

bodies. In a large number of cases, the

Commission has ordered for providing the details

of the decision-making processes, which include

‘file noting, cabinet papers, records of

recruitment, selection and promotion of staff,

documents pertaining to tender processes and

procurement procedure, the lists of beneficiaries

of the Government’s subsidized schemes, such

as, food grains supplied through ration shops,

water and electricity, domestic gas, educational

and health facilities, shelter for poor, muster rolls

under employment guarantee schemes, health

insurance scheme for poor, old age pension,

food security for destitute, etc. The disclosure

of vital information, such as above, has thus

resulted in checking corrupt practices in delivery

of services and ensuring the reach of

entitlements to the poor.

RTI V/S CORRUPTION: Under the RTI regime,

there is unprecedented transparency in the

working of public departments. There is thus

better understanding of the decision making

process and greater accountability of

government. This has led to reduction in

corruption in the country as evident from the

following:

· The Transparency International (TI) has

reported that perceived corruption in India has

declined, due mainly to the implementation of

the RTI Act. This is evident from corruption

reduction score of 3.4 (out of 10) in 2008, after

an initial rise of 3.5 in 2007, compared to 2.99 in

2006, which indicate a decline in corruption to

the extent of 15%.

n The TI-CMS has recently accomplished an

all India survey study of the poor below the

poverty line. The views of the poor have

been elicited in respect of all the flagship

programs that have been implemented for

alleviation of poverty. At least 40 per cent

of the respondents have reported that

corruption has declined.

n It has also been observed that wherever

NGOs are actively involved in the

development activities, the perceived

corruption is abysmally low.


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(Conceptual Diagram of Good Governance)

RTI AND ITS IMPACT ON MAJOR INDICATORSOF DEVELOPMENT

The challenge of development is to improve

the quality of life, which calls for increasing

people’s options for higher earnings, better

education and health care, a cleaner

environment and a richer cultural life. The record

of long-term performance show that while there

has been steady progress in improvement of the

major indicators of development, the

achievements fall far short of our expectations.

The feedback obtained from the appellants,

PIOs and the activists has been of immense

value in providing desirable inputs and

perspectives on RTI and its linkages with the

factors that affect the welfare of people.

POVERTY ALLEVIATION

RTI is used as a tool for facilitating effective

delivery of socio-economic services. RTI

empowers people to seek details about their

entitlements and, accordingly, to take informed

decisions in all matters affecting them so as to

secure equity and justice. Recognizing the

significance of right to know for ensuring free

flow of information and good governance, the

RTI Act exempts the poor from payment of fees

of Rs.10/- for seeking information. And, the

information is to be furnished within the

stipulated period of thirty days, failing which

penalty may be imposed. An estimate reveals

that at least 20 per cent of the information

seekers are those who belong to BPL category.

In rural areas, this share is as high as 37% of

the total applicants. They have, in general,

sought to know the details of services assured

to them and the reasons as to why the services

meant for them are not reaching them. In the

RTI regime, the poor persons armed with

information through the exercise of right to know,

are getting increasingly involved in designing and

implementation of poverty alleviation

programmes, as discussed below.

(a)Guarantee of Income and Food Security

The Governments – the Centre and States

– have launched from time to time a number of

schemes for providing wage employment to the

poor, the benefits of which have hardly reached

them due to ineffective implementation of

programmes, including rampant corruption. In

the absence of right to information, it was not

possible to create conditions for accountability

of public servants or authorities, which resulted

in both perpetuation of poverty and unproductive

use of resources that were allocated for

eradication of poverty. In this backdrop, the

adoption of rights-based approach is significant

to weed out corruption and to guarantee the

reach of entitlements of poor persons.

Accordingly, almost all the poverty alleviation

programmes are designed such that a citizen can

observe and scrutinize the public activities with

a view to providing critical feedback for shaping

the policies and programmes that would assure

optimum gains to society, particularly the poor.

In this context, a mention may be made of the

following schemes:

(b)Implementation of NREGA:

With a view to providing work opportunity

on demand for at least 100 days in a year and

to secure livelihood of people in rural areas,

NREGA has been implemented. The right to work

has thus been legally guaranteed and the

manner in which entitlement for employment is

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to be claimed has been clearly articulated. Rural

poor have been effectively participating in the

programme for not only just to secure income

security but also to build rural infrastructure,

which is critical for raising productivity in the

future. In effect, annual income of a rural job

card holder has thus risen by Rs.6,000 - 8000

(100 days x Rs.60 – 80 per day wages), which is

in addition to other incomes. The development

of rural infrastructure under the scheme would

surely enhance productivity of various activities

and augment further opportunities for

employment and income. In view of the above

gains, the rural community in cooperation with

the Panchayats (Village Councils) has been

effectively participating in changing the

landscape of poverty scenario in the country.

The outcome is encouraging as the affected

persons are able to get their grievances

redressed under the provisions of the RTI Act.

Taking advantage of the transparency norms,

which are duly built in both the NREGA, and the

right to information, people have sought to know

the details of schemes and its relevance to the

rural community, utilization of funds, payment of

wages to the target beneficiaries, etc. The

disclosure of relevant details, such as muster

rolls, has helped in containing corruption,

ensuring the reach of benefits to the target

groups and identification of officials responsible

for creating obstruction in effective

implementation of programs. The RTI has thus

proved very effective in providing grounds for

initiating remedial actions with a view to realizing

the objectives of public policies. For urban poor,

Jawaharlal Nehru Urban Renewal Mission

(JNNURM) has been launched to provide basic

services, namely, water supply and sanitation,

transport, education, health care, etc. Through

RTI, citizens ensure effective delivery of services

in a time bound manner, which has desirable

impact on poverty reduction and quality of life in

urban areas.

Mid-Day Meals to School Children:

As a measure of food security, all the schoolchildren are provided with mid-day meals inschools, which not only helps in reducingnutritional deficiency among the poverty strickenchildren but also enhances their learningattainments due to adequate intake of balanced

diets. All the stakeholders, mainly the students,teachers and parents, are able to observe andmonitor the service delivery system. Since therehas to be almost total openness inoperationalization of the scheme, people haveaccess to relevant information, which they utilizefor improving effectiveness of the scheme. This,in turn, assists in reducing both food poverty aswell as dropouts, which have been rampantamong the children from poor families. In effect,the scheme improves physical health andlearning abilities of children.

Integrated Child Development Scheme(ICDS):

One of the components of this scheme isto provide nutritional support to children frompoor families. The use of RTI by the target group,including the NGOs, has ensured effectiveimplementation of the scheme to the advantageof the poor children.

Grant of Food Security and Pension for thePoor Senior Citizens:

With a view to providing income and humansecurity to the poor and destitute, financialassistance to families with low means ofsubsistence is provided to all poor persons,above 60 years. The grant of pension of Rs.500/- per month has been universalized. Moreover,the destitute are entitled for 10 Kgs of food grainsper month free of cost. Those who could not claimfor their entitlements of pensions or free foodgrains, for different reasons, are able to do sothrough the use of RTI. There are umpteennumbers of instances which demonstrate that thepeople are accessing the above benefits thathave been assured by the Government. Theissue of livelihood being important as it affectslife and liberty of people, information is furnishedwithin 48 hrs as per the provisions of the Act.

Since these schemes, namely, ICDS, Mid-Day Meals, NREGS and old age pension coverthe entire target population, and the Governmentis committed to implement these schemes andis actually doing so, there is no reason why thefood poverty cannot be annihilated over night.The RTI encourages everyone to ask theGovernment to explain as to why assuredbenefits are not reaching them. And, by askingthis, grievances are redressed under theauspices of the Information Commission.


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a) Delivery of Services under SubsidizedSchemes

The Governments have launched a number

of schemes which make essential services

available to the poor at low rates. Under the

schemes, such items as food grains, kerosene,

sugar, etc, are provided to the poor in order to

alleviate costs burden on them. Besides, subsidy

is provided for housing, education and health

services.

b) Public Distribution System (PDS):

The implementation of schemes like Public

Distribution System (PDS) has, till recently, been

adversely affected by unacceptably poor quality

of governance at all levels of execution of the

scheme, resulting, the services meant for the

poor are reaching them since the beneficiaries

are using RTI to seek such details as the stock

of supplies and distribution, rate lists, list of

beneficiaries - the disclosure of which ensures

weeding out of fictitious names. It has thus been

possible to curb corruption and plug loopholes

in the PDS, which, in effect, has improved the

delivery of services and, thus, reduced incidence

of poverty al

c) Shelter for the Poor:

Housing is recognized as one of the human

rights since a shelter is essential asset that

improves physical and mental well-being of

people. Accordingly, under Indira Awaas Yojna

(IAY), financial support is provided to the rural

poor for construction of houses as per their

choice of design and requirement. The scheme

is fully participatory between the Government

and beneficiaries as per the guidelines which are

in public domain. The identified beneficiaries,

having known of their entitlements, are able to

create effective demand for release of funds, for

construction of houses. The instrument of RTI

has helped in maintaining total transparency in

operationalization of the scheme, which, in effect,

minimize corruption and improve satisfaction level

of target groups.

HUMAN CAPITAL: EDUCATION AND HEALTHCARE

Education and health care are critical

services for empowerment of people, in general,

and the poor, in particular. In the knowledge

economy, which is driven by new ideas and

technologies, it is not possible to function and

expedite the process of national development

without enhancing the technical and professional

competence of the entire manpower. The share

of educated and vocationally trained labor force

in the total manpower is one of the lowest, below

5% for the country, as compared to other

countries, having a corresponding share of 60

to 80%, with which India has to compete in the

global market.

i) Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan: Under this

scheme, the Governments have committed to

provide minimum school infrastructure for

universalization of elementary education. In the

absence of any question asked by the major

stakeholders, mainly students or parents, quality

of education was compromised and there was

no check on drop-out or teachers’ absenteeism.

But under the provisions of the RTI, the citizens

have raised issues pertaining to management

of the schools, mainly the availability of

infrastructure support, teachers’ attendance,

students’ enrolment and performance,

implementation of mid-day schemes, utilization

of funds and process of recruitment of teachers.

The Government has been providing financial

assistance, including scholarships to the

students from deprived groups, mainly women,

SC/ST, minorities and physically challenged

persons. Through the use of RTI, the target

groups are able to claim for their entitlements,

which was, however, not possible before the

implementation of the Act. The participation of

deprived groups in the educational processes

has thus been encouraged. In effect, thus, there

are signs of improvement in the schools’

performance since the parents and the civil

society have asked the school authorities to

provide explanations in respect of all those

activities, which are contrary to the accepted

policies, norms and guidelines and people’s

expectations. In the areas of technical and

vocational education, including higher education,

the governments have articulated plans for

expansion of facilities and improvement of quality

of teaching and research. Through the use of

RTI, the progresses made are monitored by the

information seekers, who have raised issues and

sought for details relating to the expenditures

on various educational activities, namely,

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admissions and recruitment processes, conduct

of examinations including disclosure of answer

sheets. The involvement of students and

teachers have thus exposed the extent to which

relevant policies, norms and guidelines are

followed, which, in effect, have been helpful in

improving both internal and external efficiency

of education system.

ii) National Rural Health Mission:Healthcare services have largely remained onpaper due to lack of accountability of staff. Usingthe tool of RTI, the citizens have sought for detailsof primary health services. The disclosure ofsuch details as stock of medicines and itsdistribution, procedure for procurement ofmedicines, attendance of medical staff andnumber of patients treated, etc., has resulted inbetter management of primary health centers.Thus, in pursuance of the goal of the Mission,access to primary health care has significantlyimproved, which is due to the use of RTI by thepoor, who are ultimate beneficiaries of the ruralhealth policy. The RTI has thus created effectivedemand for improvement in quality of servicesprovided by the hospitals.

iii) Aam Admi Insurance Scheme: Underthe insurance scheme and family benefit scheme,the Government provides financial support to thespecified groups of the poor families. Wheneverthere is perceived laxity or delay in extendingthe benefits to the beneficiaries, theimplementation agencies have been called uponto explain the reason for delay or denial ofassistance to the poor, failing which penal action

are initiated against the responsible persons.

BASIC ECONOMIC INFRASTRUCTURE

It is expected that the partnership between

citizen and the Government would help create

solid infrastructure, which, in turn, would create

conducive conditions for improving quality of life.

An informed and enlightened citizenry has been

able to create conditions for good governance

through openness in functioning of public

enterprises. In this regard, the following specific

nature of cases may be mentioned:

♦ Manipulations in tendering processes or

outsourcing of various services have been

major source of corruption or diversion of

funds for private purposes. Scrutiny of the

decision making processes have

discouraged the Government companies

from their indulgence in corrupt practices;

♦ The process of selection and award of

retail outlets and domestic gas agencies,

having been, of late, in public domain has

not only checked malpractices in the

selection process but also controlled black-

marketing of subsidized services, namely,

petrol, kerosene and cooking gas; and

♦ People have sought to know the

adherence of environmental norms by the

manufacturing companies for checking

water and air pollutions, maintenance of

ecological balance, etc., resulting in

desirable impact on sustainability of

environment.

A large number of public enterprises under

the States’ sector have similarly been called upon

to improve their performance and show results

in terms of their accepted corporate social

responsibilities.

EMPOWERMENT OF WEAKER SECTIONS

The development initiatives have duly laidemphasis on protection of vulnerable sectionsof the society, mainly women, SC/ST, minoritiesand disabled persons. In almost every policy andscheme for promotion of welfare andempowerment of deprived groups, there are

relevant components that assure the reach ofspecified benefits through the policy ofpreferential treatments and positivediscrimination. Having known the entitlements forreservations in employment and admissions ineducational institutions, scholarships, old age

pensions, health insurance, etc., the citizenshave begun to effectively realize the entitlementsthrough the use of RTI. The deficiencies inimplementation of policies, if any, have also beenraised, which provide necessary feedback forformulating sound policies for empowerment of

weaker sections. There are umpteen numbersof cases pertaining to human rights issues thathave been raised by the affected persons andgroups, who seek accountability of service

providers and the concerned departments.

ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION

A clean environment is closely associated


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with issues of human rights. In carrying out their

obligations, all the public and private enterprises

are required to adhere to specific norms and

standards so as to ensure sustainability of

environment. The citizens, armed with

information, have questioned the polluting units,

particularly the regulatory bodies, and sought

to know whether the prescribed standards for

protection of environment are adhered to. RTI

induced people’s pressure on the public

authorities has led to: (a) closure of certain

polluting units; (b) stoppage of projects having

adverse impact on environment; (c) adherence

to the norms and standards prescribed by the

regulatory bodies; and (d) exposure and

identification of officials who are responsible of

violation of environmental norms. The NGOs and

affected persons have made use of RTI as a

tool to monitor the standards for environmental

protection. In effect, thus, RTI has empowered

people to take charge of development of the

areas where they live in. And, thus, effectively

realize their entitlements through the exercise

of their legal rights for access to essential

services including protection of human rights that

are critical for maintaining a decent standard of

life.

CONCLUSION

Right to know, as a tool to access public

held information, has significant bearing on good

governance, development and the

implementation of flagship programs for

alleviation of poverty. India’s economy in the last

three years has grown at unprecedented high

rate of about 8 per cent per annum, which also

coincides with RTI induced good governance.

This is unprecedented in India’s history of

development. A common man, like an elected

Member of Parliament (MP), is empowered to

seek accountability of the Government in terms

accepted policies and approved budgetary

expenditures. The Central and the State

Information Commissions have played a critical

role in enforcing the provisions of the Act as well

as educating the information seekers and

providers. Without their statutory interventions,

including use of penal provisions against the

public authorities, the benefits of RTI could not

have been reaped by the citizens and the society.

The implementation of the law on right to know

for setting up information regime, therefore,

augurs well for strengthening the knowledge

society as well as for increasing the

accountability of public bodies. The trend in

improvement in delivery of services, due to the

perceived good governance, provides sufficient

indication for alleviation of poverty, good health

and liquidation of illiteracy in a much shorter

duration than envisaged for the realization of

Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). RTI has

enabled people to participate in the process of

development, which has resulted in reduction of

corruption and establishing an open and

participatory governance system. In effect, RTI

protects and promotes the socio-economic

interests of every citizen, particularly the poor,

who are receiving the benefits of development

as per their entitlements and it’s also proves that,

RTI- as a tool of good governance.

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INTRODUCTION

In modern era, games and sports hold a

prominent place in life. Millions of people

participate in sporting activities and spend billions

of rupees or dollars annually on sports related

activities and equipment. The impact of sports

on modem society has made it clear that sports

are a very legitimate field of academic study.

Modem thinkers in education now a days

emphasize that the best individual is one, who is

physically fit, mentally sound and sharp,

emotionally balanced and socially well adjusted.

In modern time, competition in sports needs

psychological preparation of term or individual

players. It is important as teaching the different

skills of a game on scientific lines. It is said that

modern warfare is not fought and won with

psychological strategies, similar is the case with

modern sports. Sport’s psychology suggests that

teams prepared not to play the game but also to

win the game. Most of the coaches agree that

physical characteristics, skills and training of the

players are extremely important but they also

indicate that good mental preparation for

competition is a necessary component for

success.

A COMPARISON OF SPORTS STRESS AND PERSONALITY TRAITS

AMONG SPORTS COLLEGE, SPORTS HOSTEL AND STADIUM

BADMINTON PLAYERS

TANUJ KUMAR,1 SATISH SINGH1, MANJEET SINGH BHANDARI1, RAKESH PRASAD SEMWAL1,

*ABHAY SINGH2

1Research Scholar, Sai Nath University, Ranchi, India, 2Department of Physical Education,

University of Lucknow, Lucknow, U.P., India

*Address For correspondence: Dr. Abhay Singh, Assistant Professor, Department of Physical Education,

University of Lucknow, Lucknow, U.P., India,


ABSTRACT

Badminton is still an amateur game, but the level of commitment shows in terms in number of

hours of training by the subjects. The study suggests a professional attitude to the game at

this level. The information obtained from this study provides a platform for further research.

The pressure and personality rate in the term of competitive exposure time and training time

should be determined. Despite the limitations of this study the results provide a useful insight

into the nature, site and variables. It was an intensive attempt to excessively examine such

variables.

Keywords: Stress, Personality, Traits, Sports

Sport is one of the avenues of man’s never

ceasing strive for excellence. Its uniqueness lies

in the intimacy between the physical happenings

of human bodies and their repercussions on their

minds; as well as in the general reconcilability of

the social and aesthetic values which sport

engenders. Sport evokes experiences that are

exclusively human and independent of the

changing forms, patterns and customs of a

civilization which involves profoundly modifying

concepts of our environment. Sports involve

extremely complex behavioral issues. As a

consequence of intense competition

sportsman’s behavior may also undergo

important changes. So physical education

scientists and coaches have not to be expert

only in the matter of skill training but also to be

engineers who understand the mechanism of

human behavior on the playfields, under

extremely diverse situations.

Although badminton is one of the most

played sports in the world, in India it has also

been taken as one of the important individual

sport. India has produced high level of skilled

players. In this problem we want to see that

among the various players who can handle the

problems easily and they can become good


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players.

Psychological variables are the most

important contributing factors for better

performance in all sports and games, including

Badminton. The game of Badminton requires

considerable amount of mental alertness and

mastery of skill.

Badminton is one of the most sports in the

world. It is an enjoyable, social sport that can be

played from childhood to old age, either at a

recreational level or as a competitive sport.

Badminton is an individual non contact sport

requiring jump, lunges quick changes in direction

and rapid movements from wide variety of

postural position. At high level its demands quick

reactions speed coordination and a relative good

physical condition. While basic techniques are

easy to learn, a lot of skill and training is

demanded to reach high level of play. In

tournament there is typically more than one game

a day-often, a player may participate in singles,

doubles and mixed doubles competitions, which

can result in many hours of badminton

concentrated on only a few days. Extended play

sometimes results in mental tiredness, which are

relatively common in badminton.

Badminton is one of the fastest and most

strenuous games that can be played. Singles is

particularly exhausting not only because of the

amount of court space that has to be covered in

a split second but shots have to be taken low

and high at full stretch. It is this never-ending

use of stomach muscle. The running directly

backwards twice is as hard as running forward

and the constantly needed change in direction

of movement that causes the body to serge for

a rest.

The aim of present study was to compare

stress and personality traits between boys of

sports college, sports hostel and stadium

trainees Badminton players. The Badminton

player must be stress free. The team which is

persistent usually comes out on top. There is

no substitute for practice. It takes all players

working together to become successful.

Personality of a player in other words how a

player reacts to a given situation is very

important in a competitive situation.

Development of good personality helps the

player’s in their regard. In general we can say

that sports college players are being selected

at the age of 16 years and they have to stay in

the college for four years. They have to practice

for their game twice a day and have to study in

the afternoon. They play various types of

matches in huge number which makes them

more mentally fit or mature than other players.

Sports hostel players stay in hostel provided by

the government and can practice for the game

whole day but the get less number of matches

than sports college players. Less exposure to

the tournaments makes them little weak in their

mental ability. General players or stadium going

players get very less time for the practice and

few matches to play, so they are very less

mentally fit.

The data was collected by researcher

personally and through the assistants met to the

entire subject. The total of two questionnaires

was administered to the Sport College, sports

hostel and stadium going players and

questionnaire was returned.

To determine the significant difference of

sports stress and personality characteristics

among the Sport College, sports hostel and

stadium going players, the level of significance

chosen was 0.05.It was seen that all the three

groups were having differences among them in

both the variables.

AIM OF THE STUDY

The aim of the present study was to

compare stress and personality traits between

boys of Sports College, sports hostel and

stadium trainees Badminton players.

DELEMETATION

The study was delimited to the selected

psychological variables that are Sports Stress

and Personality.

The study was again delimited to the 50

sports college Badminton Players, 50 sports

hostel Badminton Players and 50 stadium going

Badminton Players, making total of 150 players

all from the state of Gujarat.

The study was again delimited to the boy

Badminton players of 14-18 years of age group

who were playing from 2012 onwards.

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LIMITATIONS

Questionnaire research has its limitations.

As such bias if any pertaining to the subject be

considered as a limitation of the study.

The tests were administered at different

points considering the availability of the subjects,

their mood states which might have had

influenced their response pattern on a particular

scale/instrument. This was another limitation

imposed on the investigation inadvertently.

