Intro to Social Science & Intro to Social Science & History of Media EffectsHistory of Media Effects

What is Social Science What is Social Science Research?Research?Research = An attempt to

discover somethingSocial Science = An examination

of how people interact with objects in their environment ◦Testing theory

Basic methodology

Hypothesis

eExperiment

Conclusion

AristotleAristotle 384 BCE – 322 BCE384 BCE – 322 BCE

Giovanni BenedettiGiovanni Benedetti

Performed the ball drop experiment

Ways of KnowingWays of KnowingWe “know” lots of things. How do we

know:

◦It’s hot outside◦Veggies are good for you◦Opposites attract◦Smoking causes cancer

Everyday Ways of Everyday Ways of KnowingKnowingTenacity/Tradition

◦It’s always been true You eat Turkey on Thanksgiving

◦Tied to prior held beliefs◦Beliefs are hard to change◦What if knowledge has changed but

beliefs haven’t? The Earth is 6000 years old Humans can’t affect the climate

Everyday Ways of Everyday Ways of KnowingKnowingAuthority

◦Someone (who should know) says so Doctor diagnosis Mommy says so

◦What if that person is wrong?◦Again, hard to change and may not consider new information

Everyday Ways of Everyday Ways of KnowingKnowingIntuition or Logic

◦Truth is self-evident Common sense

◦What if two individuals’ common sense tell them different things? Politics Religion

Problems with “Everyday” Problems with “Everyday” WaysWaysFilters how we process info

◦False premise; Illogical reasoning◦Selective observation; expectations

Everyday ways of knowing can even lead to conflicting ideas about “truth”◦Absence makes the heart grow fonder

◦Out of sight, out of mind

Scientific MethodScientific MethodThe 4th “way of knowing”Requires systematic analysisAlways open to new information

◦Nothing is ever “proven” with scienceTests questions of fact, not questions

of value◦How do customers react to this

advertisement?◦Is it ethical to try to get people to

buy things?

Differences between hard and social sciences

Hard sciences deal with the inanimate or nonhumans, like elements and forces and animals

Social science deals with people

MethodologiesObservation

◦Reduce variables as much as possible

MethodologiesSurveys

◦Administer questionnaires to research subjects

◦Be careful with wording the questions

◦Be careful of question order

SurveysSurveys◦Be careful with wording the

questions◦Be careful of question order

MethodologiesFocus groups

◦Small panel of people who discuss what the researcher interested in

◦Problems with maintaining focus◦Danger of one person dominating

discussion

MethodologiesContent analysis

◦Counting things to get statistics◦Sample size must be large enough◦Time consuming◦Must specifically define what you’re

looking for

What are Media Effects?What are Media Effects?Media effects approach

◦focus on audiences (vs. media system) Try to reduce variables

◦specification of influence (vs. uses)◦attribution of influence to media

Types of Outcomes in Effects Types of Outcomes in Effects Research Research BehavioralBehavioral – Buying a product – Buying a product AttitudinalAttitudinal – creating a favorable – creating a favorable

attitude towards a political candidate attitude towards a political candidate (affect)(affect)

CognitiveCognitive – Candidate XX is stupid – Candidate XX is stupid (belief) (belief)

PhysiologicalPhysiological – jumping from a scene – jumping from a scene in a scary moviein a scary movie

Effects can be complicated: Effects Effects can be complicated: Effects of Violent TV on Males and of Violent TV on Males and Females’ AggressionFemales’ Aggression

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Eras of Media Effects IEras of Media Effects IMagic bullet / uniform effects

◦Also know as Direct Effects◦Pre-1945◦Focus on war propaganda

Eras of Media Effects IIEras of Media Effects IILimited (or Indirect) effects

◦Late 1940s to early 1970s research showed little impact of media on attitudes and behaviors Two-Step Flow: media --> opinion leader

--> publicl. Study)

Two-Step FlowTwo-Step FlowSome argued this was still an

example of strong media effects

Eras of Media Effects IIIEras of Media Effects IIIPowerful effects in limited areas

◦Early 1970s to present◦Move to focus on cognitions and

perceptions◦Focus becomes not if there are

media effects, but when they are most likely to occur Conditional effects