introducing systemic functional grammar

8/11/2019 Introducing Systemic Functional Grammar

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Chapter 1

INTRODUCTIONFunctionalism refers to an approach to language with reference to roles or

functions played by language (or rather functions given by human beings to language intheir lives as social beings). An application of functional approach (also knownfunctional linguistics) to language results in functional grammar. The notion of functional approach to language (or Functional Grammar) in this book is interpreted ascovering three related meanings, namely functional in terms of human needs, functionalwith reference to use of language and functional in terms of linguistic constituentrelations.

Firstly, functional approach to the study of language is based on the principle thatlanguage is structured in response to the needs of people as social beings. anguage inuse or text , which is everything that is said, written, or signaled, forms in conte!t that isspecifically often referred to as social conte!t. "n this way language evolves in line withhuman needs for language in their social settings. "n other words, this implies that thestructure of language in use or rather the structure of te!t is motivated and determined byneeds of the society where the language is used. "n this sense, if a tiger is available in asociety and members of the society need to identify and describe the animal, the languagespoken by the members of the society will have a word for tiger. #imilarly, the need of the society to identify various kinds of food made from rice, such as "ndonesians with thestaple food of rice, results in numerous le!ical items related to the food in "ndonesiancommunities. "n "ndonesian more than fifty words are used to indicate foods from rice,such as pulu t $sticky glutinous rice%, lontong $condensed soft boiled rice packed in

banana leaf%, tapai $fermented rice%, lemang $sticky rice cooked in coconut milk in thetube of bamboo%, etc, whereas &nglish has the only word rice . The availability of wordsmeaning tiger and indicating various types of food from rice are physical rather than

social conte!ts. "n functional tradition, particularly in systemic functional grammar theconte!t is taken to be social rather than physical one. Thus, in this book the conte!t ismeant, (unless otherwise stated) the social conte!t.

#econdly, functional approach maintains a concept that human beings uselanguage in order to fulfill three functions in their lives, which are known as themetafunctions , namely (') to represent, ( ) to e!change and ( ) to organi*e e!perience.Technically these metafunctions are termed as ideational, interpersonal and textualfunctions respectively. The ideational metafunction divides into experiential function ,where language is used to describe e!perience and logical function , where language isused to relate (units of) e!perience. As function e+uals meaning it is said that languageconveys four kinds of meaning, namely experiential, logical, interpersonal and textual

meanings. Thus, the grammar of language centers on and is described with reference thefour metafunctions or meanings. This implies that the grammar or rather le!icogrammar of one language is constituted by the e!periential, logical, interpersonal and te!tual(le!ico)grammar.

Thirdly, functional approach implies that each element or unit of language in anylevel is e!plained by reference to its function in the total linguistic system. "n this sense,clauses, phrases, words, morphemes, and so on are interpreted as functional with respectto the whole. "n other words, a unit does something or functions in a bigger unit above it



in which it is an element, and finally the function of each unit is eventually determined bythe function of language use.

Grammar is based on a certain value, assumption, view or belief. There is nogrammar that is free from value. The theory of grammar or grammatics varies in termsof school of linguistics. The underlying theories have resulted in various kinds of

grammar such as traditional grammar, universal grammar, word grammar, stratificationalgrammar, and transformational grammar as developed by homsky, to name only a few.-owever, all kinds of grammar are grouped into two categories logical-philosophical or known as the formal grammar and ethnographic-descriptive or known as the functionalgrammar. #ystemic Functional Grammar (#FG) belongs to the ethnographic-descriptive group. The main differences between the two kinds of grammar aresummari*ed in Table ' below.