Certain factors like diet, rest, sleep etc. were

beyond the control of the investigation and were

considered as limitations of the study.

As the subjects come from different socio-

economic groups, their dietary habits, life style,

routine of study and play were different which

were considered as limitations of the study.

No special motivation technique was used

during the test, therefore the difference that may

have occurred in performance due to lack of

motivation was recorded as the limitation of the

study.

HYPOTHESIS

It was hypothesized that there will be

significant difference between college and

university men and women cricket players on all

the seven selected psychological variables using

total sample.

FINDINGS

The ultimate goal of research in physical

education will help coaches and physical

educators to train their athletes and player based

on new concept to improve their performance in

competitions. A unique aspect of the work is that

it includes recommendations for the practical use

of research findings. Sports psychology is one

of the very important factors to improve

performance in competitions. The present study

will provide the following significant contribution

on the above concept to the field of physical

education and sports:-

The study may determine the effect of

personality and stress on performance of

Badminton Players. The results of the study may

reveal the Psychological status of Sports

College, sports hostel and stadium trainees’

Badminton players at different level. The study

may also help to assess the differences in the

selected psychological parameters among

sportspersons of the sport discipline chosen in

the study. The results of the study may provide

useful information and guidance to coaches,

physical education teachers and athletes

regarding the behavioral characteristics of

sportspersons and may thus be instrumental in

effective psychological parameters of athletes.

The study is useful information in the field of

sports psychology and may help trace the

psychological profiles of different level

sportspersons. The study may throw new light

on the field of sports psychology highlighting

need and direction of further research. The study

may motivate other athletic lovers and scholars

to take-up similar studies so that the sports may

become more scientific in India too.

REFERENCES

1. Crisfield, P., and Cotti, L.J. (1976) Physical

Education. 4:6.

2. Graves M James, The effect of boys club program

of the self-concept and selected physical attributes

of 12 and 13 years old Boy.s Micro card Doctoral

Dissertation, University of Oregon.

3. Sandhu, S. Gurbakhsh(2002) Psychology in

Sports A Contemporary Approach Friends

Publications [India] Delhi

4. Hartwig TB, Naughton G and Seral J (2009 Aug.)

Load, stress, and recovery in adolescent rugby

union players during a competitive season. School

of Exercise Science, Australian Catholic University,

Sydney, NSW, Australia. J Sports Sci. 2009

Aug;27(10):1087-94.

5. Nicholls AR, Jones CR, Polman RC and Borkoles

E (2009 Feb.) Acute sport-related stressors,

coping, and emotion among professional rugby

union players during training and matches.

Department of Psychology, University of Hull, Hull,

UK. Scand J Med Sci Sports. 2009 Feb;19(1):113-

20. Epub 2008 Feb 16

6. Nicholls AR, Jones CR, Polman RC and Borkoles

E (2009 Feb.) Stressors and affective states

among professional rugby union players..

Department of Psychology, University of Hull, Hull,

UK. Scand J Med Sci Sports. 2009 Feb;19(1): 121-

8. Epub 2008 Feb 1.

7. Singh Ajit A comperative study of intelligence

extraversion and Neuroticism differences

between and within Hockey and Volleyball

players. (Unpublished Master’s Thesis, , Punjabi

University, Patiala).


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STUDIES ON THE BATCH ADSORPTION OF METHYLENE BLUE

FROM AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS ONTO RICE HUSK

*R. SRIVASTAVA1, D.C.RUPAINWAR2

1Department of Chemistry, Isabella Thoburn College, Lucknow, India, 2 Department of Applied Chemistry,

Indian Institute of Technology, Banaras Hindu University , Varanasi, India

*Address for Correspondence : Dr. R. Srivastava, MS-124, Sector- D, Aligang, Lucknow, India,

E-mail ID: [email protected]

ABSTRACT

In this study, adsorption of methylene blue (MB) dye onto clean rice husks (CRH) and acid-

modified CRH was investigated with respect to the contact time, MB concentrations, acid

concentrations and acid types used in the acid modification processes. The results indicate that

the acid modification process reduces the MB sorption efficiency from 98% for CRH to 67% for

NRH (nitric acid treated rice husk), 59% for HRH (hydrochloric acid treated rice husk) and 55%

for SRH (sulfuric acid treated rice husk). In order to investigate the adsorption mechanisms,

four kinetic models, i.e., pseudo-first-order, pseudo-second-order, Elovich and intra-particle

diffusion models were fit to the experimental results. The characteristic parameters and correlation

coefficients for each kinetic model were determined. The fits of the kinetic results from the

kinetic equations were compared with the experimental data. The results indicate that the acid

modification process changes the MB adsorption mechanism. Langmuir, Freundlich, Temkin,

Redlich-Peterson (RP), and Langmuir-Freundlich (LF) isotherm models were also employed to

analyze the equilibrium data, and the correlations of the experimental data to the isotherms was

examined. The LF isotherm was found to best represent the data for MB adsorption onto CRH.

The separation factor revealed the favorable nature of the isotherm to the MB-CRH system.

Keywords: Methylene Blue , Rice Husks, Waste Water, Isotherm Models, Kinetics

INTRODUCTION

Many industries, such as the cosmetics,

leather, carpet, dye manufacturing and textile

finishing industries, use dyes to color their

products. They also consume a lot of clean

water, which becomes colored wastewater,

poured into the environment where trade

wastewater measures are not in place [1,2] . The

effluents of these industries can cause local

environmental problems by significantly affecting

photosynthetic activity in aquatic life because of

the reduced light penetration. The effluents may

also be toxic to some forms of aquatic life

because of the presence of metals, chlorides,

etc., in them [3,4] In addition, introducing dye

compounds into the aquatic environment is

aesthetically displeasing. Because of these

negative impacts, there is a need to develop de-

colorization methods that are effective and

suitable for industrial use. Currently, the major

methods for dye and color removal involve

microbial, physical and/or chemical processes,

such as microbial degradation, chemical

oxidation, and membrane separation process

have been proposed from time to time [5–10] .

However, all of the current methods suffer from

one limitation or another, and none have been

successful in removing color from wastewater

completely. Adsorption is probably the simplest

process for dye removal. Currently, activated

carbon is believed to be the most effective

adsorbent and is the most popular.

Physicochemical treatment for the removal

of dissolved dyes from wastewaters [4]; however,

its manufacturing and regeneration costs are

high [11].In order to reduce the cost of an

adsorption system, some attempts have been

made to find low cost alternative adsorbents. A

wide variety of materials such as Aspergillus

niger, biomass, algal biomass, Spirogyra

rhizopus biomass, rice husk, bark, wheat shell,

citric acid esterifying wheat straw, dehydrated

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wheat bran, carbonized press mud, tree fern,

apple pomace and wheat straw, coir pith, cotton,

mango seed kernel, shell of bittim, banana stalk

waste, dolomitic sorbents, chitosan, wood

sawdust, palm kernel fiber, jute fiber, waste of

sugarcane, perlite, raw kaolin, pure kaolin, NaOH

treated raw kaolin, palygorskite, zeolite, and

surfactant-modified activated carbon have been

investigated with varying degrees of success[1,2,4,12-34].

In the present study, rice husks (an agro-

residue) have been investigated as an adsorbent

for the removal of methylene blue from aqueous

solutions. Rice husks, a by-product of the rice

milling industry, account for about 20% of rice

as a whole [35]. With an estimated annual rice

production of 500 million metric tons in

developing countries, approximately 100 million

tons of rice husks are available annually for

utilization in these countries alone. In fact, the

amount of rice husks available is far in excess

of any local uses and, thus, has posed disposal

problems. Rice husks were chosen for

investigation as a precursor material due to their

granular structure, insolubility in water, chemical

stability, high mechanical strength and local

availability at almost no cost [35] . The advantage

in the use of these adsorbents is that there is

no need to regenerate them because of their

low production costs. In the present study, the

effects of the contact time,the acid concentration

in the acid modification process, the type of acid

used in the acid modification process, and the

initial methylene blue (MB) concentration on the

amount of color removed have been investigated.

In order to investigate the mechanism of

adsorption, experimental data was modeled

using the pseudo-first-order, pseudo-second-

order, Elovich and intra-particle diffusion models.

Equilibrium isotherms were analyzed according

to the Langmuir isotherm; the Freundlich,

Temkin, Redlich–Peterson and Langmuir–

Freundlich isotherms were only analyzed for the

adsorbent exhibiting the highest MB removal

efficiency. The characteristic parameters for

each model were determined.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

1. Preparation of adsorbent

The rice husk used in the present

investigation was obtained from local rice mills.

The whole rice husk was used; the integrity and

the size of rice husk were not modified. The

collected materials were washed with water

several times to remove dust and fines, the

washing process continued until the wash water

contained no color. It was subsequently rinsed

several times with reverse osmosis (RO) water

and dried overnight in an oven at 85°C. The

sorbent thus obtained was termed clean rice

husk (CRH). The CRH was then stored in plastic

bottles and used for bio-sorption studies, the

individual husks still in their original sizes.

Preliminary studies using CRH treated with

various types of acid were carried out in order

to evaluate the possibility of optimizing the

sorption of dyes. The CRH was soaked in 0.75

M nitric acid at a ratio of 1:10 (CRH: nitric acid,

w/v) for four hours at room temperature. The

nitric acid-treated CRH (termed NRH) was

washed thoroughly with water to remove residual

acid and then dried overnight in an oven at 85°C.

Similar acid treatments were also performed with

hydrochloric acid (making HRH) and sulfuric acid

(making SRH). The yields of the three pretreated

rice husks were essentially the same (97–98%

w/w of the original dry material).

Different sulfuric acid concentrations (0 M,

0.75 M, and 3 M) were used in the acid

modification process to evaluate the effect of the

acid concentration on the amount of color

removal. The yields of the pretreated rice husks

were approximately equal (94–97% w/w of the

original dry material) under the three sulfuric acid

concentrations.

2. Dye solution preparation

The cationic dye ‘methylene blue’ was

chosen in this study as a model molecule for

basic dyes. Stock solutions of MB were prepared

by dissolving accurately weighed samples of dye

in distilled water to give a concentration of 1000

mg/l. The experimental solutions were prepared

by diluting, where necessary, the dye stock

solution (1000 ppm) with RO water to the

required concentrations. All the experiments were

conducted at a natural pH (6.8–7.1) without any

pH adjustment.


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3. Batch adsorption experiments

Sorption tests on the acid-modified and

natural rice husks were performed in order to

determine the time needed to reach equilibrium

and the pattern of the kinetics. For this purpose,

samples of 2 g of natural or acid-modified rice

husks were transferred into bottles containing

100 ml of 50 mg/l MB solution. The bottles were

placed at 25°C using a temperature controlled

shaker operating at 125 rpm. The samples were

taken from the shaker at predetermined time

intervals.

The residual concentration of MB at any

time, t, was determined from absorbency as

measured with a UV-Vis spectrophotometer

(Hitachi, U–1800) at a 660 nm wavelength, at

which the maximum absorbency occurred. The

effect of the initial dye concentrations on the

amount of MB adsorbed was examined by

contacting 2 g samples of CRH with 100 ml

quantities of MB solution of different initial dye

concentrations, varying from 10 to 100 mg/l. All

experiments were conducted at 25°C using a

temperature controlled shaker operating at 125

rpm. The samples were taken from the shaker

at predetermined time intervals. The amount of

dye adsorbed at time t and the amount of dye

adsorbed at equilibrium time, are calculated by

Eq. (1) and Eq. (2) [36]:

Amount of methylene blue adsorbed at time

t (qt)

(Ci,- C

t) V/ M (1)

Amount of methylene blue adsorbed at

equilibrium

(Ci,- C

e) V/ M (2)

where Ci, C

t and C

e (mg/l) are the liquid

phase concentrations of dyes initially, at time t

and at equilibrium time, respectively, V is the

volume of dye solution (l), and M is the weight of

adsorbent used (g).

4. Kinetics of adsorption

The kinetics of adsorption is one of the most

important characteristics in defining the

efficiency of adsorption, hence the examination

of the kinetics of MB adsorption in this study.

Four kinds of kinetic models, the pseudo first-

order kinetic, pseudo-second-order kinetic,

Elovich and intraparticle diffusion models have

been tested to analyze the experimental data.

All the model parameters were evaluated by

nonlinear regression.

4.1. The pseudo-first-order kinetic model

The pseudo-first-order equation is the most

popular kinetic equation. The form is expressed

as follows [37]:

d qt/dt= k

1(q

e-q

t) (3)

After definite integration by applying the

boundary conditions t = 0 to t = t and qt = 0 to qt

= qt, the integrated form of Eq. (3) becomes the

following [38] :

qt=q

e(1-exp (-k

1 t) (4)

where qt (mg/g) is the amount of adsorption

time t (min); K1, the rate constant of the pseudo-

first-order equation (min–1) and qe is the amount

of adsorption equilibrium (mg/g).

4.2. The pseudo- second-order kinetic

model

The second order is based on the

adsorption capacity: it can predict the adsorption

behavior only

over a certain range determined by prior

study, but is in agreement with previous studies

which suggest chemisorption controls the

adsorption rate [39,40]. The pseudo-second-order

adsorption kinetic rate equation of Ho and McKay

is expressed as [41,42] :

d qt/dt = K (qe - qt )2 (5)

where qt (mg/g) is the amount of adsorption

time t (min); K2, the rate constant of the pseudo-

second-order equation (min–1

) and qe is the

amount of adsorption equilibrium (mg/g).

Integrating Eq. (5) for the boundary conditions t

= 0 to t = t and qt = 0 to qt = qt gives [43]:

1/qe-qt= 1/qe + k2t (6)

which is the integrated rate law for a

pseudo-second order reaction. For non-linear,

the equation can be written as [38]:

qt= k2qe2t/1+ k

2qet (7)

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4.3. The Elovich model

In reactions involving chemisorption of

adsorbate onto a solid surface without

desorption of products, the adsorption rate

decreases with time due to an increased surface

coverage. One of the most useful models for

describing such ‘activated’ chemisorption is the

Elovich equation [38]. The Elovich equation

assumes that the active sites of the biosorbent

are heterogeneous and therefore exhibit

different activation energies for chemisorption.

The Elovich model equation is generally

expressed as [44,45] :

Dq/dt= exp (- qt) (8)

where qt is the sorption capacity at time t

(mg/g); α is the initial adsorption rate (mg/g min)

because dqt/dt approaches when qt

approaches zero; and is the desorption

constant (g/mg) during any one experiment

Given that qt = 0 at t = 0, the integrated form of

Eq. (8) becomes:

qt=1/ ln( t + to) – 1/ (ln t

o) (9)

where t0 =1/ . If t is much larger than t

0,

Eq. (9) can be simplified to:

qt=1/ ln ( )+1/ ln t (10)

4.4. The intra-particle diffusion model

In a solid–liquid adsorption process, the

adsorption dynamics generally consist of three

main consecutive transport steps: (i) transport

of dye molecules from the bulk solution to the

external surface of the adsorbent by diffusion

through the liquid boundary layer (film diffusion);

(ii) diffusion of the dye from the external surface

and into the pores of the adsorbent (intra-particle

diffusion); and (iii) adsorption of the dye

onto the active sites of the internal surface of

the pores (pore diffusion) [46] . Among the three

steps, the last step is considered to have a

negligible effect on kinetics, as it is assumed to

be rapid. The rate of absorption is controlled by

either film diffusion or pore diffusion, depending

on which step is slower [47] . Accordingly, the

overall rate of adsorption is controlled by either

film or intra-particle diffusion, or a combination

of both. Many studies have shown that boundary

layer diffusion is dominant during the initial

adsorbate uptake, after which the adsorption rate

gradually becomes controlled by intra-particle

diffusion as the adsorbent’s external surface is

loaded with the adsorbate [46,47] . The intra-particle

diffusion model is expressed as [48,49]

qt= Kidt ½+C (11)

where qt is the sorption capacity at time t

(mg/g); C is the intercept; and Kid is the intra-

particle diffusion rate constant (mg/g min”1/2).

Thus, the intra-particle diffusion constant Kid,

can be obtained from the slope of the plot of qt

versus the square root of time. If the regression

of qt versus t0.5 is linear and passes through

the origin, then intra-particle diffusion is the sole

rate-limiting step; if not, the boundary layer

diffusion controls the adsorption to some degree

and this indicated that the intra-particle diffusion

is not the only rate controlling step, but also

other processes may control the rate of

adsorption.

5. Adsorption isotherms

An adsorption isotherm shows the

equilibrium relationship between concentration

in the solution and the quantity of adsorbate

adsorbed at constant temperature. They provide

fundamental physiochemical data about the

sorption process, and may be used for scaling-

up batch type processes with moderate success.

The shape of the equilibrium adsorption isotherm

provides information about the homogeneity and

heterogeneity of the adsorbent surface [50,51] . In

the present investigation, the equilibrium data

were analyzed using five equilibrium models, the

Langmuir, Freundlich, Temkin, the Redlich–

Peterson (RP), and the Langmuir–Freundlich

(LF) isotherms for describing solid–liquid

sorption systems. In this study, the equilibrium

adsorption isotherms were only applied to the

adsorbent which had the highest MB removal

efficiency. All the model parameters were

evaluated by nonlinear regression.

5.1. Langmuir isotherm

The Langmuir adsorption isotherm model

assumes that adsorption occurs on a

homogenous adsorbent surface of identical sites

that are equally available and energetically

equivalent, with each site carrying an equal

number of adsorbed molecules, and no


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interaction between adsorbate molecules [51–53] .

The saturated monolayer isotherm can be

represented as:

qe= q

max K

LC

e/1+ K

LC

e (12)

where qe is the amount of MB adsorbed on

adsorbent at equilibrium (mg/g), Ce is the

equilibrium concentration in the solution (mg/l),

qmax

is the qe for a complete monolayer (mg/g), a

constant related to the sorption capacity, and KL

is the adsorption equilibrium constant related to

the affinity of the binding sites and the energy

of adsorption (l/mg). For Langmuir type

adsorption processes, the influence of the

isotherm shape on whether adsorption is

“favorable” or “unfavorable” can be classified by

a term “RL” a dimensionless constant separation

factor [54].

RL= 1/1+K

LC

i (13)

where Ci (mg/l) is the liquid phase initial

concentration of the dye. The RL parameter is

considered a reliable indicator of the adsorption.

There are four probabilities for the RL value: (i)

for favorable adsorption, 0 < RL < 1, (ii) for

unfavorable adsorption, RL>1, (iii) for linear

adsorption, RL = 1, and (iv) for irreversible

adsorption, RL = 0 [52] .

5.2. Freundlich isotherm

The Freundlich isotherm assumes that the

adsorption occurs on a heterogeneous surface

at non-identical sites with different energies of

adsorption that are not always available. This

fairly satisfactory empirical isotherm can be used

for non-ideal sorption and is expressed by the

following equation [50, 55,56] :

qe= K

F C

e 1/n (14)

where KF is an indicator of the relative

adsorption capacity of the adsorbent (mg1"(1/

n) l1/n/g); and n is that of the adsorption intensity

respectively. In order to determine the maximum

adsorption capacity, it is necessary to operate

with a constant initial concentration Ci and

variable amounts of adsorbent; ln qmax

is then the

extrapolated value of ln q for C = Ci [57].

KF = q

max/ C

i 1/n (15)

where Ci (mg/l) is the liquid phase

concentrations of dyes initially and qmax

is the

Freundlich maximum adsorption capacity (mg/

g).

5.3. Temkin isotherm

The derivation of the Temkin isotherm

assumes that the fall in the heat of sorption is

linear rather than logarithmic, as implied in the

Freundlich equation. The heat of sorption of all

the molecules in the layer is assumed to

decrease linearly with coverage due to sorbate/

sorbent interactions [58]. The Temkin isotherm has

generally been applied in the following form:

qe= R

T/B

T .ln (A

T C

e) (16)

where BT is the Temkin constant, related to

the heat of sorption (J/mol); AT is the Temkin

isotherm constant (l/g); R is the gas constant

(8.314 J/mol K); and T is the absolute

temperature in K.

5.4. Redlich–Peterson isotherm

The Redlich–Peterson isotherm contains

three parameters and incorporates the features

of the L angmuir and Freundlich isotherms. It can

be represented by the following formula [51] :

qe= K

R C

e/ 1+A C

eb (17)

where Ce (mg/l) is the equilibrium

concentration in the solution; KR (l/g) and A {(l/

mg)b} are the Redlich-Peterson constants; and

b is the Redlich-Peterson isotherm exponent. In

this study all the model parameters were

calculated by nonlinear regression.

5.5. Langmuir–Freundlich (LF) isotherm

The Langmuir–Freundlich (LF) isotherm,

derived from the Langmuir and Freundlich

models, is a three parameter empirical model

represented by the following equation [59] where

KLF

is the equilibrium constant {(l/mg)1/n}, qLF

is

the maximum amount of dye per unit weight of

biosorbent(mg/g), and n is an empirical

dimensionless parameter. If n = 1, Eq. (18)

becomes the Langmuir equation. This model is

valid when l/n>1. In this study the isotherm

parameters of L-F equation were evaluated

using nonlinear regression.

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1. FTIR spectroscopy studies

The Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR)

spectroscopy technique is an important tool for

identifying characteristic functional groups which

are capable of adsorbing metal ions and dye

ions. The raw material and acid-modified

Fig.1- FTIR spectra for CRH, SRH, HRH, NRH.

Fig. 2- Comparison between the measured and modeled time profiles and comparison of kineticmodels in predicting qt for the adsorption of MB onto CRHs modified by various acid concentrations.

adsorbent were characterized using a FT-IR

spectrophoto-meter (PerkinElmer, Spectrum

RX1) at room temperature (Fig. 1). As seen in

Fig. 1, the presence of OH groups on the surface

of the rice husks is confirmed by a broad band

between 3300 and 3450 cm–1 [60] . This stretching

of OH groups is associated to silanol groups (Si–

OH) and to adsorbed water on the rice husks’

surfaces. Other OH groups bound to methyl

radicals exhibited a signal between 2920 and

2940 cm–1[6] .These groups are common in lignin

structures. The peaks located at 1640 to 1670

cm–1 are characteristic of carbonyl stretching

from aldehydes and ketones [61].The peaks

associated with the stretching of aromatic rings

were verified at 1511 cm–1 [60] . The bands

between 1130–1050 and 810–800 cm–1 were

attributed to O–Si–O and typical structures of

SiO2, which was an indication of silica [62]. Finally,

the presence of a band around 466 cm–1 is

generally attributable to the bending vibration

of O–Si–O [62].

2. Effect of acid concentration on

sorption and sorption kinetics verified


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Fig. 2 shows the effect of the acid

concentration and the contact time on the

amount of MB adsorbed onto H2SO

4 modified rice

husks. It was observed that the chemical

modification resulted in a decrease of the

sorption capacities of the CRH. In order to

analyze the MB biosorption kinetics, the pseudo-

first-order kinetic, pseudo-second-order kinetic,

Elovich, and intra-particle diffusion kinetic

models were applied to the data. The fittings of

the pseudo-first-order kinetic model to the

experimental results are shown in Fig. 2a, and

the values of the estimated parameters are

presented in Table 1. The resulting curves and

data obtained by the pseudo-first-order kinetic

equation did not describe the biosorption of the

dye on the CRH well. It was noticed, also, that

curves of fit for the H2SO

4 modified CRH were

closer to the experimental values than the curve

of fit for the CRH. These results indicated that

the modification of CRH could destroy the

structure of the adsorption surface and affect

the mechanisms of adsorption. The comparisons

of the calculated results for the pseudo-second-

order kinetic model and the measured results

for the CRH and acid-modified CRHs are shown

in Fig. 2b. As observed in Fig. 2b, the pseudo-

second order expression better predicted the

sorption kinetics than the pseudo-first-order

model for the entire sorption period, especially

for CRH. This suggested that pseudo second-

order kinetic model could be used to predict the

dye uptake amount at different contact time

intervals and at equilibrium for CRH and H2SO

4

modified CRH.

The experimental data and the simulations

using the Elovich equation for modeling the

adsorption of MB onto different absorbents are

shown in Fig. 2c. The fits are not as good as the

pseudo-second-order models. As for the

pseudo-first-order model, the curves of fit for

H2SO

4 modified CRH were closer to the

experimental values than the curves of fit for

CRH. The constants for the Elovich equation for

the same experimental data were obtained from

the slope and intercept of the plot of qt against

ln t (plot not shown), listed in Table 1. When

using the Elovich equation, the constant

represents the initial adsorption rate, while is

related to the extent of the surface coverage and

the activation energy involved in chemisorption

Fig 3- Intraparticle diffusion plot for the dsorptionof MB onto CRHs modified by various acidconcentrations.

[63] . It was observed that and decreased

as the acid concentration increased (Table

1).This suggests that the adsorption surface of

the absorbents was affected such that the

available adsorption sites lessened as the acid

concentration increased. The simulations using

the intra-particle diffusion

equation for the adsorption of MB onto the

different absorbents are shown in Fig. 2d. The

intra-particle diffusion model expression did not

fit well with the experimental data for the CRH.

This suggested the intra-particle diffusion model

could not be used to predict the amount of dye

uptake at different contact time intervals and at

equilibrium for CRH. However, a good fit was

produced for the experimental data for H2SO

4

modified CRH, almost as good as the pseudo-

second-order model. These results again

indicated that the acid modification of CRH could

destroy the structure of the adsorption surface

and affect the mechanisms of adsorption.

The adsorption process for MB onto CRH

is mainly controlled by diffusion from the solid-

liquid interface towards the solid particles. This

mechanism may be tested by plotting qt versus

t0.5 (Fig. 3). As shown, the adsorption process

for CRH was not linear over the whole time range

and tended to be in two phases. The initial curved

portion is attributable to the boundary layer

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diffusion effects and the final linear portion may

be due to the intra-particle diffusion effects. Also,

the linear plot for the non-modified CRH does

not pass through the origin, which indicates that

intra-particle diffusion was not the only rate

controlling step. However, the linear plots for

each acid-modified absorbent pass through very

close to the origin, indicating that intra-particle

diffusion plays a major role in the adsorption for

acid-modified absorbents.

3. Effect of chemical treatment on

sorption and sorption kinetics

The chemical treatment of CRH was shown

to result in certain changes in its surface

properties. Accordingly, the MB adsorption

behavior for each of the acid-modified CRHs was

more closely examined. Fig. 4 shows the effect

of the chemical treatment and the contact time

on the amount of MB adsorbed onto H2SO

4

modified rice husks. It can be observed that the

sorption capacities of CRH, NRH, HRH and SRH

increased with an increase in the contact time. It

Fig 4- Comparison between the measured and modeled time profiles and comparison of kineticmodels in predicting qt for the adsorption of MB onto various pretreated rice husks.

can also be observed that acid modification

decreased the MB sorption capacities of CRH

from 2.43 to 1.65, 1.47 and 1.36 for NRH, HRH

and SRH, respectively. The results showed that

HRH and SRH had the lowest sorption capacity

for MB among the modified rice husks. These

results indicated that the chemical treatment did

not improve the adsorption performance of the

rice husks. In fact, modification of CRH could

damage the structure of the adsorption surface

and affect the mechanisms of adsorption. In order

to design a fast and effective model, further

investigations into the adsorption rate were

made. A suitable model was sought to

understand the mechanisms of adsorption,

including the mass transfer chemical reaction [29].

The experimental data for the uptake of dye

versus time, qt, were fitted to the pseudo-first-

order kinetic, pseudo-second-order kinetic,

Elovich, and intraparticle diffusion kinetic models

using nonlinear regression.

The regression results are presented in Fig.

4 and Table 2. Fig. 4a shows a non-linearized


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plot of the pseudo first-order model at 50 mg/l

initial MB concentration for the first 240 min. It

can still be seen from the plots of qt versus t that

the theoretically generated curves do not agree

well with the experimental data. This suggests

that the sorption of MB onto CRH and acid-

modified rice husks does not follow the pseudo-

first-order sorption rate expression of Lagergren.

The experimental data and the simulations using

the pseudo-second-order equation for

adsorption of MB onto different absorbents are

shown in Fig. 4b. It shows good agreement with

the pseudo-second-order equation, reflected in

the extremely high correlation coefficients listed

in Table 2, which are greater than 0.96.These

findings suggest that the pseudo-second-order

kinetic model could be used to predict the

amounts of dye taken up at different contact time

intervals and at equilibrium. The simulations

using the Elovich equation are plotted in Fig. 4c

together with the experimental data points. Table

2 lists the kinetic constants obtained. As can be

seen, the constant was observed to decrease

sharply when the CRH was modified by acids,

and the constant also decreased. Therefore,

when the CRH is acid-modified within the range

studied, the rate of chemisorptions and the

available adsorption sites on the surface

decrease. Although the Elovich equation does

not provide any mechanistic evidence, it has

proved suitable for highly heterogeneous

systems, of which the adsorption of MB onto

CRH, NRH, HRH and SRH is undoubtedly such a

case. Moreover, when using the Elovich

equation, the correlation coefficients were lower

than those of the pseudo-second-order

equation, but the Elovich equation might still be

used to describe the kinetics of adsorption of

MB onto NRH, HRH, and SRH.

The simulations using the intra-particle

diffusion equation for the adsorption of MB onto

different absorbents are shown in Fig. 4d. As

observed, the intra-particle diffusion model

expression does not give a good fit to the

experimental data for the adsorption of CRH.

This suggests that intra-particle diffusion

model cannot be used to predict the amounts of

dye taken up at different contact time intervals

and at equilibrium for the CRH. However, the

intra-particle diffusion equation gives a good fit

to the experimental data for the acid-modified

rice husks, almost as good as the pseudo-

second-order model. Intra-particle diffusion rate

constants for CRH, NRH, HRH and SRH were

obtained from the plots of the amount of dye

adsorbed versus t0.5 (Fig. 5). The figure

indicates that the adsorption processes for CRH

were not linear over the whole time range, and

tended to occur in two stages. At a certain time

limit for the intra-particle diffusion for the acid-

modified absorbents, the curves reveal linear

characteristics (as illustrated in Fig. 5). It has

been suggested that if the plot of qt versus t0.5

is a straight line, intra-particle diffusion controls

the sorption process. If the line does not pass

through the origin, the intra-particle diffusion is

not the only rate limiting step, suggesting the

process is ‘complex’, with more than one

mechanism limiting the rate of sorption.

Though the plots of qt versus t0.5 give

straight lines in acid-modified absorbents, they

fail to pass through the origin. This might also

indicate a combined mass transport triggered by

the initial film [39] .

4. Effect of MB initial concentration and

sorption kinetics

Fig. 6 shows the effect of the initial MB

concentration and the contact time on the

amount of MB adsorbed onto the CRH. It can be

observed that the amount adsorbed increased

with contact time, and at a certain point in time

reached an almost constant value, with the

Fig. 5- Intraparticle-diffusion plot for theadsorption of MB onto various pretreated ricehusks.

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amount of dye being removed from the aqueous

solution onto the CRH in a state of dynamic

equilibrium with the amount of dye being

desorbed from the CRH into the aqueous

solution. As seen in Fig. 6, the initial dye

concentration influence the contact time

necessary to reach the maximum sorption

capacities. For the range of contact times under

which the experiments were conducted, the

adsorption rate for the lower initial MB

concentrations was faster than for the higher

initial MB concentrations. The adsorption of MB

onto CRH was also investigated in terms of the

kinetics of the adsorption mechanism by using

the pseudo-first-order kinetic, pseudo-second-

order kinetic, Elovich, and intra-particle diffusion

models. The fittings of the experimental kinetic

results to the pseudo-first-order kinetic models

are shown in Fig. 6a, and the values of the

estimated parameters are p resented in Table

3. It is clear that the theoretically generated

curves do not agree well with the experimental

data at initial dye concentrations higher than 25

mg/l.

This finding suggests that the sorption of

MB onto CRH did not follow the pseudo-first-

order sorption rate expression of Lagergren at

high initial MB concentrations.

The pseudo-second-order kinetic constants

for adsorption of MB onto CRH are shown in

Table 3. The correlation coefficients for the

pseudo-second-order kinetic model were close

to 1.0 for all cases. In addition, the experimental

data and the simulations using the pseudo-

second-order kinetic equation for the adsorption

of MB onto CRH are shown in Fig. 6b. By

comparing

Figs. 6a and 6b, it is obvious that for the

entire adsorption period the pseudo-second-

order model fits the experimental data better than

the pseudo-first-order model. This indicates that

the sorption mechanism for CRH is

chemisorption, involving covalent forces through

sharing or exchange of electrons between

sorbent and sorbate [64] .Fig. 6b also shows that

the calculated q values increased with increasing

concentration of MB, presumably due to the

enhanced mass transfer of MB molecules to the

surface of CRH. This observation suggests that

Fig.6- Comparison between the measured and modeled time profi les and comparison of kineticmodels in predicting qt for the adsorption of MB onto CRH at different initial MB concentrations.


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the boundary layer resistance was not the rate

limiting step [65] .The experimental data and the

simulations using the Elovich equation for the

adsorption of MB onto CRH are shown in Fig.

6c. It is clear that the theoretically generated

curves agree well with the experimental data at

concentrations lower than 25 mg/l, but deviation

is observed at later periods of the sorption

process at concentration higher than 25 mg/l.

Table 3 lists the kinetic constants obtained from

the Elovich equation. When using the Elovich

equation, the correlation coefficients were lower

than those of the pseudo-second-order

equation, but it might still be used to describe

the kinetics of adsorption of lower initial MB

concentrations onto CRH. As can be seen from

Table 3, the constants and decreased

sharply when the initial dye concentrations

increased. The fittings of the experimental kinetic

results to the simulations using the intra-particle

diffusion kinetic model are shown in Fig. 6d. The

intra-particle diffusion model does not fit well to

the experimental data for the adsorption of MB.

This suggests the intra-particle diffusion model

cannot be used to predict the amounts of dye

taken up at different contact time intervals and

at equilibrium for the CRH.

The intra-particle diffusion plots of the

experimental results of qt versus t for the various

absorbents are shown in Fig. 7. Within these,

the first, sharper region is the instantaneous

adsorption or external surface adsorption. The

second region is the gradual adsorption stage

where intra-particle diffusion is rate limiting. In

some cases, a third region exists, the final

equilibrium stage where intra-particle diffusion

starts to slow down due to the extremely low

adsorbate concentrations left in the solutions

Fig.7- Intraparticle diffusion plot for theadsorption of MB onto CRH at different initialMB concentrations.

[66].The plots in Fig. 7 are not linear over the whole

time range, implying that more than one process

affected the adsorption. This indicates that the

rate of adsorption for the initial MB

concentrations of 10, 25, 50, 75, and 100 mg/l

was initially controlled by film diffusion, then

changed to intra-particle-diffusion control after

50–60 min. The intercepts (C) and the intra-

particle rate constant (Kid) values calculated from

the slopes of the linear portions of the plots of

Fig. 7 are presented in Table 3. The intercept C

provides information about the thickness of the

boundary layer; the resistance to the external

mass transfer increases as the intercept

increases. The constant C was found to increase

from 0.4393 to 2.171 with an increase in the dye

concentration from 10 to 75 mg/l, indicating an

increase in the thickness of the boundary layer

and a decrease in the chance of external mass

transfer, and hence an increase in the chance

of internal mass transfer [67].However, beyond 75

mg/l, the intercept decreased, suggesting that

at higher concentrations, the sorption process

is controlled by intra-particle diffusion, with only

a minor effect from the external film. Ponnusami

et al. reported a similar observation for the

adsorption of MB onto guava (Psidium guajava)

leaf powder [68]. The value of Kid was found to

increase with an increasing initial concentration

of dye solution. Another similar observation was

reported by Mane et al. for the adsorption of

brilliant green onto bagasse fly ash [69].

5. ADSORPTION ISOTHERMS

The capacity of CRH for adsorption of MB

can be determined by measuring equilibrium

isotherms, which describe how adsorbates

interact with adsorbents. The correlation of

equilibrium data to either theoretical or empirical

equations is essential for the subsequent

practical application of the isotherms [50].Several

mathematical models can be used to describe

experimental data for adsorption isotherms. The

experimental data were analyzed according to

the nonlinear forms of the Langmuir, Freundlich,

Temkin, Redlich– Peterson, and Langmuir–

Freundlich empirical models. Table 4 gives the

calculated isotherm constants for the different

initial MB concentrations. In order to assess the

different isotherms and their ability to correlate

the experimental results, the theoretical plots for

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Tables

Table 1- KINETIC PARAMETERS OF THE REMOVAL OF MB FROM AQUEOUS SOLUTION BY THECRHS MODIFIED BY VARIOUS ACID CONCENTRATIONS

Acidconc. Pseuodo firstorder Pseuodo second order Elovich equation Intraparticle diffusion

K1 qe r2 k2 qe h r

2 α β r

2 kid C r

2

Table 2- KINETIC PARAMETERS OF THE REMOVAL OF MB FROM AQUEOUS SOLUTION BY VARIOUSPRETREATED RICE HUSKS.

Adsorbents . Pseuodo firstorder Pseuodo second order Elovich equation Intraparticle diffusion

K1 qe r2 k2 qe h r

2 α β r

2 kid C r

2

Table 3- KINETIC PARAMETERS FOR THE EFFECTS OF INITIAL DYE CONCENTRATIONS ON SORPTIONOF MB ONTO CRH


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each isotherm have been shown along with the

experimental data for the adsorption of MB onto

CRH (Fig. 8). The isotherm curves show the

superposition of the experimental results (points)

and the theoretical calculated results (lines). The

Langmuir sorption model serves to estimate the

maximum uptake or the total capacity of the

adsorbent for the dye (q max) where it could not

be reached in the experiments. KL is the

adsorption equilibrium constant representing the

affinity between the sorbent and sorbate. The

values of q max and KL calculated from the L

angmuir model are tabulated in Table 4. The

those obtained in the literature for the adsorption

of MB. It shows that CRH can be considered as

a promising material for removing basic dyes,

even compared to some other low cost

adsorbents and activated carbons previously

suggested for the uptake of MB from a queous

solutions [13, 37, 71-77].The Freundlich isotherm was

originally empirical in nature but was later

interpreted for sorption to heterogeneous

surfaces or surfaces supporting sites of varied

affinities and has been used widely to fit

experimental data [78].The value of n, the

Freundlich constant, is an empirical parameter

that varies with the degree of heterogeneity and

indicates the degree of non-linearity between dye

uptake capacity and unadsorbed dye in the

solution, and is related to the distribution of

bonded ions on the sorbent surface [79].In general,

an n > 1 suggests that the adsorbate is favorably

adsorbed onto an adsorbent. The results in

Table 4 indicate that MB was favorably adsorbed

by CRH, as the n value was greater than one.

Compared to the Langmuir isotherm, the

Freundlich isotherm had a poorer fit to the

present data. The Temkin constants AT and BT

are listed in Table 4 and the theoretical plot of

this isotherm is shown in Fig. 8. The correlation

coefficient is also given in Table 4 and is lower

than the Langmuir and Freundlich values.

Therefore, the Langmuir and Freundlich

isotherms fit better to the experimental data than

the Temkin isotherm. Fig. 8 shows the same. The

experimental data were further fitted to the

three-parameter Redlich-Peterson isotherm and

Langmuir–Freundlich isotherm models. The

three-parameter empirical Redlich-Peterson

isotherm equation combines elements from both

the Langmuir and Freundlich equations,

modeling a hybrid mechanism of adsorption : a

hybrid, not following ideal monolayer adsorption.

Therefore, the Redlich–Peterson isotherm

equation is widely used as a compromise between

the Langmuir and Freundlich systems. The

adsorption parameters calculated according to

the Redlich–Peterson isotherm model are listed

in Table 4. The r2 was higher than 0.998, while

b was smaller than one, obeying the theory

behind the Redlich-

Peterson isotherm. In fact, any value of b

out of the range 0–1 fails to agree with the theory

behind the Redliche-Peterson isotherm. Fig. 8

Fig. 8- Experimental points and comparison ofthe fitted curves from various adsorptionisotherms for the adsorption of MB onto CRH.

Fig. 9-. Plot of the separation factor for MBonto CRH versus the initial dye concentration.

calculated RL values versus the initial MB

concentrations are shown in Fig. 9, in which it

can be observed that sorption was more

favorable at higher concentration.

The fact that RL is in the range of 0–1 at all

initial dye concentrations confirms the favorable

uptake of the malachite green process [70] .Table

5 presents a comparison of the adsorption

capacity of the CRH obtained in this study with

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illustrates that the Redlich–Peterson isotherm

model is a better fit to the experimental data than

the Freundlich and Temkin isotherms.The

Langmuir–Freundlich model is another three

parameter empirical model for representing

equilibrium biosorption data. It is also a

combination of the Langmuir and Freundlich

isotherm type models. The corresponding

Langmuir–Freundlich parameters of A, B and m

are given in Table 4 and the theoretical plot is

shown in Fig. 8. As seen from Table 4 and Fig.

8, the Langmuir–Freundlich isotherm provides

the best correlation to the experimental data,

whereas Langmuir and Redlich–Peterson

isotherms also fitted the experimental data.

CONCLUSIONS

1. The experimental results indicated that both

untreated and acid-modified rice husks

show promise as adsorbents for the

removal of MB from aqueous solutions.

2. The chemical modification of rice husks to

produce NRH, HRH and SRH reduced the

sorption efficiency of CRH for MB from 98%

to 67%, 59% and 55%, respectively.

3. The sorption capacity increased with higher

initial dye concentrations. It is speculated

that the initial concentration of dye provides

the driving force to overcome the

resistances to the mass transfer of MB

between the aqueous and the solid phases.

In addition, an increase in the initial dye

concentration enhances the interactions

between MB and the CRH. An increase in

the initial MB dye concentration enhances

the adsorption of MB.

4. The sorption data were found to follow the

pseudosecond-order kinetic model.

5. The qt versus t1/2 plots NRH, HRH and SRH

give a straight line, but do not pass through

the origins. This indicates a combined mass

transport triggered by initial film mass

transfer followed by intra-particle diffusion.

The results also indicate that the acid

modification of CRH can destroy the

structure of the adsorption surface,

affecting the adsorption boundary layer and

decreasing the contribution of the surface

sorption in the rate-controlling step.

6. The analysis indicates that the adsorption

of CRH does not occur on a heterogeneous

surface with sites of equivalent energy of

adsorption that are always available, since

the Freundlich isotherm had a poor fit to

the experimental data.

7. The experimental adsorption data fitted

better to the Langmuir–Freundlich model

than the other models.

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45 Chien S H., Clayton W R. Application of Elovich

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46 Hameed B H., El-Khaiary M I. Sorption kinetics

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47 Alkan M., Doðan M., Turhan Y. Adsorption kinetics

and mechanism of maxilon blue 5G dye on

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51 Han R., Wang Y., Han P. Removal of methylene

blue from aqueous solution by chaff in batch mode.

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52 Sari A., Tuzen M., Citak D . Equilibrium, kinetic

and thermodynamic studies of adsorption of Pb

(II) from aqueous solution onto Turkish kaolinite

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53 Imamoglu M., Tekir O. Removal of copper (II) and

lead (II) ions from aqueous solutions by

adsorption on activated carbon from a new

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54 Dogan M., Alkan M, Turkyilmaz A .,Ozdemir Y.

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blue by adsorption onto perlite. J. Hazard. Mater.

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55 Oguz E. Equilibrium isotherms and kinetics

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56 Al-Qodah Z., Shawaqfeh AT., Lafi W K . Adsorption

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phase sorption of Procion Blue HB by inactive

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direct blue–86 from aqueous solution by new


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activated carbon developed from orange peel. J.

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68 Ponnusami V., Vikram S . Guava (Psidium

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69 Mane V S., Mall I D ., Srivastava V D. Use of bagasse

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71 Rahman I A ., Saad A. Utilization of Guava Seeds

as a Source of Activated Carbon for Removal of

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72 Chakrabarti S., Dutta B K. On the adsorption and

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74 Rao B., Rao R M. Adsorption studies on treatment

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75 Bhattacharyya K G., Sharma A. Kinetics and

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Solutions onto Carica papaya: Application of

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79 Aksu Z., Tatl A., Tunc O. A comparative adsorption/

biosorption study of Acid Blue 161: Effect of

temperature on equilibrium and kinetic

parameters. Chem. Eng. J. 2007; 48: 225-233.

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INTRODUCTION

A variety of contaminants responsible for

adverse health effects may be found in indoor

air. Since the beginning of the areas, airborne

biological agents have attracted increased at-

tention due to their diverse immunological activ-

ity and widespread occurrence indoors. Fungi

are commonly present in indoor environments

and cause of many diseases. Fungi and bacte-

ria isolated from Canteen with moisture problems

have shown both cytotoxic and immunotoxic

characteristics . Many fungal species of Penicil-

lium, Aspergillus, Alternaria and Cladosporium

have been shown to trigger rhinitis, asthma and

dermatitis. The major pathway of acquisition is

inhalation of airborne fungal spores small

enough in diameter to reach the deeper airways.

AIRBORN BACTERIA AND FUNGI LEVEL IN

INDOOR AND OUTDOOR AREAS

*AASHISH TIWARI,1 DIVYA SAHNI,2 A.H. KHAN3

1Research Scholar, Sai Nath University, Ranchi.India ,2ICAR-Central Soil Salinity Research Institute Regional

Research Station, Lucknow, India.3CSIR-Indian Institue of Toxicology Research, Lucknow, India.

*Address for Correspondence: Aashish Tiwari, Research Scholar, Sai Nath University, Ranchi .India


ABSTRACT

In this study, we investigated the relationship between indoor and outdoor concentrations of air-

borne actinomycetes, fungal spores, and Bacterial Species. Different types of indoor environments

(Two different Canteen area, Institute’s auditorium, laboratory, Shopping Mall) and their outdoor

environments (Institute’s Outer Building area) were investigated in terms of bio-aerosol contamina-

tion. A total of 120 Sample were investigated in Indian Institute of Toxicology Research, Lucknow.

The single-stage / Bio-stage sampler was used for viable bio-aerosol sampling. During the sampling,

indoor and outdoor temperature, relative humidity, and CO2 concentration were measured. Total

bacteria counts (TBC) and fungi concentrations varied on a large scale within and between the

sampling site groups (10–103 CFU/m3). The highest TBC levels were measured in Humid less Indoor

area, while the highest mold levels were measured in Canteen, Auditorium. Micrococcus spp., Sta-

phylococcus auricularis, and Bacillus spp. were predominant bacteria species and Penicillium spp.,

Aspergillus spp., and Cladosporium spp. were the most observed mould genera detected in the

samples. Indoor-to-outdoor ratios of the observed fungi counts were calculated as approximately

around one, and for bacteria counts these ratios were higher than one. There was no statistical

difference between indoor and outdoor mould levels, while a significant difference was found be-

tween indoor and outdoor bacteria levels (p < 0.001). A significant correlation between indoor CO2

and bio-aerosols indicates insufficient ventilation.

Keywords: Contamination, Indoor Air; Bacteria, Outdoor; Aspergillum; Bio-aerosols; Conventional

methods; Microorganisms

The sources from which fungi and bacteria de-

rive may have importance in their health effects.

It has been established that most people spend

over 90% of their lives indoors, offices, canteen

for lunch / break-fast where they are exposed to

some indoor environmental factors such as bio-

aerosols which could influence their health and

physical condition. This has contributed to the

growing interest in indoor microbial studies in

recent years [1-5]. The ubiquitous nature of mi-

croorganisms in the atmosphere has contributed

to the biological contamination of indoor envi-

ronments, which is mostly caused by bacteria,

moulds and yeast. They can be dangerous as

pathogenic living cells but they can also secrete

some substances harmful to health. These are

different kinds of toxic airborne metabolism prod-


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www.ijsir.co.in 109

ucts, for example mycotoxins. The aerial spatial

distribution of microorganisms varies according

to environmental conditions, type of organism

and location. Generally, a higher microbial con-

centration is found in the outdoor air of urban

areas than surrounding rural areas [7,8] . Many

activities like traffic, constructions and people

gathering in urban areas contribute largely to

outdoor microbial load [ 1,2]. Recent epidemiologi-

cal studies have illustrated that extremely high

concentration of microorganisms in the air can

be allergenic, however sometimes even very low

concentrations of some particular microorgan-

isms can cause serious diseases. Moulds have

been shown to react with humans causing 30%

of health problems relevant to the indoor air

quality [3], particularly in rooms with heating, ven-

tilation and air-conditioning systems [11 ,6 ] and can

breed allergies[4], SBS symptoms (“sick building

syndrome”) causing irritation of mucous mem-

branes, bad physical condition, tiredness, head-

aches, vertigo, decrease of concentration,

memory and intellectual work ability [5,6],derma-

tosis, respiratory diseases (including asthma) [7,8]

.

The proportion of pathogenic microorgan-

isms is higher in indoor than outdoor air [9] . En-

vironmental conditions such as relative humid-

ity (RH), temperature and wind velocity exert sig-

nificant effect on the type of population and

amount of microorganisms in the air [10,11] . Gen-

erally, microbes enter into atmosphere from natu-

ral (vegetation and soil) and anthropogenic

sources but their survival and distribution de-

pend on the cell structure of microbes and me-

teorological conditions [ 12,13,14 ]. Many airborne mi-

croorganisms are either pathogenic or can

cause sensitivities due to prolonged exposure.[15]

Airborne microbes attach to dust particles, con-

dense and enter human body directly via inha-

lation or indirectly via ingestion of contaminated

foods and water [22 ] resulting in the development

of disease [22 ]. Airborne bacteria can also affect

visibility, climate and the quality of life [16, 18 , 20 ] . It

is important to know the distribution pattern of

live bio-aerosols at different sites in the urban

environment. The aim of this work is long-term

observation of microbiological quality of indoor

air in selected shops in two business locations

in Ibadan metropolis, where thousands of people

spend several hours working in enclosed spaces

every day and where microbiological quality of

indoor air can influence their health and physi-

cal condition. The study embraced a measure-

ment of the concentration of bacteria and fungi

in the air of selected shops and meteorological

conditions such as temperature and relative hu-

midity.

Exposure to bio-aerosols, containing air-

borne microorganisms and their by-products,

can result in respiratory disorders and other

adverse health effects such as infections, hy-

persensitivity pneumonitis and toxic reactions.

Fungi are common in indoor and outdoor envi-

ronments and nearly 10 % of people worldwide

have fungal allergy. In many environments in-

cluding hospitals, animal sheds, clean-rooms,

pharmaceutical facilities and spacecraft environ-

ments, the presence of bio-aerosols can com-

promise normal activities, making efficient moni-

toring crucial. Microbial damage in indoor/out-

door areas, is caused most frequently by molds

and bacteria. These micro-organisms have a

very important role in the biogeochemical cycle,

as their task consists of disintegrating organic

mass to reusable metabolites. In the environ-

ment spores of molds and bacteria may become

airborne and are therefore ubiquitous. They can

enter indoor areas either by means of passive

ventilation or by means of ventilation systems.

Many genera are also emitted by indoor sources

like animals, flowerpots and wastebaskets.

In most cases [21] normal flora is not harm-

ful. However, growth conditions like excessive

humidity and/or a high water content of building

materials are encountered on a more frequent

basis, which in most cases can be described as

the limiting factor for microbial growth. This is

caused by shortcomings of the buildings such

as the lack of thermal insulation, as well as the

incorrect behavior of users of rooms. The rela-

tive humidity and or the moisture content of the

materials determines that to what extent differ-

ent micro-organisms are able to grow on indoor

or outdoor materials. These may cause destruc-

tion, adverse health effects and unpleasant

odors. Therefore, the task of microbial exami-

nations is to differentiate between normal indoor

micro-organisms, airborne or adherent to walls

and floors and fast growing species, attaching

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P-ISSN 2347-2189, E- ISSN 2347-4971

itself to building materials and producing micro-

bial products and ultimately causing adverse

health effects. Air sampling of microorganisms

is a popular method of conducting microbial ex-

aminations, as it allows a direct toxicological

evaluation. These results can be related to a

concentration expressed in colony forming units

per cubic meter. Sometimes information might

even be available on a particle which allows for

an estimation of how deep those particles may

penetrate into the lungs of a human being.

Micro-organisms are generally not equally

distributed in indoor air. They mostly occur in

clouds and are often overlooked in air measure-

ments, especially if the microbial damage is hid-

den by paneling, walls, etc. Another reason for

false-negative results obtained by air measure-

ments is that fungal spores are not released dur-

ing all the stages of its growth. In this case, other

techniques are helpful, for example, the sam-

pling of household dust, the sedimentation

method or direct sampling from surfaces. The

differentiation of bacteria is performed by a bio-

chemical method as a rule, whereas in most

cases the differentiation of molds is done micro-

scopically, especially when the forms of spores

need to be detected.

On many occasions, the growth behavior

and patterns on different nutrient agars also

have to be evaluated. Non-sporulation species

have to be triggered to produce spores, other-

wise “sterile mycelium” will result, which means

they cannot be named by genera or even spe-

cies. Methods of genetic fingerprinting are still

in their early stages and only available for some

genera or species. In the meantime enzymatic

tests have become available to decide between

mold growth and normal quantities on building

surfaces. Searching for hidden mold growth can

be a very difficult task. An example of this is if

adverse health effects like the fungal syndrome

is observed. The fungal syndrome is character-

ized by the occurrence of unspecific symptoms.

The analysis of microbial volatile organic com-

pounds or even the use of specially trained

sniffer dogs are some of the methods used to

detect hidden mold growth. However, these meth-

ods have not been scientifically evaluated [22] .

The extermination of microorganisms is of-

ten carried out, but this procedure is not suffi-

cient because non-viable spores for example,

keep their allergenic potential. The acuteness

of the rehabilitation procedures is normally con-

sidered according to the extent of the microbial

damage. Adverse health effects are supposed

to be linked with microbial growth in indoor ar-

eas and are mostly related with mold growth.

Allergies is a predominant condition which has

to be mentioned, followed by toxic alveolitis and

reactions like (allergic) bronchitis, chronic ob-

structive pulmonary disease, as well as the ag-

gravation of asthma. Infections by molds and

bacteria are very rare, but persons with immu-

nodeficiency are especially susceptible to fun-

gal infections. It has been found that spores of

fungi contain fungal toxins (mycotoxins), which

are well known from food contaminations. It has

however not been confirmed whether these my-

cotoxins show toxic effects if fungal spores are

inhaled.

On the whole, the dose relationship be-

tween the concentration of microbial particles

already mentioned and the adverse health ef-

fects described, is not very well established.

When sanitary effects are observed, the sus-

ceptibility of the individual is very often crucial.

The result of this is that guidelines concerning

microbial products in indoor areas are sparse

and mostly not scientifically sound. In non-indus-

trial indoor environments, the most important

source of airborne bacteria is the presence of

human. Specific activities like talking, sneezing,

coughing, walking, washing and toilet flushing

can generate airborne biological particulate

matter. In addition food stuffs, house plants and

flower pots, house dust, pets and their bedding,

textiles, carpets, wood material and furniture

stuffing, occasionally release spores of Alterna-

ria, Aspergillus, Botrytis, Cladosporium, Penicil-

lium, Scopulariopsis into the air. Although indoor

environments are considered to be protected,

they can become contaminated with particles that

present different and sometimes more serious

risks when their concentrations exceed recom-

mended maximum limits than those related to

outdoor exposures. Human beings build the

home to be protected in the environment.

Indoor air pollution can be as much more

worse than that of outdoor air, it can cause a


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www.ijsir.co.in 111

wide range of health problems. Mold, mildew,

fungi, bacteria, viruses, microorganisms, chemi-

cal fumes, organic odors, dust pollen and other

floating particles are potential threats in many

households. Most people assume that this par-

ticular problem is addressed if they filter the air.

The truth is that filters will not remove all the

particles from the air.

Even if a high-efficiency particulate air filter(HEPA) is used, the problem will not be effec-tively addressed. HEPA filters will only removeparticles the size of 3 microns or larger. Conse-quently, dust particles smaller than 3 micronswill pass through unhindered. Unfortunately, fil-ters can also become breeding grounds for moldand bacteria. A filter only collects and does notkill toxic particles. For a filter to work effectively,air has to pass through it. If a person inhales airprior to it passing through a filter, the particleswould have already entered the person’s lungs.In addition, if a filter collects only mold spores, itdoes not solve the problem. Effectively, the moldthat created the spores is still alive and contin-ues to generate mold spores. A filter is not de-signed to eliminate the source itself. Ultravioletlights (UV) are claimed to kill 99.9 % of all or-ganisms. Even though UV has the potential tokill 99.9 % of all organisms, it will only kill thatwhich passes through the light. In addition notall UV rays have the same potential to kill or-ganisms.

Airborne bacterial concentrations wereusually higher than fungi. Bacteria and fungi hadsimilar diurnal variation patterns. The objectiveof this study was to investigate the airborne fungiand bacteria collected in indoor and outdoor en-vironment. The study was carried out in four ar-eas, using conventional enumeration of airbornemicro-organisms and relied on a culture-basedmethod for bio-aerosol sampling, aimed at gen-erating an exposure database and examines therelationship between the in- and outdoorculturability of fungi and bacteria. The primarygoal of the bio-aerosol sampling was the quan-titative evaluation of the viable airborne bacte-ria and fungi. Besides the standard enumera-tion of culturable microbes as CFU/m3, this studyattempted to identify and evaluate the coloniesthrough their specific color, turbidity or othercharacteristics that appear when grown on se-

lective media.


Air Sampler Performances

(a)Air Sampling

Total fifty air samples were collected from

indoor areas as canteen, auditorium, office and

from outdoor area as outdoor near building

I.I.T.R. (Indian Institute of Toxicology Research)

area of Institute building. These all samples were

taken at various time throughout eight working

hours. Airborne concentration of microorganisms

can be studied by counting propagules in air

samples or settled dust particles. Sampling of

culturable microorganisms is based on impac-

tion (in which microorganisms are collected from

the air stream due to an inertial force that de-

posits them on to solid or semi solid selection

surface), liquid impingement ( separation of mi-

croorganism from the airstream by passage

through a porous medium such as filter).

After sample collection colonies of bacteria

and fungi are grown on culture media at a de-

fined temperature for the length of time required

for colony development (usually 3-7 days). Colo-

nies are counted manually or by image analysis

techniques. To date, no standard methods are

available for detecting and enumerating fungi in

indoor environments, which significantly limit the

potential for comparing data from different stud-

ies. These include poor reproducibility selection

of certain species for example the choice of sam-

pling method, culture media or temperature cho-

sen and lack of detection of non-culturable and

dead microorganisms and microbial components,

although they too may have toxic or allergic prop-

erties. Sampling methods for airborne particles

can be subdivided into passive sampler using

natural aerosol conviction, diffusion or gravity,

and active samplers using stationary or personal

pumps. The stationary sampling is the most

widely used method for conducting microbial

measurements in indoor/outdoor environments.

The results obtained with different devices are

not easily comparable with each other due to

differences in sampling times, volumes and prin-

ciples.

In addition, no good methods for sampling

personal air for culturable microorganisms are

available, and air sampling for more than 15 min-

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P-ISSN 2347-2189, E- ISSN 2347-4971

utes is often not possible, whereas air concen-

trations usually vary widely over time. Neverthe-

less, counting culturable microorganisms is po-

tentially a very sensitive technique, allowing the

identification of many different species. Tradi-

tional culture methods have proven to be of lim-

ited use for quantitative assessment of exposure.

Culture-based techniques thus usually provide

qualitative rather than quantitative data. The

former can, however, be important in risk assess-

ment, as not all fungal and bacterial species

pose the same hazard. Furthermore, a qualita-

tive comparison of indoor and outdoor micro biota

(in samples collected at the same time) may pro-

vide important information about potential indoor

sources of contamination. More extensive re-

views of techniques for sampling and culturing

microorganisms are available. The Sample is

collected from Bio stage Sampler, at a flow rate

of 28.3 liter / minute. There were collected 50

liters of air with Bio stage sampler by using for

two minutes. The instruments were placed one

meter above the floor and in two meter distance

in every sampling in various times.

A fig. 1: A bio Stage Sampler used in Air Sam-

pling

(b)Media used for Growth & CultureAnalysis

The media is basically used for the growthof Micro- organism, Malt extracts agar (maltsextract-30 gm/l, mycological peptone-5.0 gm/l,agar-15 gm/l) and Luria Bertani agar tryptone-1.0%, yeast extract-0.5%, Nacl-1.0%) media isused for the enumeration of heterotrophs andFungi and for selective bacteria as E. coli. In-stead of above both media, the common media

Nutrient agar media (peptone-0.5% beef extract/yeast extract- 0.5%, agar-1.5%, Nacl-0.5%) isalso used for the bacterial growth. The malt ex-tract agar was incubated at 350 c for 24-48 hrsand the nutrient agar and Luria Bertani agar isto be incubated at 370 c for 48-70 hrs. For inhib-iting the contamination of fungi, during makingmedia especially bacterial media, the anti- fun-gal AMPHOTERICIN-B is used in 10 micro-litersin 200 ml of media sample, to be taken for highlyconcentrated.

The institute, IITR-CDRI (outdoor) building,where the sample was taken is situated on thebank of Gomati river. The climate is warm andhumid in March to May and a normally cool inJanuary to February. The temperatures fluctu-ate between 320c to 450c in summer, and in 150cto 240c in early winter. Each stage of samplercontains 200 spores, each having a diameter of1.5 mm in all stages, for fungi, a viable sporescaptured by samples were also isolated on 2%malt extract agar medium supplemented withStreptomycin Sulphate (40 microgram per ml)following incubation for 48-72 hrs at 270c.

The colonies were identified based on theircolony characteristics such as color, shape andother morphological features of the mycelia andspores to the lowest taxonomic rank possible.The most efficient methods of removing sus-pended particles from the air, example, filtrationthrough fine pore matrices, might be adequatefor resistant forms of microorganisms, such asspores, but can be less damaged environmen-tally resistant vegetative cells.

Determination of concentration of Mi-crobes in air samples

The concentration of Microorganismcounted from Petri plates or on slides for sporesis calculated as per the given formula:

1000literin sampleair of nVol.applicatio Adobean by generated

colonies microbes’ ofnumber nTotalapplicatio Adobean by generated×

Total volume of air sampled the counts areexpressed as number of colony forming units(CFU/m3) or number of spores per colony(spores / m3).

After isolation of microbes in another me-

dia by streak plate method, spread plate method

by using Inoculation loop, they have to dyeing

for the detection of their biochemically identifi-


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cation. Gram’s staining is used for the identifi-

cation and especially for classification of bacte-

ria in their gram positive, or gram negative bac-

teria. For the slide preparation a drop of stain

were put on the clean slide then picked-up a

small tuff of fungus. Then gently teased the tuff

to separated the hyphae by cool needle and mix

with the Lacto phenol cotton blue stain properly

for Fungi.

A Fig.2: A Photograph of I.I.T.R. Canteen

RESULT AND DISCUSSION

The results obtained from indoor area and

outdoor area monitoring reveals that the micro-

bial concentration, bacteria and fungi were lower

in morning time in comparison to those in the

evening time. In addition to bacteria and fungi

reduction of heterotroph were also observed

from morning to evening time in canteen, office

and auditorium samples. In the afternoon these

counts rise gradually up to a maximum level at

the end of working period, which indicates that

an indoor environment provides more favorable

conditions for the survival of aerosolized fungi.

The highest in- and outdoor culturability of fungi

was observed in the humid condition. Cladospo-

rium had the highest median value of culturability

(38 % and 33 % for indoor and outdoor, respec-

tively) followed by Aspergillus/Penicillium (9%

and 2 %) among predominant genera of fungi.

Microbial flora of indoor air depends on

several factors including the number and hy-

gienic standard of people present, in indoor

space and mechanical movement within the en-

closed space. In poor quality and crowded do-

miciles, the higher number of residents confined

to a small space result in the build-up of airborne

microbes shed by the human body. For both the

in and outdoor air samples, the concentration

of total bacteria were lower than the concentra-

tion of total fungi for all the areas. For individual

fungi species the concentration of both the in-

and outdoor air was Cladosporium, Penicillium,

Aspergillus and Alternaria in descending order.

For both the total bacteria and the total fungi,

the outdoor concentration for the four different

areas was usually higher compared to the in-

door concentrations. The indoor concentrations

of Aspergillus and Penicillium were usually lower

than the outdoor concentration near office build-

ing due to the fact that open area naturally have

higher temperatures, more humidity, and more

nutrients available for bacteria to exist naturally.

Data recorded for the concentration of microbes, bacteria and fungi in Indoor and Outdoor area

Sr. no.

Sample area

Bacterial concentration (Colony/plate)

Fungal concentration (Colony/plate)

Morning session

(10:00-12:00pm)

After

lunch(2:30pm)

Morning session

(10:00-12:00pm)

After

lunch(2:30pm)

1

Canteen

sample -1 89 102 27 52

2

Canteen

sample-2 84 101 25 59

Canteen

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3

Canteen

sample-3 81 106 38 43

4

Canteen

sample- 4 76 99 26 44

5

Office sample-

1 41 58 34 52

6

Office sample-

2 33 59 37 65

7

Office sample-

3 41 67 45 87

8

Office sample-

4 34 62 34 54

9

Canteen

sample-5 41 71 31 62

10

Canteen

sample-6 23 37 27 56

11

Canteen

sample-7 31 59 68 105

Canteen

12

Canteen

sample-8 32 56 42 85

13

Canteen

sample-9 24 43 35 63

14

Canteen

sample-10 23 52 31 51

15

Office sample -

6 24 46 23 67

16

Office sample-

7 20 48 32 85

17

Office sample-

8 22 54 34 87

18

Office sample-

9 16 29 23 42

19

Office sample-

10 21 43 27 49


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Average 65 85 55

90

Minimum 16 29 23 42

Maximum 89

106 68 105

20

Auditorium

sample-1 91 95 40 66

21

Auditorium

sample-2 98 100 31 63

Average 93 97 35 64

Minimum 91 95 31 63

Maximum 98 100 40 66

Sample area

(Outdoor-

sample)

Bacterial concentration(Colony/plate) Fungal concentration (Colony/plate)

Morning session

(10:00-12:00pm)

After

lunch(2:30pm)

Morning session

(10:00-12:00pm)

After

lunch(2:30pm)

1 Outdoor- 1 37 41 57 59

2 Outdoor-2 67 56 65 79

3 Outdoor-3 65 54 74 94

4 Outdoor-4 46 67 67 82

5 Outdoor- 5 70 88 78 92

6 Outdoor-6 64 89 64 85

7 Outdoor-7 56 76 85 97

8 Outdoor-8 74 92 76 87

9 Outdoor-9 54 61 64 67

10 Outdoor-10 65 72 53 68

Average 60 70 80 90

Minimum 37 41 53 59

Maximum 74 92 85 97

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In this study, an attempt was made to deter-

mine the composition and variability of airborne

fungal spores in a comprehensive manner by

synchronous use of non-viable and viable sam-

pling method. The study was of a kind that first

volumetrically assessed the cultivable airborne

fungal spore in the region and determined its

relationship with the meteorological factors.

Fig. 3: Shows the concentration study of Bacte-ria in morning

Fig.4 : Concentration study of bacteria afterlunch timing

Fig.5: Concentration study of Fungi in morning

Fig.6: Concentration study of Fungi after lunch timing

Non-viable sampling of total airborne spore

The total airborne fungi monitored by the

bio stage sampler showed a perennial occur-

rence pattern and attained the main peak in early

winter and subsidiary peak in April-May. The rela-

tive humidity and temperature in moderate tem-

perature in moderate range, very low wind

speed, and minimal dew, during early winter might

have facilitated the release in dispersion of dry

spore mass; these factors presumably contrib-

uted toward achieving the main peak during

these months. In January, whereas ascospores

and basidiospores were the major components

of airborne fungi which peaked in May.

The total cultivable airborne fungi attained

two peaks in the first month of January-last week

to May-first week, total 50 samples were taken

for four months. Among 13 cultivable fungal gen-

era (comprising 26 species) recorded by the vi-

able sampler, the predominant fungal genus was

Aspergillus spp., though Cladosporium

cladosporiodes occupied the first position, other

prevalent genera included Curvularia spp., Al-

ternaria spp., Penicillium spp., Nigrospora sphe-

roids. Sterile mycelia (non-sporulating colonies),

which may represent the vegetative phase of ei-

ther Ascomycota or Basidiomycota, contributed

a significant fraction to the total viable spore

count. The remainder such as, Absidia

corymbifera, Mucor hiemalis, and

Syncephalastrum racemosum was observed in

considerably low concentration throughout the

six months. Eight species of Aspergillus were iso-

lated of which Aspergillus niger occupied the first

position in order of dominance, followed by As-

pergillus nidulans, Aspergillus fumigates, As-

pergillus ochraceus, Aspergillus japonicas, As-

pergillus ustus, and Aspergillus sydowi.

Several cultivable fungal spores

(e.g.Curvularia hunata & Curvularia pallescenes,

Aspergillus japonicas, Aspergillus sydowi). Dur-

ing February, only Penicillium spp., achieved an

elevated concentration level. In a handful culti-

vable spores (e.g. Absidea corymbifera, A,

flavus, A. fumigates, A. nidulans, Cladosporium

spp) only three genera of bacteria and six gen-

era of fungi as, Alternaria, Aspergillus, Penicil-

lium, Cladosporium, Curvularia, Drechslera and

Nigrospora and in bacteria especially, Escheri-

chia coli, Streptococcus spp., Staphylococcus


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www.ijsir.co.in 117

spp. etc. were found during sampling. The as-

cospores and basidiospores that constitute a sig-

nificant part of the airborne fungi were recorded

only by the non-viable sampling. The ratio of to-

tal airborne fungal spores to cultivable mold was

obtained in the range of 0.19 to 4.16. The spores

of Ascomycetes and Basidiomycetes members

are visible in light microscope, but they are un-

able to grow in laboratory culture media. For this

reason, decrease in concentration of cultivable

mold compared to total fungal spores is gener-

ally anticipated while analyzed by light micros-

copy.

CONCLUSION

This study clearly indicates that there is

significant assessment of the indoor and outdoor

airborne bacteria and fungi. Airborne fungal and

bacterial concentrations in auditorium, offices,

canteen were lower than in the other facilities of

the outdoor area of building.

A large range of different bacteria including

Actinomycetes, mesophilic bacteria, Mycobacte-

ria, gram-negative bacteria, and thermopile bac-

teria were present in canteen, which is specific

for indoor air quality. The moisture damage af-

fects diversity of microbial concentration. In the

moisture-damaged building, the microbial diver-

sity was higher in canteen, offices and other in-

door area. The measurements of airborne mi-

crobial concentrations during four consecutive

months showed the variation of microbial levels

due to climatic conditions.

The results showed that the average fun-

gal concentration was 80 CFU/m3, similarly the

average concentration of bacteria was 60 CFU/

m3 which was lower than the fungi concentration

in outdoor area and in indoor area the average

fungal concentration is 90 CFU/m3 in compari-

son to bacterial concentration is 65 CFU/m3.So

the result is the concentration of fungi is higher

than the bacteria in indoor and outdoor area.

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www.ijsir.co.in 119

IN SILICO PREDICTION OF EPITOPE-BASED PEPTIDES FROM

PROTEOME OF NIPAH VIRUS

* B. R. PANDEY 1, SUGANDHA SINGH 2, SHIPRA SRIVASTAVA 3, NIDHI SHARMA 2

1 Sky Institute, Lucknow, India, 2 Research scholar, Sai Nath University, Ranchi, India,3 Dr. Rawat Institute of Life Sciences, Lucknow, India

*Address for Correspondence : Dr. B. R. Pandey, Director(Research), Sky Institute, Lucknow, India,


ABSTRACT

Prediction and modeling of T-cell epitopes of Nipah virus antigenic proteins nucleocapsid,

phosphoprotein, matrix, fusion, glycoprotein, L protein, W protein, V protein and C protein

followed by the binding simulation studies of predicted highest binding scorers with their

corresponding MHC class I alleles were done in this study. ProPred1 tool was used to predict

the promiscuous MHC class I epitopes of viral proteins. 3D structures of epitopes were built

with the help of PEPstr server. Molecular dynamics simulation studies were performed through

the NAMD graphical user interface embedded in visual molecular dynamics. Epitopes IRTIAAYPL

and NPTAVPFTL of Matrix Protein and W-protein have lowest binding energy and highest

score with HLA-B*2705 and HLA-B*5101 MHC class I allele, respectively. These predicted

peptides are highly potential to induce T-cell-mediated immune response and are expected to

be useful in designing epitope-based vaccines against Nipah virus.

Keywords: Nipah virus, Encephalitis, ribavirin, Immunoinformatics, Nucleocapsid,

Phosphoprotein, Matrix, Fusion, Gycoprotein, L protein, W protein, V protein and C protein,

T-cell epitopes, Peptide- or Epitope-based Vaccine, NCBI, ProPred I, Histocompatibility Complex

(MHC) Molecules, Molecular docking.

INTRODUCTION

Nipah virus (NiV), of the family

Paramyxoviridae [1, 2] and the genus Henipavirus,

is a zoonotic virus that causes outbreaks of fatal

encephalitis in humans [3]. The human Nipah

virus (NiV) infection was first recognized in a

large outbreak of 276 reported cases in

peninsular Malaysia and Singapore from

September 1998 through May 1999[4, 5, 6, 7, 8]. The

virus was first isolated from a patient from Sungai

Nipah village in Malaysia and the name ‘Nipah’

was first introduced according to the name of

that village. It was also identified in India for the

first time in 2001 and second time in 2007.

Unfortunately, eleven outbreaks have already

occurred in Bangladesh since the first detection

of NiV in 2001, with high mortality rate an

estimated 80% in an average and 100% in some

cases [9]. The most alarming fact is that almost

every year in winter (December to March), the

deadly NiV strikes in the north and western

regions of Bangladesh. Infection with Nipah virus

is associated with encephalitis (inflammation of

the brain). After exposure and an incubation

period of 5 to 14 days, illness presents with 3-

14 days of fever and headache, followed by

drowsiness, disorientation and mental confusion[10]. These signs and symptoms can progress to

coma within 24-48 hours. Some patients have a

respiratory illness during the early part of their

infections, and half of the patients showing

severe neurological signs showed also

pulmonary signs.

During the first NiV outbreak, the virus

infected both pigs and humans, in addition to a

small number of cats, dogs and horses [5, 11]. NiV

possesses a negative-sense, non-segmented

RNA genome that is 18246 nt (Malaysian isolate)

or 18252 nt (Bangladesh isolate) in length [12]. In

Bangladesh, 135 probable or confirmed cases

of NiV infection in humans were identified from

2001 to 2008; 98 (73%) were fatal [7]. There is

no effective treatment and vaccine for Nipah

virus disease, but ribavarin may mitigate the

symptoms of nausea, vomiting, and convulsions.

Vaccination is the most effective of all the

medical interventions to save human and animal

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P-ISSN 2347-2189, E- ISSN 2347-4971

lives and to increase production[13,14].Comparedto the conventional vaccines, peptide- orepitope-based vaccines are easy to produce,more speciûc, cost effective, less time consumingand also safe[15]. It is well established that T cellsplay a critical role in inducing cellular immuneresponse against foreign antigens but theyrecognize antigenic fragments only when theyare associated with major histocompatibilitycomplex (MHC) molecules exposed on surfaceof all vertebrate cells[16,17]. Immunoinformaticsapproach uses computational algorithms topredict potential vaccine candidates or T-cellepitopes. The advantage of a peptide- orepitope-based vaccine is the ability to deliverhigh doses of the potential immunogen at a lowcost [18, 19]. Viral protein which could act as avaccine candidate must be surface-exposed,

antigenic and responsible for pathogenicity [20,21].


The amino acid sequence of Nucleocapsid,

phosphoprotein, matrix, fusion, glycoprotein, L

protein, W protein, V protein and C protein was

retrieved from the protein sequence database

of NCBI (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/protein) and

their accession number is shown in Table 1.

Prediction of MHC class I binding peptides

An online web tool ProPred I [22] has been

used for the prediction of promiscuous MHC class

I binding peptides. It uses matrix-based method

that allows the prediction of MHC-binding sites

in an antigenic sequence for MHC class I alleles,

and also allows the prediction of the standard

proteasome and immunoproteasome cleavage

sites in an antigenic sequence. The simultaneous

prediction of MHC binders and proteasome

cleavage sites in an antigenic sequence leads

to the identiûcation of potential T-cell epitopes.

Structure-based modeling of T-cellepitopes

3D structures of identiûed potential T-cell

epitopes were predicted by PEPstr (peptide

tertiary structure prediction server) server [23]. The

prediction strategy is based on the realization

that b-turn is an important and consistent feature

of small peptides in addition to regular

structures. Thus, the methods use both the b-

turns information predicted from Beta Turns and

regular secondary structure information

predicted from PSIPRED. The side-chain angles

are placed using standard backbone-dependent

rotamer library. The structure is further reûned

with energy minimization and molecular dynamic

simulations using Amber version 6.

Table 1: Scores generated by ProPred forMHC class I alleles.

Protein Accession

No

Length of

amino acids

Start

position

Epitope Allele ProPred

score

Nucleocapsid ACT32611 532 474 SLLNLRSRL HLA-A*0201 3729.239

446 KREMSISSL HLA-B*2705

6000.000

474 SLLNLRSRL HLA-A2 5968.882

Phosphoprotein ACT32612 709 168 DRETDLVHL HLA-B*2705

2000.000

624 EPYGAAVQL HLA-B*5101

572.000

Matrix ACT32613 352 85 IRTIAAYPL HLA-B*2705

6000.000

201 IAFNLLVYL HLA-A*0201 4702.218

293 FQKNLCFSL HLA-B*2705 3000

Fusion ACT32614 546 192 KQTELSLDL HLA-B*2705 9000

125 AQITAGVAL HLA-B*2705 2000

Glycoprotein ACT32615 602 45 ILSAFNTVI HLA-A*0201

2489.047

247 RIIGVGEVL HLA-B*2705 2000

45 ILSAFNTVI HLA-A2 3901.211

L-Protein ACT32616 2244 2087 VLLQAGLKL HLA-A2

3475.964

1567 TMVDLLSDL HLA-A*0201

3804.077

1564 GRHTMVDLL HLA-B*2705

30000.000

1537 DPELFALYL HLA-B*5101

1522.664

W-protein YP_007188

592

449 316 KEEPPQKRL HLA-B*2705

3000.000

186 NPTAVPFTL HLA-B*5101

880.000

V-protein NP_112023 456 186 NPTAVPFTL HLA-B*2705 2000

66 DGDVERRNL HLA-B*5101 520

316 KEEPPQKRL HLA-B*2705 2000

C-protein NP_112024 166 40 FCSAPVENL HLA-B*2705

3000.000

116 PDMDLLQAL HLA-B*2705 2000

0 MMASILLTL HLA-B*2705 2000


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3D structure of MHC I alleles

Information and 3D structure of selected HLA

alleles were retrieved from IMGT/HLA database

( h t t p : / / w w w. e b i . a c . u k / i p d / i m g t / h l a /

intro.html)[24].The Database currently contains

10,103 allele sequences. In addition to the

physical sequences, the database contains

detailed information concerning the material from

which the sequence was derived and data on

the validation of the sequences. PDB codes of

relevant MHC class I alleles were shown in table

2.

Table 2: List of class I MHC alleles

considered in this study for prediction of

binding peptides.

S. No. Allele Crystal Structure

(PDB ID)

1 HLA-A2 1AKJ

2 HLA-A*0201 1AKJ

3 HLA-B*2705 1HSA

4 HLA-B*5101 1E27

Molecular docking

AutoDock 4.2[25, 26] has been used for In-silico

docking of peptides and alleles structure.

Gasteiger charges were added to the ligand and

maximum six numbers of active torsion are given

to the lead compound using AutoDock tool (http:/

/autodock.scripps.edu/resources/adt). Kollaman

charges and salvation term were added to the

protein structure using AutoDock tool. The Grid

for docking calculation was centered to cover

the protein-binding site residues and

accommodate ligand to move freely. During the

docking procedure, a Lamarckian genetic

algorithm (LGA) was used for ûexible peptide and

rigid protein docking calculation. Docking

parameters were as follows: 30 docking trials,

population size of 150, maximum number of

energy evaluation ranges of 250,000, maximum

number of generations is 27,000, mutation rate

of 0.02, cross-over rate of 0.8, other docking

parameters were set to the software’s default

values.

Molecular dynamics simulation of epitope

and HLA allele complex

Molecular dynamics simulation was done

using the NAMD graphical interface module [27]

incorporated visual molecular dynamics (VMD

1.9.2) [28]. A protein structure ûle (psf) was created

from the initial pdb and topology ûles. The psfgen

package of VMD is used to create this. To create

a psf ûrst a pgn ûle is made, which is the target

of psfgen. After running psfgen, two new ûles

were generated protein pdb and protein psf and

by accessing PSF and PDB ûles; NAMD

generated the trajectory DCD ûle. Root mean

square deviation (RMSD) of the complex was

completed using rmsd tcl source ûle from the Tk

console and ûnally rmsd .dat was saved and

accessed in Microsoft ofûce excel.


Prediction and analysis of MHC class I

binding peptides

The Matrix protein peptide IRTIAAYPL at

position 85–93 showed ProPred score of 6000

with HLA-B*2705 MHCI allele. The W-protein

peptide NPTAVPFTL at position 186–194

showed ProPred score of 880 with the HLA-

B*5101 allele. ProPred scores of peptides with

MHC I alleles are shown in Table 1.

Docking energy determination by AutoDock

AutoDock binding simulation studies

showed that IRTIAAYPL epitope of Matrix protein

with HLA-B*2705 allele as well as NPTAVPFTL

epitope of W-protein with HLA-B*5101 allele

formed stable HLA–peptide complexes with the

energy minimization values of -4.03, and -4.14

kcal/mol, respectively (Table 3).After docking

studies, we determined the number of H bonds

present in the stable complex formed. Using

AutoDock, it was found that two H-bond were

present in Matrix protein IRTIAAYPL-HLA-

B*2705 complex (fig. 1) via residue GLY1 and

LYS243 of allele HLA-B*2705 with epitope

IRTIAAYPL. No hydrogen bond was present in

W protein peptide NPTAVPFTL- HLA-B*5101

complex (fig. 2).

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Protein Epitope Allele

BE IME IE TorE VdwE EE

Nucleocapsid SLLNLRSRL HLA*0201 -0.57 -11.61 -6.7 11.04 -10.74 -0.87

KREMSISSL HLA-B*2705 -0.72 -12.05 -5.25 11.34 -9.77 -2.29

SLLNLRSRL HLA-A2 -1.45 -12.49 -4.94 11.04 -11.75 -0.74

Phosphoprotein DRETDLVHL HLA-B*2705 0.01 -10.73 -6.03

10.74 -10.69 -0.04

EPYGAAVQL HLA-B*5101 -2.96 -11.02 -6.84 8.05 -10.79 -2.23

Matrix IRTIAAYPL HLA-B*2705 -4.03 -12.68 -6.47 8.65 10.74 -1.94

IAFNLLVYL HLA-A*0201 -1.88 -11.42 -4.85 9.55 -10.82 -0.6

FQKNLCFSL HLA-B*2705 0.36 -10.38 -4.64 10.74 -9.12 -1.26

Fusion KQTELSLDL HLA-B*2705 2.99 -8.04 -4.27 11.04 -7.74 -0.3

AQITAGVAL HLA-B*2705 -0.61 -8.37 -3.82 7.76 -8.32 -0.04

Glycoprotein ILSAFNTVI HLA-A*0201 -2.28 -11.22 -6.9 8.95 -11.71 0.49

RIIGVGEVL HLA-B*2705 1.1 -8.44 -3.43 9.55 -7.99 -0.45

ILSAFNTVI HLA-A2 -0.86 -9.81 -4.73 8.95 -9.23 -0.58

L protein VLLQAGLKL HLA-A2 -1.41 -11.26 -6.49 9.84 -9.53 -1.73

TMVDLLSDL HLA-A*0201 -0.23 -10.08 -6.47 9.84 -10.65 0.57

GRHTMVDLL HLA-B*2705 0.65 -9.49 -6.91 10.14 -8.65 0.84

DPELFALYL HLA-B*5101 -2.92 -12.17 -8.04 9.25 -10.74 -1.43

W protein KEEPPQKRL HLA-B*2705 1.7 -9.64 -6.1 11.34 -7.44 -2.2

NPTAVPFTL HLA-B*5101 -4.14 -11.3 -7.46 7.16 -10.76 -0.54

V protein NPTAVPFTL HLA-B*2705 -2.53 -9.69 -4.23 7.16 -8.89 -0.8

DGDVERRNL HLA-B*5101 3.05 -7.99 -4.52 11.04 -7.44 -0.55

KEEPPQKRL HLA-B*2705 -0.11 -11.45 -3.99 11.34 -9.43 -2.02

C protein FCSAPVENL HLA-B*2705 -2.51 -10.87 -7.44 8.35 -6.23 0.45

PDMDLLQAL HLA-B*2705 1.86 -7.98 -5.07 9.84 -6.28 -1.7

MMASILLTL HLA-B*2705 -1.54 -11.38 -3.75 9.84 -11.43 0.15

Table 3: Docking result of epitopes with Allele structures.

BE: Binding Energy; IME: Intermolecular Energy; IE: Internal Energy; TorE: Torsional Energy;

VdwE:Vdw-lbDesolv Energy; EE: Electrostatic Energy.

Fig. 1: Docked Matrix protein peptide IRTIAAYPL- HLA-B*2705 allele complex depicting positionof amino acids along with the formation of twoHydrogen bonds(shows as dotted line) with GLY1and LYS243 residues of Protein 1HSA

Fig. 2: Docked W protein peptide NPTAVPFTL-HLA-B*5101 allele (PDB Id: 1E27) complex

Molecular dynamics simulation of peptide–allele Complex through NAMD

The peptide–allele complexes formed by

AutoDock were subjected to molecular dynamics


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simulation and RMSD. Matrix protein epitope

IRTIAAYPL - HLA-B*2705 allele complex

displayed the highest peak at RMSD value of

0.96 Å (Fig. 3). W protein peptide NPTAVPFTL -

HLA-B*5101 allele complex resulted in highest

peak at RMSD value of 1.03 Å (Fig. 4). The

current study incorporates immunoinformatics

approach for reducing the time consumed in the

long array of experiments to avoid hit and trial

sets.

Fig. 3: Graph displaying molecular dynamicsimulation of Matrix protein peptide–allele

complex, resulted in highest peak at 0.96 Å

Fig. 4: Graph displaying molecular dynamicsimulation of W protein peptide–allele complex,

resulted in highest peak at 1.03 Å

The molecular dynamics simulation showed

that complex formed between a peptide and

allele was attaining proper stability by creating

a parallelism in RMSD over a time window. The

mentioned peptides can be either isolated or

formulated for further in vitro and in vivo testing.

CONCLUSION

From the present study it is concluded that

the epitopes IRTIAAYPL and NPTAVPFTL of

Matrix and W protein, respectively, have

considerable binding with HLA-B*2705 and HLA-

B*5101class I allele and low-energy minimization

values providing stability to the peptide–MHC

complex. These peptide constructs may further

be undergone wet laboratory studies for the

development of targeted vaccine against Nipah

virus.

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8. Paton N.I., Leo Y.S., Zaki S.R. et al., Outbreak of

Nipah-virus infection among abattoir workers in

Singapore. Lancet. 1999; 354(9186):1253-1256.

9. Biswas M.H.A. Optimal control of Nipah virus (NiV)

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11. Epstein J.H., Abdul Rahman S., Zambriski J.A.,

Halpin K., Meehan G. et al. Feral cats and risk for

Nipah virus transmission. Emerg Infect Dis. 2006;

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12. Harcourt B.H., Lowe L., Tamin A., Liu X., Bankamp

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15. Kumar A., Jain A., Verma S.K. Screening and

Structure-based Modeling of T-Cell Epitopes of

Marburg Virus NP, GP and VP40: An

Immunoinformatic Approach for Designing

Peptide-based Vaccine. Trends in Bioinformatics.

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16. Shekhar C., Dev K., Verma S.K., Kumar A. In-silico:

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Computational comparison of T-cell epitopes of

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A study of Environmental Awareness among B.Ed. Students of Dehradun

District, Uttarakhand

*SHAILJA ASTHANA1, D.K. DIVEDI2

1Research Scholar, Sai Nath University, Ranchi, India, 2 Pestle Weed College of Information Technology,

Dehradun,Uttarakhand,India

*Address for correspondence: Shailja Asthana, Research Scholar, Sai Nath University, Ranchi, India,


ABSTRACT

Today the environmental degradation is a matter of great concern before human society. Both

developing as well as developed countries are facing severe environmental problems. In the

developmental process man has been ruthlessly exploiting natural resources and polluting

natural environment. The major problem of our present world is environmental degradation.

To combat this problem, we need environmentally sensitive and aware people. The present

investigation was conducted to find information about the level of environmental awareness

of B.Ed students in Dehradun district of Uttarakhand (India). It was found that their level of

environmental awareness was remarkable high.

Keywords: Environmental Awareness, Degradation, Pollution, Uttarakhand

INTRODUCTION

According to the Universal encyclopedia, the

sum total of all conditions, agencies and influences,

which affect the development, growth, life and

death of an organism, species or race is called

environment. Duglass and Roman Holland opined

that environment is a word which describe, in the

aggregate, all of the external forces, influences and

conditions which affect the life, nature, behavior

and the growth, development and maturation of

living organism. Indeed environment covers all the

outside factors that have acted have been acting

on the living being in general and humans in

particular since they began life.

The environment for man is its surroundings

on the earth. In the known universe, the earth is

only planet that is gifted with life by the Absolute. It

is man’s supreme duty and responsibility to protect

the environment. Man cannot afford to ignore

environmental degradation. It is a matter of survival

or suicide. The United Nations conference on

environment and development held in Rio De

Janerio in 1992, known as ‘Earth Summit’ brought

the issue of rapid environmental degradation and

climate change to the center stage and highlighted

the reasons for this and called upon the world

community to take immediate suitable steps. Same

warnings were given by Johannesburg Summit in

2002.

Earth is the only planet in this universe

which has been gifted with life supporting vital

elements; water, food, land and air and a rich

bio-diversity of flora and fauna bestowed with

aesthetic, commercial and medicinal values that

are of the utmost significance to human beings.

Life on this planet- earth has been possible

only because of its environment and it is depends

on natural resources; forest, water, minerals,

foods, energy and land. Forests, one of the most

important natural resources cover the earth like

a green blanket. Water, is indispensable natural

resource on this earth for the survival of living

beings. Minerals which form a very important

part of any nation’s economy occur naturally in

inorganic and crystalline solids. Land is a finite

and valuable resource upon which we depend

for our food, fiber and fuel wood- the basic

amenities of life. But, unfortunately this planet

i.e. the Earth which used to be reservoir of

nature’s wealth is loosening its resources

because of lack of for sightedness on the part

of human beings in the name of development,

industrialization, greater production, agricultural

extension etc. Development has become

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synonymous with growth. Greater production has

become the key to prosperity and peace. The ill

effects of industrialization and deforestation for

agricultural extension are now apparent. Only

recently human beings realized the extent of

damage done to the earth and the environment.

Since the evolution of man on the earth, he

had been dependent on the environment. Initially,

the human population was small and its need

limited. Therefore his activities did not affect the

environment. Much slowly, he settled down,

became civilized and learnt how to cultivate. As

time passed, the development, of science and

technology made the life more and more

comfortable and man also became more and

more ambitious. With such development, human

dependence on environment increased, he

consumed more resources and the effect of his

activities on the environment became more and

more visible. With the industrial revolution the

consumption of raw material such as wood,

minerals, coal and fossil fuels increased

tremendously and with the passage of time the

pollution of air, water and soil became visible.

This made the man more conscious of his

actions and their consequences. Slowly, it was

realized that the existence of human race itself

was in danger and to survive as a race it was

necessary to educate the people about the

environmental pollution. This led to the

development of concept of environmental

education.

Environmental education is a process of

providing learning experiences to obtain

knowledge, understanding, skills and awareness

with desirable attitudinal changes about man’s

relationship with his natural and manmade

surroundings [8]. This includes over population,

pollution, resource allocation, transportations,

technology and urban and rural planning.

Environmental education must utilize diverse

learning environment and a broad array of

educational approaches to teaching learning

process. It should help learners to discover the

symptoms and real causes of environmental

problems and thus to develop critical thinking

and problem solving skills. Environmental

education should be a continuous life long

process, beginning at the pre-school level and

continuing through all formal and non-formal

stages of getting education and should be

interdisciplinary in its nature.

The Stockholm conference in 1972 at

Stockholm adopted “Declaration on the human

environment” and “Declaration of principles”. In

short, the declaration states that the men are

both creator and molder of his environment and

the protection and improvement of human

environment is a major issue for the survival of

human race. His capability to transform his

surroundings should be used wisely. In

developing countries most of the environmental

problems are caused by lack of proper

education. At the very outset, special attention

must be paid to the school going children and

women. They are to be made aware of health,

nutrition, sanitation, hygiene, development,

water and food contamination, fodder and fuel

wood etc. Non-Government Organization

(NGO’s) has to play a significant role in

environmental awareness programmes. There

are 200 NGO’s which work in the area of

environmental education and awareness. The

chief goals of environmental education in India

must be: i) To minimize the environmental

pollution, ii) To improve the quality of the

environment and iii) To create awareness

towards environmental protection. There are

several authors like [1-13] have studied and given

his views about the Environmental Awareness

of the students.

Sharma (1998) investigated attitudes and

awareness of primary and upper primary school

teachers towards problems and issues related

to environmental education [14]. The sample

comprised of 750 teachers of 16 primary and

16 upper primary schools from 6 districts of

Rajasthan. The sample was selected with the

help of stratified cluster sampling method. The

researchers developed environmental

awareness test and environmental awareness

scale for data collection. The data were analyzed

with the help of t-test. The findings of the study

were:

i) The male teachers had more favorable

attitude towards environmental education than

their female counterparts. ii) The graduate

teachers had more favorable attitude towards

environmental education under graduate

teachers. iii) The urban and rural teachers could


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not be distinguished so far as their attitude

towards environmental education was

concerned. iv) The teachers with science

background had more favorable attitude towards

environmental education than their colleagues

with non-science background. v) The male

teachers had more awareness about the

environment than their female counterparts. vi)

The environmental awareness and

environmental attitude were positively related.

Das (2002) studied the development ofenvironmental awareness through the study oflife science in the secondary schools of WestBengal, with the help of three sets ofquestionnaires (especially meant for students,teachers and parents).[15] A part from survey,

curriculum analysis was also made. The studyfound heterogeneity among the groups in termsof their perceptions of environmental awareness.It was also observed that several approachesrelated to life science helped in enhancingenvironmental awareness among the students.

Agnihotri (2004) examined environmentalawareness in teacher trainees.[16] The samplecomprised of 700 teachers trainees fromBundelkhand University. Environmentalawareness ability measure test by Dr. PraveenKumar Jha was used for data collection. The data

were analyzed by t-test, ANOVA, point bi-serial,correlation and regression analysis. The findingsof the study were: i) High awareness was foundin teacher trainees. ii) No significant differencein male & female teacher trainees was found inenvironmental awareness. iii) Urban teacher

trainees were found to have more environmentalawareness as compared to rural teachertrainees. iv) Post graduate teacher trainees werefound to have more awareness as compared tograduate teacher trainees. v) No significantdifference in environmental awareness was

found between general & other backward classteacher trainees. vi) High environmentalawareness was found for teacher trainees of highsocio-economic status where as lowenvironmental awareness was found for teachertrainees of low socio-economic status.

Saheb lal (2011) conducted a study onenvironmental awareness study habits andacademic achievement of B.Ed. students.[17] Thesample of the study included 214 B.Ed., Male

Teacher Trainees selected randomly fromKarnataka University Jurisdiction. The studyrevealed that i) The B.Ed., male teacher traineeswith extravert personality had moreenvironmental awareness than male teachertrainees with introvert personality.

B.Ed. students are would be teachers. Theywould have to sensitive the school going childrenregarding environmental issue. The investigatorthought it useful to first find the level ofawareness of prospective teachers i.e. B.Ed.

students themselves.

OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

The major objectives of the study are as

follows:

1. To study the level of environmental

awareness of B. Ed students

2. To compare the levels of awareness of B. Ed

students with special reference to gender.

3. To compare the levels of awareness of B.

Ed students with special reference to their

locality (rural urban).

HYPOTHESES OF THE STUDY

Proposed research hypotheses are asunder-

Ho1. There is no significant difference between

the levels of awareness of urban male

and rural male B. Ed students.


the levels of awareness of urban female

and rural female B. Ed students.


the levels of awareness of urban male

and urban female B. Ed students.


the levels of awareness of rural male and

rural Female B. Ed students.

Sample- A sample of 300 B.Ed. students

was selected from various B.Ed. colleges of

Dehradun district using random sampling

techniques.

METHODOLOGY

In the present study the investigator has

adopted the descriptive survey method of

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research. To measure the environmental

awareness a tool- Environmental Awareness

Ability measure Test (EAAMT) constructed and

standardized by Jha, P.K., has been used.

Suitable statistical techniques have been

adopted for the analysis of data.

DATA ANALYSIS, RESULT AND DISCUSSION

In the fol lowing table, various basic

stat ist ics of the distr ibut ion of the

environmental scores are given:

Table 1.Various Basic Statistics for theDistribution of Environmental Awareness

Scores

Sr. No. Statistics Value

1 Sample Size 300

2 Range 51

3 Mean 43.76

4 Median 43.84

5 Mode 43.23

6 Quartile Deviation 2.39

7 P10

37.70

8 P90

47.80

9 SD 3.74

10 Skewness -1.08

11 Kurtosis 0.2366

Interpretation: Statistics calculated for

sample are represented in the above table 1.

It is apparent from the table that the mean,

the median and the mode are almost same.

Obviously the raw scores indicate that the

distribution is approximately normal. Raw

scores distribution indicates slightly negatively

Skewness, (-1.08). It means the mean (43.76)

of the scores is less than the median (43.48).

It implies that more than 50% scores are above

the mean score of the group. A kurtosis of

0.2366 suggests that the distr ibution is

leptokurtic as the calculated value is less than

the normal value i.e. (0.263).

Ho1. There is no significant difference

between the levels of awareness of urbanmale and rural male B. Ed students.

Table no2: Mean score of Urban male and

Rural male pupil teachers on Environmental

awareness scale

It is apparent from table 2 that obtained

difference between the means of urban male

B.Ed. students and rural male B. Ed students

is 0.06 (i.e. 43.20-43.14); and the standard

deviations are 3.62 and 4.23 respectively. The

obtained ‘t’ value is 0.09 at 148 degree of

freedom and at 0.05 level of significance. This

value of calculated ‘t’ is less than the table

value of ‘t’ (i.e., 1.98). Thus the hypothesis

which states that there is no signif icant

difference in environmental awareness of

urban-male B.Ed. students and rural male

B.Ed. students is therefore accepted.

Ho2. There is no significant difference

between the levels of awareness of urbanfemale and rural female B.Ed students.

Table no.3: Mean score of Urban female and

Rural female pupil teachers on Environmental

awareness scale

From table 3, it is clear that the obtained

difference between the means of urban female

B.Ed. students and rural female B.Ed. students

is 0.15 (i.e., 43.43-43.28); and the standard

deviations are 4.35and 3.93 respectively. The

calculated‘t’ value is 0.20 which is far below

that the table value of ‘t’ (i.e., 1.98) at 0.05

level of significance and at 148 degrees of

freedom.

Thus the hypothesis which states that

S.N. Variable Sample Mean Standard

Deviation(SD)

Degree of

Freedam(df)

‘t’

Value

Significance

Level

1 Urban

Male

83 43.20 3.62

148

0.093

Non-

significant at

0.05 level

2 Rural

Male

67 43.14 4.23


Deviation(SD)

Degree of

Freedam(df)

‘t’

Value

Significance

Level

1 Urban

female

92 43.28 3.93

148

0.20

Non-

significant

at 0.05 level

2 Rural

female

58 43.43 4.35


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www.ijsir.co.in 129

there is no significant difference in

environmental awareness of rural female B.Ed.

students and urban female B.Ed students is

therefore accepted.

It is concluded that the level of awareness

of rural female B.Ed. students is more or less

same as that of urban female B.Ed. students.

Ho3. There is no significant differencebetween the levels of awareness of urbanmale and urban female B.Ed students.

Table no. 4: Mean score of Urban male and

Urban female pupil teachers on Environmental

awareness scale.

I t is clear from Table no.4 that the

obtained‘t’ value 0.14 is far below than the

table value of ‘t’ at 0.05 level of significance

and at 173 degree of freedom. Thus the

hypothesis which states that there is no

signif icance difference in environmental

awareness of urban male B.Ed. students and

urban female B. Ed. Students is therefore

This indicates that the level of awareness

of urban female B. Ed. students (M=43.28) is

significantly not higher than that of urban male

B. Ed. students (Mean=43.20).

Ho4. There is no significant differencebetween the levels of awareness of ruralmale and rural Female B. Ed students.

Table no.5: Mean score of rural male and

rural female pupil teachers on Environmental

awareness scale

Table 5 clearly reveals that the obtained‘t’

value 0.28 is significantly not higher than the

table value of ‘t’ at 0.05 level of significance

and at 120 degree of freedom. Thus the

hypothesis which states that there is no

signif icant di f ference in environmental

awareness of male and female B.Ed. students

is therefore accepted. This indicates that the

level of awareness of rural female B.Ed.

students (Mean = 43.43) is significantly not

higher than that of rural male students

(M=43.14).

CONCLUSIONS

The B. Ed. Students of Dehradun district

of Uttarakhand have remarkably high level of

environmental awareness. With regard to sex,

it is revealed that the level of environmental

awareness of male and female B. Ed. student

is almost same. The study further reveals that

the level of environmental awareness of urban

students high as that of rural B. Ed. Students.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The authors are thankful to the Principal,

Pest le Weed col lege of Information

Technology, Dehradun for her valuable

suggestions and providing facilities to publish

this paper.

REFERENCES

1. Arumugarajan, R. (2010) ‘Environmental

Awareness’ Edutracts, Hyderabd, Oct 2010.

2. Bhattacharya, S. (2003) A critical analysis of

Environmental Education curriculum of

prospective teachers. Paper presented in the

national seminar on 36th annual conference on

‘Environmental Education: Perspective and

prospect” Organized by the IATE and Deptt. Of

Tech. Education, Uttranchal, March 13-15.

3. Dubey E. Dubey (2003) Teacher Education and

preparation of teachers for environmental

education. NCTE (1998) Curriculum frame work

for quality teacher Education. New Delhi; NCTE.

4. Patel, D. Nanubhai (1995) An Investigation in

to the environmental Awareness of science

students and effect of environmental studies.

Progress in Education, 72 (2), 26-29.

5. Rajaram, Kalpana (2004) ‘Science and

Technology in India’ Spectrum Books Pub.

6. Rajput and Gupta (1998) Environmental

awareness among children of non-formal


Deviation(SD)

Degree of

Freedam(df)

‘t’

Value

Significance

Level

1 Urban

Male

83 43.20 3.62

173

0.137

Non

significant

at 0.05 level

2 Urban

female

92 43.28 3.93


Deviation(SD)

Degree of

Freedam(df)

‘t’

Value

Significance

Level

1 Rural

male

67 43.14 4.23

123

0.276

Non-

significant

at 0.05 level

2 Rural

female

58 43.43 4.35

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education centers of M.P. & Maharstra. Indian

Educational Review, 119-125.

7. Shanawaj (1990) Environmental awareness and

environmental attitude of secondary and higher

secondary school teachers and students. Ph.D.

Education Uni. of Rajasthan.

8. Sharma, V.S. (2005) ‘Environmental Education,

Anmol Pub., New Delhi

9. Bharati, C.,et..al. (2004). The study of

environmental awareness among the higher

secondary school students. School Science,

XLII (1), 48-53.

10. Dhawan, S.,et.al. (2005).Environmental

Education in Pre-service Teacher Education.

Journal of Indian Education, 29-43.

11. Mishra, B.B. (2006). Environmental Awareness

of Secondary School Students with

reference to their intelligence and School

background. AIAER, Vol-18 (1,2), 71-73.

12. Pareek and Ashok (1998). Environmental

awareness among secondary school

students. The educational review, (11), 104.

13. Pradhan (2002). Environmental awareness

among secondary school teachers, A study.

The educational review, 45 (2) 25.

14. Sharma, B.D. (1998). Attitude and Awareness

of Primary and Upper primary school teachers

of Rajsthan towards problem and issues related

to environmental education, Ph.D. (Edu).,

M.D.S. University. Sixth survey of Education

(1993-2000).

15. Das, J. (2002). Environmental Education, recent

research trends, Rajarshi Ray, university News,

44 (12), 20-26.

16. Agnihotri, G. (2004). Environmental Awareness

in teachers trainees, Ph.D.(Edu). Bundelkhand

University. Sixth survey of Education (1993-

2000).

17. Saheblal Mehiboob , Nadaf. (2011). A study of

Environmental Awareness of B.Ed. teachers

trainees in relation to their personality. Sectors

self-concept and study habit. International

referred research Journal. ISSN no. 9742-832

Vol.4 (III) issue.


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www.ijsir.co.in 131

LIFE INSURANCE AND ITS PROVISION OF IN-BUILD SECURITY

The urge for protection led to the invention

of insurance. Life insurance policies are the

instruments of social security for the welfare of

individuals. In today’s uncertain world it has

earned paramount importance and is one of the

basic necessities of life. With the arrival of human

life on Earth, the problem of want or poverty has

haunted human beings, in some or the other

form; and they always made efforts to secure

relief from it. The quest for security and freedom

from want and distress has been the unfailing

urge of man through ages. Thus, right from the

cave age till date, the story of evolution of

mankind is in fact a saga of continuous search

for security. Though centuries have passed but

these problems remained the same, in context

to the changes in economic and social

circumstances.

EVOLUTION OF LIFE INSURANCE ANDSEARCH FOR SECURITY

The primitive man fought against the forces

LIFE INSURANCE AND ITS PROVISION OF IN-BUILD SECURITY

IMRAN FAROOQ1, JYOTI AGARWAL2, *KAMLESH KUMAR SHUKLA3

1Research scholar, Sai Nath University,Ranchi,India, 2Research scholar, Bhagwant University,Ajmer, India,3 Department of Commerce, Kalicharan P G College, University of Lucknow, Lucknow,India

*Address for correspondence: Dr. Kamlesh Kumar Shukla, Assistant Professor,

Department of Commerce, Kalicharan P G College,, University of Lucknow, Lucknow, U.P., India,


ABSTRACT

The primitive man fought against the forces and creatures of nature to protect him. The man in

the Stone Age struggled for security by taking shelter in a cave. Gradually, security was

strengthened by the formation of groups within which, all its members shared the common

risks. With the passage of time, forms of security changed to meet particular needs. Man

derived security from the possession of land and livestock. It was agricultural economy in

India, which gave rise to the system of joint family which was the main and often the sole form

of security in sickness and old age. It also assured the basic education to the children. The

principal function of life insurance is to protect against the financial consequences resulting

from the loss of human lives and to provide a systematic method of accumulating a fund for

educating children, meeting financial emergencies and finding old age security and other

benefits including tax saving and other welfare measures. Life insurance has a socially and

economically stabilizing influence.

Keywords: Insurance, Agricultural Economy, Financial Sickness

and creatures of nature to protect him. The man

in the Stone Age struggled for security by taking

shelter in a cave. Gradually, security was

strengthened by the formation of groups within

which, all its members shared the common risks.

With the passage of time, forms of security

changed to meet particular needs. Man derived

security from the possession of land and

livestock. It was agricultural economy in India,

which gave rise to the system of joint family which

was the main and often the sole form of security

in sickness and old age. It also assured the basic

education to the children. Gradually, Industrial

economy supplanted the purely agricultural

economy, resulting in the disintegration of joint

family system. With the advent of Industrial

Revolution first in England, and thereafter in

other countries including India; man became an

individual unit and found his security in money

power, which enabled him to buy food, clothing,

shelter and other basic necessities of life.

NEED OF SECURITY FOR HUMAN LIFE

Man is no more solely dependent on any

group for the solution of his problems of personal

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security. He has to provide for all his family

needs, and keep aside something on a regular

basis as savings for any contingencies in life

because life is unpredictable. This necessity of

the man multiplied with his persistent quest for

safety, security and welfare which brought into

the idea of life insurance. Insurance enables man

to share in an equitable manner, with other men,

the major risks in life, which are usual in the

modern life. People found security in their work,

which is investment of time, and property. As long

as one has an able body and sound health; one

can keep earning and ensure one’s family’s well-

being. It is his income, personally earned,

through investment of time at his disposal, which

helps him to get along happily. But there is no

guarantee that he will always be able to earn,

that his income would be regular and continuous,

irrespective of what happens to him, that the

usual hazards of life like disease, disability,

unemployment and death should always be

guarded against in his own world. This guarantee

comes through the institution of insurance in

general and life insurance in particular; life

insurance enables man to share in an equitable

manner, with other men, the major risks to

income, which are unavoidable in today’s

industrial world. Life insurance is a much more

evolved solution to the problem of uncertainty

of life than the joint family system or any other

system which the human ingenuity has so far

invented. Insurance is a product of a cooperative

effort of a large group of people similarly

threatened by four hazards of human life namely,

unemployment, old age, disability and death.

LIFE INSURANCE AS AN AID TO FOURHAZARDS OF HUMAN LIFE

Both men and women has to work very hard

so as to meet out the basic amenities of life.

Generally they invest about eight or more hours

of their time to earn money. The creation of

capital of such magnitude out of his/her savings,

demands continuous work for years, which can

be interrupted, diminished or destroyed by the

serious hazards of life like unemployment, old

age, disability and death. Life insurance is the

arrangement through which one can face these

hazards of human life and plan for the

continuation of an uninterrupted income if such

hazards happen and destroys the ability to earn

a living. In other words, life insurance is the only

means and measure that is designed to protect

against the loss of income arising from inability

to work – irrespective of whether it is caused by

death, accidental injury, sickness or old age.

IN BUILD SECURITY IN LIFE INSURANCE

Further, life insurance intrinsically provides

an alternative source of income when the

insured’s working capacity, ceases due to old

age, death or disability. Insurance enables man

to share in an equitable manner with other men

the major risks and contingencies of life. Life

insurance is a perfect combination of the twin

principles of ‘savings’ and ‘security’ and the plans

are easy, convenient and practicable. It affords

security against premature death or disability,

which are the basic risks for every individual. Its

special virtue is that it can be used to spread

the savings conveniently throughout the working

period of life.

Further, the very idea of having to provide

for the future in the shape of small installments

out of the present earnings, keeps the person

quite reassured of his future, widens his outlook

on life, and gives him a sense of security. Life

insurance is the only measure of social security

to provide against the hazard of death and for

the insured’s own old age. Life insurance

essentially leads to the maintenance of income

in a definite way. For instance, in the case of

endowment type of policies maturing during the

lifetime of the insured persons, the insurance

money serves the purpose of old age provision

(though it can also be used as provision for the

marriage or education of children). Similarly, in

the whole life type of policies or even in

endowment type of policies, where death occurs

before the expiry of the term of policy, life

insurance serves the inevitable purpose of family

protection.

Thus, life insurance is the only available

means of legal and financial assurance in a

person’s future plan and it is thus a form of social

security. Insurance safeguards the interests of

one and all who have got a financial stake in the

existence of a particular person or persons. The

value of life is immeasurable and its loss in the

real sense cannot be met. But it can come to

their rescue to replace the value of such lives


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www.ijsir.co.in 133

through the only device called life insurance. It

tries to provide the people with the strength and

the security that makes life worth living .The

principal function of life insurance is to protect

against the financial consequences resulting

from the loss of human lives and to provide a

systematic method of accumulating a fund for

educating children, meeting financial

emergencies and finding old age security and

other benefits including tax saving and other

welfare measures. Life insurance has a socially

and economically stabilizing influence. The

stability of life insurance allows safety and

security to policyholders and their beneficiaries.

Life insurance affects almost every living person

in the country and today it occupies an important

place in our society. In the process, it also raises

the standards of the community and promotes

the welfare of the society. Life insurance is

primarily concerned with the benefit of individual

and his family members, but in recent times, it

has been clothed with some social security

policies, which the state provides to fulfill on a

constitutional mandate through the life insurance

industry.

Thus, life insurance is the greatest and the

most efficient system of providing means for all

contingencies and of covering all risks to enable

everyone to obtain security at the most

economical rate. In this way, life insurance

becomes of paramount importance today as the

fourth basic necessity for every individual. It tries

to provide the people with the strength and the

security that makes life worth living.

REFERENCES

1. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insurance

2. http://www.economywatch.com/indianeconomy/

india-insurance-sector.html

3. Praveen Singh and Dr.Divyanegi “Growth of

Insurance Services in the Himalayan Region of

India”, the Journal, Vol-1, November – 2011, pp

203

4. Business Line dated 26th January, 2012.

5. Business Line dated 25, January 2012 measured

in this study by various parameters according to

the available data.

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AIR QUALITY INDEX FOR UTTAR PRADESH WITH

A FOCUS ON LUCKNOW

*SHUKLA S.P.1, SACHAN R.1, DWIVEDI L.2, SHARMA K.J.2, YADAV V.P.3, SINGH N.B.1

1Institute of Engineering and Technology, Lucknow, India, 2Research Scholar, Sai Nath University,

Ranchi, India, 3Central Pollution Control Board, Delhi, India

*Address for correspondence: Dr. S. P. Shukla, Professor, Department of Civil Engineering,

Institute of Engineering and Technology, Sitapur Road, Lucknow,U.P., India,

E-mail ID: [email protected]

ABSTRACT

This paper presents air quality data interpretation and air quality index (AQI) prevailing in 13

districts of Uttar Pradesh during period of 2001 to 2009. The mathematical function for calculating

sub-indices is based on IND-AQI and USEPA. A maximum operator calculation mode is used to

determine the overall AQI. The air pollutants included in the AQI are SO2, NO

2, SPM, PM

10,

PM2.5

, NH3, CO, C

6H

6, O

3, Pb, Hg, Ni, As and benzopyrene. The data show that air quality is worst

in winter months because of SPM, PM10

and PM2.5

. Air Quality generally improves in monsoon

months because of washout of air pollutants with rainfall. Maximum AQI variation is found in

Ghaziabad, Agra and Firozabad whereas minimum AQI variation is found in Anpara, Gajraula

and Jhansi.

INTRODUCTION

Air pollution has emerged as a major challenge,

particularly in urban areas. The problem

becomes more complex due to the multiplicity

and complexity of the air polluting source mix

(e.g., industries, automobiles, generators,

domestic fuel burning, road side dusts,

construction activities, etc.) [1]. A human need air

for respiration. An adult at rest breathes 16

respirations per minute- approximately 5 m3/h

(lungs volume 4-6 L), with harder work the rate

is 3-6 times more (15-30 m3/h). Poor air can have

adverse impact on our quality of life and can

damage the fabric of building and sensitive flora

and fauna. Air pollution is the accumulation of

hazardous substances into the atmosphere that

danger human life and other living matter [2].

Outdoor PM air pollution is estimated to be

responsible for about 3% of adult

cardiopulmonary disease mortality, about 5% of

trachea, bronchus and lung cancer mortality, and

about 1% of mortality in children from acute

respiratory infection in urban areas worldwide.

This amounts to about 0.80 million (1.2%)

premature deaths and 6.4 million (0.5%) lost life

years [3]. The World Health Organization reports

that in 2012 around 7 million people died - one

in eight of total global deaths – as a result of air

pollution exposure confirming that air pollution

is now the world’s largest single environmental

health risk. Reducing air pollution could save

millions of lives [4]. High PM10

level in air may cause

chronic and acute effects on human health,

particularly the pulmonary function, as they can

penetrate deep into the lungs and cause

respiratory problems. Association with high levels

of NO2 etc. may further exaggerate such effect.

High concentration of PM10

, sulfate and SO2 would

cause respiratory mortality in several situations[5]. Air quality within a region is affected by

emission quantities and meteorological

conditions. Good air quality is essential to human

health, plants and animals, buildings and to the

environment as well. Poor air quality adversely

impacts our quality of life and can damage the

fabric of building and sensitive flora and fauna.

Ambient air monitoring stations measure air

pollutant concentrations which not only

determine existing air quality, but also help in

evaluation of the effectiveness of air pollution

control program and to identify areas in need of

restoration and their prioritization. Air quality

index (AQI) is designed to inform the public about

the air quality in their surroundings. AQI is a very

useful tool for evaluating the pollution hazards

of a particular area on a particular day and can

be very helpful to citizens of that area, because


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it can show them whether or not they need to

take precautions while going out. With AQI, one

can describe ambient air in terms of pollution

level and quality of the air at a certain time and

area by single number or color code. Awareness

of the air quality is also important for the people

who suffer from illness caused by air pollution.

According to USEPA (1999) [6], Environmental

Protection Agency (EPA) developed a uniform

AQI in 1976 and primarily it was known as

pollutant standard index, for the use of state and

local agencies to assess urban air quality in USA.

AQI may be defined as a single number for

reporting the air quality with respect to its effect

on human health. In most elaborate form it

combines many air pollutant concentrations in

some mathematical expression to arrive at a

single number for air quality [2]. One of the earliest

AQI was proposed by the Green in 1966 based

on two pollutants SO2

and COH (coefficient of

haze). This index did not include any other

pollutants and was applicable only for winter

season [7]. In 1967 Rich developed a consumption

product index. The index was having the

advantage of requiring few actual measurements

of air quality relying instead on the assumption

that the severity of pollution is directly related to

the quantity of fossil fuel burned and inversely

related to the atmospheric mixing volume

overhead. There are several other AQIs

developed in the past such as: Combustion

Product Index 1967, Ontario Air Pollution Index

1970, Extreme Value Index 1972, Environmental

Quality Index 1976, Dosage Population Product

1978. Oak Ridge AQI 1971 was based on the 24

hr average concentration of pollutant variables

(SO2, NO

x, PM, CO and Photochemical Oxidants).

The Greater Vancouver AQI (GVAQI, 1997) was

based on Canadian Federal Government air

quality objectives. This index was based on six

pollutants (SO2, NO

2, O

3, TSP, COH and PM

10)

and relates public health to environment. Index

values (25, 50 and 100) were divided into three

ranges (Federal Desirable, Acceptable and

Tolerable respectively). The GVAQI value was

determined by calculating a sub-index for each

pollutant measurement and averaging time. The

particular pollutant responsible for the maximum

sub-index is called the index pollutant with the

index value greater than 25. Index was based

on the assumption that the combined effect of a

number of air pollutants was related to the highest

concentrations relative to air quality objectives.

Alberta’s AQI is based on 24 hr average

concentration of Ox, NO

x, CO and suspended

particulates. Pindex is combined index designed

for synergistic effect of air pollution and is based

on particulate matter, sulfur oxides, nitrogen

oxides, carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons,

oxidant, solar radiation and particulate sulfur-

oxide synergism. Inhaber’s AQI was developed

by Inhaber and was based on root-mean-square

method of averaging and combining of sub-

indices. Pollution Standard Index was based on

SO2, NO

2, CO, PM, O

3. CityAIR index was

developed for urban area and was based on

concentration of CO, NO2, O

3, C

6H

6 and PM

10.

ORAQI, GVAQI, GI and MURCI are modified

according to Indian conditions (index is modified

for three pollutants) [8]. These modified indices

gave contradictory result for the same set of data

for three cities (Delhi, Mumbai and Howrah). Most

of the indices developed after 1990 were based

on the maximum value of sub-index.

METHODOLOGY

Calculation of AQI is based on number of

pollutant variable, calculation method

(mathematical functional relationship between

pollutant concentration and index), calculation

mode and description categories (good,

moderate, unhealthy for sensitive people,

unhealthy, Very unhealthy, Hazardous). Minimum

three pollutants (SO2, NO

2, and SPM) are

sufficient to develop an AQI, although all the

pollutants are not necessary, but desirable [8].

The reference scale of the AQI with the

corresponding categories varies in the range 0-

500. To relate the air quality and its effect on

human health, the index scale 0-500 is divided

in six categories (Table 1) to provide description

of index value depending on the break point

concentration of each pollutant. The basis of

breakpoint for the proposed AQI is based on

USEPA, IND-AQI [9, 10, 11] and report of review of

ambient air quality standards [12] (Table 2). The

AQI value of 50 defines the prevailing National

Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) for each

pollutant and 500 as hazardous level.

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Index Descriptor Categories Health Effects

0-50 Good No effect on human health and on environment

51-100 moderate Unusually sensitive people may experience

respiratory symptoms

101-150 Unhealthy for sensitive

people

Increasing likelihood of respiratory symptoms and

breathing discomfort in active children and adults and

people with lung disease, such as asthma

151-200 Unhealthy Greater likelihood of respiratory symptoms, increased

aggravation of heart and lung disease

201-300 Very Unhealthy significant increase in respiratory symptoms,

significant aggravation of heart and lung disease,

premature mortality in people with cardiopulmonary

disease and significant increase in respiratory

symptoms

301-500 Hazardous Severe respiratory symptoms and serious aggravation

of heart and lung disease, premature mortality in

people and serious effect of respiratory symptoms in

general people

Table 1: Categories and break point concentration of AQI System

Table 2: National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) [13]

S.

No. Pollutants

Time

Weighted

Average

Concentration in Ambient Air

Industrial,

Residential, Rural and

other Areas

Ecologically Sensitive Area

(notified by Central

Government)

1. Sulphur Dioxide

(SO2), µg/m3

Annual 50 20

24 Hours 80 80

2.

Nitrogen

Dioxide

(NO2), µg/m3

Annual 40 30

24 Hours 80 80

3.

Particulate

Matter

(Size <10µm) or

PM10, µg/m3

Annual 60 60

24 Hours 100 100

Particulate Annual 40 40


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4.

Particulate

Matter

(Size <2.5 µm)

or PM2.5, µg/m3

Annual 40 40

24 Hours 60 60

5. Ozone (O3),

µg/m3

8 Hours 100 100

1Hour 180 180

6. Lead (Pb),

µg/m3

Annual 0.50 0.50

24 Hours 1.0 1.0

7.

Carbon

Monoxide

(CO),

mg/m3

8 Hours 02 02

1Hour 04 04

8. Ammonia

(NH3), µg/m3

Annual 100 100

24 Hours 400 400

9. Benzene

(C6H6), µg/m3

Annual 05 05

10.

Benzo(a)Pyrene

(BaP)

particulate

phase only,

ng/m3

Annual 01 01

11. Arsenic (As),

ng/m3

Annual 06 06

12. Nickel (Ni),

ng/m3

Annual 20 20

Study Area

Study area for the calculation of AQI is Uttar

Pradesh where ambient air quality is monitored

in 13 districts. Uttar Pradesh is situated between

24°N-30°N and 77°E-84°E with a population of

200 million people. The state is spread over a

total area of 243,286 km2. Three dominant

seasons, summer (March-June), monsoon (July-

October) and winter (November-February) are

observed in the study area with maximum

temperature in summer (more than 45°C) and

minimum temperature in winter (less than 1°C)[13, 14, 15]. The state receives average annual rainfall

of 1,025 mm in monsoon season.

National Ambient Air Quality Monitoring in

India started in 1984 and presently ambient air

quality is monitored in 13 cities of Uttar Pradesh

(UP). A total of 39 ambient air quality monitoring

stations are maintained by UP Pollution Control

Board (UPPCB) and Central Pollution Control

Board (CPCB) in these 13 districts covering

various land use patterns (Table 3).

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Table 3: Details of Air Quality Monitoring Stations in Study Area

S.

No.

Districts Location of

Monitoring Station

Land Use

Pattern

Monitoring Days Monitoring

Agency

1 Agra Tajmahal Sensitive Sunday, Monday,

Tuesday,

Wednesday,

Thursday, Saturday

CPCB

Regional Office Bodla Residential Monday, Thursday UPPCB

Nunhai Industrial Tuesday, Friday UPPCB

DIC Nunhai Sensitive Wednesday,

Saturday

CPCB

Itmad-ud-daulah Sensitive Tuesday, Friday CPCB

Rambagh Sensitive Monday, Thursday CPCB

2 Allahabad Square Crossing Residential Monday, Thursday UPPCB

Bharat Yantra Nigam Residential Monday,Thursday UPPCB

3 Anpara Anpara Colony Industrial Tuesday, Thursday UPPCB

Renusagar Colony Industrial Monday,Wednesday UPPCB

4 Firozabad CDGI Industrial Tuesday, Friday UPPCB

Tilak Nagar Residential Wednesday,Saturday UPPCB

Raza Ka Tal Residential Monday, Thursday UPPCB

5 Gajraula Indira Chowk Residential Friday, Sunday UPPCB

Raunaq Auto Ltd. Industrial Tuesday, Friday UPPCB

6 Ghaziabad Atlas Cycles Ind. Ltd. Industrial Tuesday, Friday UPPCB

Bulandshahar Road Industrial Monday, Thursday UPPCB

7 Jhansi Jail Chauraha Residential Tuesday, Thursday UPPCB

Veeranga Nagar Residential Saturday, Tuesday UPPCB

8 Kanpur Fazalganj Industrial Saturday,Wednesday UPPCB

Jajmau Industrial Tuesday, Friday UPPCB

Deputy Ka Parao Residential Tuesday, Friday UPPCB

Dabauli Residential Monday, Thursday UPPCB

Vikas Nagar Residential Monday, Tuesday,

Thursday, Friday

CPCB

Kidwai Nagar Residential Monday, Thursday UPPCB


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9 Khurja CGCRI Industrial Sunday, Thursday UPPCB

Ahirpara Residential Tuesday, Saturday UPPCB

10 Lucknow Talkatora Industrial Monday, Thursday UPPCB

Mahanagar Residential Tuesday, Thursday UPPCB

Kapoor Hotel

Hazratganj

Residential &

Commercial

Tuesday, Friday UPPCB

Chandganj Residential Monday,Wednesday UPPCB

Aminabad Residential Tuesday,Wednesday,

Friday

UPPCB

11 Meerut Begum Bridge Residential Tuesday, Friday UPPCB

Thana Railway Road Residential Wednesday, Friday UPPCB

12 Noida R.O. UPPB Residential Tuesday, Thursday UPPCB

GEE-PEE Industrial Monday, Thursday UPPCB

13 Varanasi Regional Office Residential Monday, Thursday UPPCB

Shivpuri Residential Friday, Tuesday

Sigra Residential Tuesday, Friday UPPCB

Computation of AQI

To calculate AQI, first step is the calculation

of sub-indices (I1, I

2,….I

n) for n pollutant

variables (X1, X

2, ….. X

n) and is carried out using

sub-indices functions that are based on air

quality standards and health effect. Each sub-

index value represents a relationship between

pollutant concentrations and health effect.

Mathematically

Ii= f (X

i), i = 1, 2…..n

Function used to convert concentration to AQI

value is given below

LOLOP

LOHI

LOHIp I)BP(C

BPBP

III +−

−

−=

Where,

Ip = the index for the pollutant p

Cp = the actual concentration of pollutant p

BPHI

= the break point in the Table 4 that is

greater than or equal to Cp

BPLO

= the break point in Table 4 that is less than

or equal to Cp

IHI

= the air pollution index value corresponding

to BPHI

of the pollutant p

ILO

= the air pollution index value corresponding

to BPLO

of pollutant p

In the second step, aggregation of sub-indices Ii

is used with mathematical function to calculate

overall index (I).

I = F (I1, I

2……I

n)

In second step aggregation function F may

be summation or multiplication operation or

maximum operator. In this study, maximum

operator system has been adopted as follows:

AQI = Max (I1, I

2…….I

n)

In third step maximum operator function is

used for AQI value. It is free from the eclipsing

(situation when pollutant is underestimated by

AQI) and ambiguity (situation when pollutant is

overestimated by AQI) problems. Drawback of

the maximum operator function is that synergistic

effect of pollutants is not known.

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Mathematical function that is used to

calculate AQI value is a segmented linear

function. Same function is also adopted by

various countries (GVAQI and ORAQI etc.). This

function is used to calculate AQI value of each

pollutant. A pollutant that gives the maximum

value, considered as a responsible pollutant and

sub-indices value considered as AQI value.

Good category lies in index value that is NAAQS

for each pollutant.


The pollutants included in the air quality

index are SO2, NO

2, SPM, RSPM, Pb, As, Ni, C

6H

6,

BaP, O3, NH

3 and CO. AQI for all monitoring

stations existing in 13 districts has been

calculated. The monthly variation, seasonal

variation, yearly variation, rainfall impact and

responsible pollutant of Lucknow city are

presented in detail in this paper and for other

cities are mentioned briefly.

Monthly Variation of AQI

The monthly variation of AQI at all five

monitoring stations of Lucknow city (Talkatora,

Mahanagar, Kapoor Hotel Hazratganj, Aminabad

and Chandganj Nagar) based on available data

for the period 2001 to 2009 is shown in Figure

1. AQI category in Lucknow was ‘unhealthy to

sensitive people’ at all locations except Talkatora,

where it was ‘unhealthy’ category during 2001-

02. Index value at Mahanagar lies at moderate

category during 2001. At Talkatora maximum and

minimum in AQI was found in March and

December during 2001-02. During 2004-09

maximum AQI was found in December, January

and February in all the locations. At Kapoor Hotel

during 2001-09 maximum AQI was found in

November, December, January, February and

May. During 2001-09 at Mahanagar maximum

AQI was found in April, May, June, November,

December, and January. During 2005-09 at

Chandganj Nagar and Aminabad maximum AQI

was found in November, December, January,

February and April. Minimum AQI at all the

locations was found in August and September

and sometimes July (at Aminabad, Chandganj

Nagar and Kapoor Hotel, 2005). During 2001

Maximum variation of AQI are shown in March,

June and September at Talkatora and

Mahanagar and rest of the locations shown in

December except in year 2009 where it was in

June and January and minimum variation are

shown in August and September.


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Kapoor Hotel Lucknow, 2001

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Aminabad Lucknow, 2005

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Figure 1: Monthly variation of AQI at Lucknow during 2001-09

Overall at all 13 districts of Uttar Pradesh, AQI value decreases from July to October and lies in

good to moderate category due to rain whereas AQI value increases from November to February

and lies in ‘unhealthy for senstive people’ category to ‘unhealthy’ category in most of the cities as

calm condition prevails in these months compared to other months. AQI values from March to June

are indicating ‘unhealthy for senstive people’ category to ‘unhealthy’ category due to dust storms.

Maximum monthly AQI vaiation is found in Ghaziabad, Agra, Firozabad. Minimum AQI variation is

found in Anpara, Gajraula, Jhansi.

Seasonal variation of AQI

Figure 2 shows seasonal variation of AQI at all five monitoring stations of Lucknow city based on

available data for the period 2001 to 2009.


WINTER SUMMER MONSOON

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Figure 2 Seasonal variation of AQI at Lucknow during 2001-09

During period of 2001-09, maximum variation of AQI in Lucknow city is found during 2002 at

Talkatora, whereas in Kanpur city it is observed during 2005 at Vikas Nagar. The metrological condition

and turbulence in the atmosphere are the primary factors affecting pollutant distribution, dispersion

pattern and seasonal variations. The air quality generally improves in Monsoon. During Monsoon

frequent rain washes down the air borne particulates and gaseous pollutants.

Annual variation of AQI

Annual variation of AQI at all 13 districts of Uttar Pradesh having monitoring stations based on

available data for the period 2001 to 2009 has been observed. In Lucknow city, during 2005-09 there

is a little variation in AQI at all the locations (Figure 3), whereas during 2001-04, AQI value is low and

AQI value increases after 2004.

Aminabad Lucknow

Y2005 Y2006 Y2007 Y2008 Y2009

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Chandganj Nagar Lucknow

Y2005 Y2006 Y2007 Y2008 Y2009

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Figure 3 Annual variation of AQI at Lucknow during 2001-09


P-ISSN 2347-2189, E- ISSN 2347-4971

www.ijsir.co.in 151

Responsible pollutant for AQI

The analysis of AQI is based on maximum

operator calculation mode, where the maximum

sub-index value of pollutants becomes the

overall index. It is observed that most of the time

SPM and PM10

are the responsible pollutant for

high AQI value. Thus, to improve the air quality

of U.P. concentration of SPM and PM10

have to

be reduced on priority basis.

CONCLUSION

AQI has been calculated for the 13 districts

of U.P. for knowing the status of air pollution with

its effect on human health. While comparing all

12 pollutants, it was observed that the

concentration of SPM and PM10

are higher than

the prescribed standards and concentration of

SO2 and NO

2 is lower than NAAQS. The air quality

worsens in winter month and also during summer

month. The summer month are characterized by

dust winds resulting high SPM. The AQI generally

improves in monsoon period due to rain, good

to moderate. The SPM and PM10

have been

responsible pollutant for the index. The air quality

is giving the holistic view of air pollution levels

as clearly exceeded the high air pollution

category and has been crossed severe pollution

category at many places.

REFERENCES

1. Singh, D., Shukla, S.P., Sharma, M., Behera, S.N.,

Mohan, D., Singh, N.B. and Pandey, G. (2014). GIS

based on-road vehicular emission inventory for

Lucknow city. Journal of Hazardous, Toxic, and

Radioactive Waste Mgmt, DOI: 10.1061/

(ASCE)HZ.2153-5155.0000244.

2. Bishoi, B., Prakash, A. and Jain, V.K. (2009). A

Comparative Study of Air Quality Index on Factor

Analysis and US-EPA Methods for an Urban

Environment, Journal of Aerosol and Air Quality

Research, 9(1), 1-17.

3. Cohen, A.J., Anderson, H.R., Ostro, B., Pandey,

K.D., Krzyzanowski, M., Künzli, N., Gutschmidt, K.,

Pope, A., Romieu, I., Samet, J.M. & Smith, K.

(2005). The Global Burden of Disease Due to

Outdoor Air Pollution, Journal of Toxicology and

Environmental Health, Part A: Current Issues,

68(13-14), 1301-1307.

4. WHO (2014). 7 million premature deaths annually

linked to air pollution. (http://www.who.int/

mediacentre/news/releases/2014/air-pollution/

en/) (June 30, 2015)

5. Singh, K.P., Gupta, S., Kumar, A. and Shukla, S.P.

(2012). Linear and nonlinear modeling

approaches for urban air quality prediction.

Science of the Total Environment, 426, 244-255.

6. USEPA (1999). Federal Register, Part III,

Environmental Protection Agency, 40 CFR Part 58,

Air Quality Index Reporting, Final Rule, 64(149),

42530-42549.

7. Ott, W.R. (1978). Environmental indices theory and

practice. Ann Arbor Science Publishers Inc., Ann

Arbor, Mich. 48106.

8. Sharma, M., Maheshwari, M. and Pandey, R.

(2001). Development of Air Quality Index for data

interpretation and public information, Indian

Institute of Technology Kanpur, Report submitted

to Central Pollution Control Board Delhi.

9. Sharma, M., Pandey, R., Maheshwari, M.,

Sengupta, B., Shukla, B.P., Gupta, N.K. and Johri,

S. (2003). Interpretation of Air Quality data using

an air quality index for the city of Kanpur, India,

Journal of Environmental Engineering and

Science, 2(6), 453-462.

10. USEPA (2006). Guideline for Reporting of Daily Air

Quality - the Air Quality Index (AQI), EPA-454/B-06-

001, US Environmental Protection Agency, Office

of Air Quality Planning and standards, Research

Triangle Park, North Carolina 27711.

11. USEPA (2014). Air Quality Index- A Guide to Air

Quality and your Health, EPA-456/F-14-002, US

Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Air

Quality Planning and Standards, Outreach and

Information Division, Research Triangle Park, NC.

12. IIT Kanpur (2009). Review of Ambient Air Quality

Criteria/ Standards, Report submitted to the CPCB.

13. CPCB (2009). National Ambient Air Quality

Standards, Central Pollution Control Board,

Notification, New Delhi, the 18th November, 2009.

(http://cpcb.nic.in/National_Ambient_Air_Quality

_Standards.php) (July 02, 2015)

14. Shukla, S.P. and Sharma, M. (2008). Source

apportionment of atmospheric PM10

in Kanpur,

India. Environmental Engineering Science, 25 (6),

849-861.

15. Shukla, S.P. and Sharma, M. (2010). Neutralization

of rainwater acidity at Kanpur, India. Tellus, 62B,

172-180.

16. Shukla, S.P., Singh, N.B. and Sharma, M. (2010).

Air quality survey at Kanpur City. Indian Surveyor,

64(1), 74-80.

152 www.ijsir.co.in


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INTRODUCTION

Value is a dynamic term used in different

aspects. Indian Philosophy has used it in sense

of state free from pleasure and pain1. In

Psychology the term Value is generally employed

to designate a dominant interest motive or broad

evaluative attitude. Psychologist in the sense of

Psychic energy. Sociologists in the sense of use

of time energy and money for certain ends. Value

has been defined variously by different

Educationist but on the whole it is interpreted to

be either a set of feeling or an action. Values

are define as, “Socially approved derires and

goals that are internalized through the process

of conditioning, Learning or socialization and

these become subjective preferences, standards

and aspirations.”

NEED AND IMPORTANCE

All port is right when he says “ordinarily

attitude should be employed when the disposition

is bound to an object or value.” Values are

generally long term standards or principles that

used to judge the worth of an idea or action2.

VALUE BASED EDUCATION AND HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

*ANSHU TRIPATHI1, B.C. TRIPATHI2

1Department of Teacher Education, K.S. Saket P.G. College, Ayodhya, Faizabad, U.P. India, 2Rama P.G. College, Chinhat,

Lucknow, U.P., India.

*Address for correspondence: Dr. Anshu Tripathi, Assistant Professor, Department of Teacher Education,

K.S. Saket P.G. College, Ayodhya, Faizabad U.P., India,


ABSTRACT

The Indian education system should adopt value based education at all levels The value oriented

educational program should not be led only during the further level, but should be carried on

further up to the level of higher education too, as it is form there that the nation’s political

leaders, bureaucrats and army personal would emerge. Values based education therefore is a

part of the educational programs, which cannot be shelved or done away with. It has to be a

part of life, life is a constant education, and the process of living is a process of learning. India

is badly in need of value based education and teaching system, which inculcates among the

young students values that they need to imbibe and embalm within them. Values based education

imparts social, moral integrity, character, spirituality and many more. It builds the qualities of

humanity strength and honesty in a person they become better citizens of a country. People

with high ethical values will never cheat others. People are taught to co-operate with each

other. They make their life happier and works hard to make others happy. A child learns a lot

from the people around him, if the social environment is not good, then it becomes very difficult

for him to display ethics and values in his behavior.

KEYWORDS: Value, Education, Development

They provide the criteria by which we decide

whether something is good or bad ‘right’ or

‘wrong’. Attitude predispose us to respond in

particular ways to people and events. They are

not so deeply felt as values and quite often

change as a result of experience.

VALUE AND CULTURE

It is universally accepted that the progress

and development of a nation depends upon the

quality of values cherished by its citizen, which

depends on a large number of factors including

intelligence abilities, interests, school climate,

teacher values and beliefs, socio-economic

status. Cultural background and peer, home and

neighborhood influences.

Values and their realization through

education can be imagined in the words of Dr.

S. Radha Krishnan when he says, “Education is

not limited to the imparting of information or the

training in skills. It has to give the educated a

proper sense of values.”

Values are a new term used today prior to it


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the words morals, virtue, ideals, norms or

standards were in use. The ancient philosophers

used the term ‘virtue’ for moral goodness,

particular moral excellence, chastity, good quality

or efficacy. This word virtue has been used for

behavior showing high moral standard. Values

are necessary for individuals and society alike;

but today the scientific and technological

developments have created evils like

industrialization, materialism communalism

terrorism, dowry murders, drug addiction, sex

abuse, female feticide suicides and all sorts of

corruption. Which are the forces to disintegrate

and disturb the social life. Religious political and

other leaders in the society have lost their

integrity. Actually there is a state of chaos and

disorder3.

In today’s world teaching values to our youth

is more important than ever. From the moment

they are born children are extremely

impressionable. They begin to form their opinion

and view of the world before they even hit their

adolescence.

VALUE AND EDUCATION

As parents and educators, we are children’s

biggest and number one influences and it is our

responsibility to teach our youth about core

values so they may grow up to be caring,

confident and respectful adults since students

spends a majority of their time at school. It should

be a place that supports families and

communities efforts to establish strong values

in students. Educators are tasked with the job

of helping children see that values are not only

an important part of the educational process but

also to their overall development as an individual.

By fostering an environment where core values

are a focal point, it enables students to logically

grabble with the moral life and encourages

healthy brain development and growth.

Value based education is an approach to

teaching that works with values. It creates a

strong learning environment that enhances

academic achievement and develops students

social and relationship skills that last throughout

their lives value education aims to achieve two

basic outcomes:

1. Helping students to better understand the

values that guide their own daily lives.

2. Contribution to changes in values held

collectively by communities and personally

by individual’s value education is a process

of teaching and learning about the ideals

that a society deems important. So we know

that value education is used to influence

student attitudes and behavior for the better

at least in life, with what a society would

consider appropriate and morally

acceptable. Value education may be seen

on 3 levels – curriculum, school and

community. The level interact with one

another.

The Radha Krishnan Commission5, The

Kothari Commission National Policy of

Education7, Rammurti Committee Central

Advisory Board of Education on Policy, planning

commission core group on values orientation of

education, all have gone deep into the role that

education plays and can play in designing and

developing the national characters. The

programs and policies have remained just on

paper, just due to lack of co-ordination between

the different implementing agencies. It is not

merely talking about great men that the child

would get oriented to values4. The teacher has

to play a major and a decisive role in giving this

lesson by precept as well as by example. It is

the intellectual, the physical, the emotional, the

psychological parts of the child’s personality

which would need to be molded and modeled.

In a vast nation like India with so many

section in the society, so many sects, so many

religions, so many regions and so many

languages, the child has to be taught the lesson

in “unity in diversity”.

CONCLUSION

Education is the deliberate and systematic

influence exerted by the mature person through

instruction, discipline and harmonious

development of physical, intellectual, aesthetic,

social and spiritual power of human being. There

valued inputs led to the decision to develop a

handbook for schools on strategies of value

implementation which hopefully would keep

those responsible the selection and

development of instructional material for

inclusion in the schoolbook they may think of

developing. Value cannot be forced, even if

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conveyed with intentions. No real integration or

internalization of value can be achieved unless

the learner agree with it, but it can be developed

with the cooperation of all. As the climate of

respect surrounds the learners, they

automatically imbibe an attitude of tolerance

towards their fellowmen and this would certainly

activate the human development that eventually

leads national development.

REFERENCES:

1. Approach paper for secondary teacher education

curriculum renewal NCTE 2013. New Delhi.

2. Biswas N.B. stress on changing values in life of

the teaching professionals. Teacher education

1998, Vol.XXX11. Nos. 1 & 2

3. Mukherjee R.K. (1969), ‘social structures of values.

S. Chand & Co. New Delhi.

4. Nation policy on education (1986), Government

of India MHRD Department & Education 2005,

New Delhi.

5. Pandey K.P. Shiksha ke Darshnik and samajik

Adhar, Vishvidyalay Prakashan , Varanasi.

6. National curriculum frame work 2005. NCERT

New Delhi.

7. Report of education commission (1964-66)

government of India, ministry of education, New

Delhi.


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INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF SCIENTIFIC &

INNOVATIVE RESEARCH

(A Bi-annual Official Journal of Sky Institute, a constituent Institution of BALA JI FOUNDATIONestablished under Societies Registration Act 1860)

AIM & SCOPE

The International Journal of Scientific & Innovative Research (IJSIR)is a bi-annual published online/ offline journal which publishes innovative research papers, reviews, mini reviews, shortcommunications and notes dealing with all branches of science, technology, engineering health andagriculture. All manuscripts are subject to rapid peer review, those of high quality (not previouslypublished and not under consideration for publication in another journal) contributing significantly tofurther the scientific knowledge in science, technology, engineering, health and agriculture will bepublished without delay. The subjects will cover all the disciplines and branches of science, technology,

engineering, health and agriculture.

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The criteria for publication are originality high scientific quality and interest to a multidisciplinaryaudience. Papers not sufficiently substantiated by experimental detail will not be published. Anytechnical queries will be referred back to the author although the Editors reserve the right to makealterations in the text without altering the technical content. Manuscripts submitted under multipleauthorships are reviewed on the assumption that all listed authors concur with the submission andthat a copy of the final manuscript has been approved by all authors. If accepted, the manuscriptsshall not be published elsewhere in the same form in either the same or another language withoutthe consent of the Editors.

International Journal of Scientific and Innovative Research insists on ethical practices in both humanand animal experimentation. Evidence for approval by a institutional Ethics Committee (for bothhuman as well as animal studies) must be supplied by the authors on demand. Animal experimentalprocedure should be on humane as possible and the details of anesthetics and analgesics usedshould be clearly stated. The ethical standards of experiments must be in accordance with theguidelines provided by the CPCSEA (animal) and ICMR (human). The journal will not consider anypaper which is ethically unacceptable. A statement on ethics committee permission must be includedin all research articles under the Materials and Methods section. Authors must be careful when theyreproduce text, tables and illustrations from other sources. Plagiarism will be viewed seriously. Allaccepted papers are subject to editorial changes. All rights are reserved to editor-in-chief, InternationalJournal of Scientific & Innovative Research (IJSIR). IJSIR will be published bi-annually in the month ofJuly (January-June issue) and January (July-December issue) every year.

IJSIR would take much care in making your article published without much delay with your kind co-

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• A Broad ranging open access journal.• Fast and efficient online submission.• Expert peer review.• Rapid publications and high visibility.• Cost saving.• Ability to track the publication processing progress.

• Ease of contacting the IJSIR Journal

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INSTRUCTION TO AUTHORS

The International Journal of Scientific and Innovative Research is a bi-annually published online/ offline Journal which publishes innovative research papers, reviews, mini-reviews, shortcommunications and notes dealing with all branches of science, technology and engineering, healthand agriculture. All manuscripts are subject to rapid peer review. Those of high quality (not previouslypublished and not consideration for publication in another journal) will be published without delay.

MANUSCRIPT FORMAT

The preferred format of all manuscript is MS Word or RTF. Illustrations (figures) and imagesmust be inserted in the manuscript at the position they should appear when published.

PREPARATION OF MANUSCRIPTS

RESEARCH PAPER

The language of the journal is English. Each manuscript should be typed double-spaced on A4(8.5" x 11") paper size with 1 inch margins. It should be arranged in the following order: Title, Abstract,Keywords, Introduction, Materials and Methods, Results, Conclusion, Acknowledgement, References.

Title Page

Title page should contain title of the paper in bold face, title case (font size 14), names of theauthors in normal face, upper case (font size 12) followed by the address in normal face lower case.The author to whom all correspondence be addressed should be denoted by an asterisk mark. Thetitle should be as short as possible and precisely indicate the nature of the work in the communication.Names of the authors should appear as initials followed by surnames. At the bottom left corner of thetitle page, please mention “*Address For correspondence” and provide a functional e-mail address.Address of the corresponding author to whom all correspondence may be sent should be given onlyif is different from the address already given under author’s names.

Abstract

Should start on a new page after the title page and should be typed in single-space to distinguishit from the Introduction. Abstracts should briefly reflect all aspects of the study, as most databases listmainly abstracts.

Key-words

Provide four to six appropriate key words after abstract.

Introduction

Shall start immediately after the abstract, as the next paragraph, but should be typed in double-space. The Introduction should lead the reader to the importance of the study; tie-up publishedliterature with the aims of the study and clearly states the rationale behind the investigation.

Materials and Methods

Shall start as a continuation to introduction on the same page. All important materials usedalong with their source shall be mentioned. The main methods used shall be briefly described, citingreferences. Trivial details may be avoided. New methods or substantially modified methods may bedescribed in sufficient detail. The statistical method and the level of significance chosen shall beclearly stated. IJSIR prefers to publish work that has been subjected to an appropriate statistical testat one level of significance.


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Results

All findings presented in tabular or graphical form shall be described in this section. The datashould be statistically analyzed and the level or significance stated. Data that is not statisticallysignificant need only to be mentioned in the text – no illustration is necessary. All tables and figuresmust have a title or caption and legend to make them self-explanatory. Results section shall startafter materials and methods section on the same page.

Discussion

This section should follow results, deal with the interpretation of result, convey how they helpincrease current understanding of the problem and should be logical. Unsupported hypothesis shouldbe avoided. The Discussion should state the possibilities the results uncover that need to be furtherexplored. There is no need to include another title such as “Conclusions” at the end of Discussion.Results and discussion of results can also be combined under one section, Results and Discussion.

Acknowledgements

Should be given after the text and not in the form of foot-notes.

References

Should be numbered consecutively in the order in which they are first mentioned in the text (notin alphabetic order). Identify references in text, tables and legends by Arabic numerals in superscriptin square brackets. References cited only in tables or figure legends should be numbered inaccordance with the sequence established by the first identification in the text of the particular tableor figure.

Journal Articles

Singh N., Verma P., Pandey B.R., Gilca M. Role of Withania somnifera in Prevention and Treatmentof Cancer: An Overview. International Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Drug Research. 2011;3(4): 274-279.

A Book

Singh N, Gilca M. Herbal Medicine – Science embraces tradition – a new insight into the ancientAyurveda. Edn 1, Lambert Academic Publishing (Germany), 2010, pp. 115-116.

A chapter in a Book

Nadkarni KM, Indian Materia Medica. Edn 3, Vol. I, Popular Prakashan, Mumbai, 2000, pp. 242-246.

A Report

World Health Organization. The World Health Report 2004: changing history.Geneva: WHO; 2004.

Conference Proceedings

Stock A, Signal Trasduction in Bacheria. In the Proceedings of the 2004 Markey ScholarsConference. 2004, pp. 80-89.

A Thesis

Strunk, JL. The extraction of mercury from sediment and the geochemical partitioning of mercuryin sediments from Lake Superior, M.S. thesis, Michigan State Univ. East Lansing, Ml, 1991

Illustrations

Tables – Should be typed on separate sheets of paper and should not preferably contain any

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molecular structures. Only MS word table format should be used for preparing tables. Tables shouldshow lines separating columns but not those separating rows except for the top row that showscolumn captions. Tables should be numbered consecutively in Arabic numerals and bear a brief titlein capital letters normal face. Tables should not be very large that they run more than one A4 sizedpage.

Figures

Should be on separate pages but not inserted within the text. Figures should be numberedconsecutively in Arabic numerals and bear a brief title in lower case bold face letters below the figure.Graphs and bar graphs should preferably be prepared using Microsoft Excel and submitted as Excelgraph pasted in MS Word.

Abbreviations, Units Etc

Authors should follow internationally agreed rules especially those adopted by the IUPAC-IUBCommission on Biochemical Nomenclature (CBN). The journal will essentially follow the rules definedin the IUPAC Manual of symbols and terminology for physico-chemical quantities and units.

Short Communications

The journal publishes exciting findings, preliminary data or studies that did not yield enoughinformation to make a full paper as short communications. These have the same format requirementsas full papers but are only up to 10 pages in length in total. Short Communications should not havesubtitles such as Introduction, Materials and Methods, Results and Discussion – all these have to bemust into the running text. Short Communications preferably should have only 3-4 illustrations.

Review Articles

Should be about 15-30 pages long, contain up-to-date information, comprehensively coverrelevant literature and preferably be written by scientists who have in -depth knowledge on the topic.All format requirements are same as those applicable to full papers. Review articles need not bedivided into section such as materials and methods and results and discussions, but should definitelyhave an abstract and introduction if necessary.

Submission of Manuscript

All manuscripts (must be in English and in MS Word format) and should be submitted via ouronline system or through e-mail [email protected], as an attachment for quick evaluation.

Manuscript Charges

There is no charge for the processing of papers but author(s) of each accepted paper is requiredto pay a publication charge of Rs. 2,000 for Indian authors and US $ 125 for foreign authors beforethe accepted paper is published.

Copyright and Permissions

Submission is a representation that the manuscript has not been published previously and isnot under consideration for publication elsewhere. Authors would be required to sign a form (to besupplied by the Editor) transferring copyright before the manuscript can be published. By submittinga manuscript to the editor or publisher you are deemed to have granted permission to publish themanuscript.

Ethical Matters

Authors using experimental animals and human subjects in their investigation must seek approvalfrom the appropriate Ethical Committee. The method section must include a statement to prove that


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the investigation was approved and that informed consent was obtained.

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Proofs will sent via e-mail as an Acrobat PDF (Portable Document Format) file. Acrobat Reader willbe required in order to read the PDF.

Manuscript Submission Process:

1. First you should Read “Author Instructions” and

2. Download “Cover letter” -fill the necessary fields and scan it and send to our email addressalong with manuscript or Upload through Online Manuscript submission option.

3. Submit your prepared manuscript through email or Online submission option.

4. Download “Copy Right Form” and Sign it (by the corresponding/main author) and sendits scanned copy only to Email ID [email protected].

(Without this signed undertaking your paper would not getdisplayed.)

Track Your Manuscript: New Option of our IJSIR web portal.

You can track the status of your manuscript through the online production process. Please provideyour Manuscript ID to know the status.

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COVER LETTER

Date

Place

From

(Name and Address of the corresponding author)

To,

Editor-in-Chief

International Journal of Scientific and Innovative Research (IJSIR)

Sir,

Ref: Title

Type

Subject

Branch

In reference to the above title, I as a corresponding author submit the manuscript for

publication in International Journal of Scientific and Innovative Research. I undertake that

animal study (if any) was taken after the prior approval of country/institutional ethical committee.

This manuscript has not been published or considered for publication by any other journal or

elsewhere. Kindly consider the manuscript for publication in your journal.

Thank you

Corresponding author name


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