Ta le 1 !ogical"#hilosophical and $thnographic-Descriptive %pproachNo& %spect !ogical-- #hilosophical $thnographic"

Descriptive

'. /rientation form0meaningformal meaning0formfunctionalAssumption language as form language as resourcesanguage is closelyrelated to

mind, neurology, and psychology

social phenomena,sociology and socialconte!ts

1 Grammar isconsidered relatedto

logic, sentence anthropology, te!t

2 3ethod of Analysis scientific, no social conte!t,ideali*ed data

semiotics, social conte!t,natural language data

4 5roponents 3odistae, 6loomfield,homsky, 5ike -7elmslev, 3atesius, Firth,-alliday, 3artin, 89 3ainly developed in :#A &urope

"n #FG theory, the use of language is conte!tually dependent. This is to say that ate!t forms in conte!ts and is therefore determined, motivated, or shaped by the conte!t./n the other hand, the te!t itself determines or shapes its conte!ts. This is technicallyunderstood as the te!t construes conte!t. Thus, there is a construal relation between thete!t and its conte!t. "n systemic theory the conte!t consists of conte!t of situation'register(, culture 'genre( and ideolog) .

A te!t is a semantic unit. "t is not a grammatical unit. "n addition, it forms in an

interaction between the addresser and the addressee. -owever, it is reali*ed by grammar or le!icogrammar. As a semantic unit, a te!t may be reali*ed by a sound, word, phrase,clause, sentence or paragraph. "n other words a te!t may be a sound, word, phrase,clause, clause comple! or sentence or the whole draft of a book. ;hatever a unit of language may be, as long as it e!presses meaning in its conte!t it is considered as a te!t.



1 *oundA sound is a te!t when the sound makes sense in its conte!t. The sound <hai= Hi

uttered by someone in the conte!t where s>he meets a friend is a te!t since the e!pressionmeans a greeting. #imilarly the sounds <m= M ..m and <∂= Er..er are te!ts since theyconvey meanings as indicated in the following conversations. "n conversation (') the <m=

means $?es, " am following what you are saying% and in ( ) the sound means $" amdoubtful%

(')A " went to the *oo. Then " met his brother. After that " took a short walk around thetown6 M..m..m

( )A &r..er..6 ?es, sir what can " do for you@

+ ordA word is a te!t or discourse as long as it conveys meaning in its conte!t. "n the

conversation below the te!t or discourse is reali*ed by word in which two friends greeteach other.

( )A -ello6 -i

#hrase and sentences

5hrases and sentences represent a te!t or discourse as shown in the following (1).(1)Frank -ello. 3ay " speak to Alice, please@Alice #peakingFrank -i, Alice. This is Frank. ;ould you like to go to a movie tonight@Alice Thank, "%d love to....

.& #aragraphA paragraph constitutes a te!t or discourse as presented in (2).

(2)Gold, a precious stone, is pri*ed for two important characteristics. First of all gold has a

lustrous beauty that is resistant to corrosion (chemical damage). Therefore, it is suitablefor 7ewelry, coins and ornamental purposes. Gold never needs to be polished and willremain beautiful forever. For e!ample, a 3acedonian coin remains as untarnished(unchanged in color) today as the day it was minted twenty centuries ago. Another important characteristic of gold is its usefulness to industry and science. For many years,it has been used in hundreds of industrial applications. The most recent use of gold is inastronauts% suits. Astronauts wear gold plated heat shields for protections outside thespaceship. "n conclusion, gold is treasured not only for its beauty, but also for its utility.



"n terms of its medium, te!t may be spoken or written. A spoken te!t is onewhich is reali*ed through the medium of sounds, such as conversations or songs. Awritten te!t is one which is reali*ed by script or letters, such as a letter or document.-owever, a spoken or written te!t has le!iogrammatical aspects due to the effect of the

medium. "n other words the spokenness or writtenness of the te!t is attributed not only tothe medium but also to the le!icogrammatical characteristics.A te!t is reali*ed in le!icogrammar. "ts reali*ation in le!icogrammar is natural in

the sense that a te!t is determined by the conte!t of situation which further divides intothe field, which is what the use of language is about, tenor , which refers to participants(and their relations) in the use of language or interaction, and mode which is the mediumor manner of the use of language. As an element of conte!t, genre refers to staged, goaloriented social activities. Genre is culturally bound in the sense that social structuredetermines potential combination of field, tenor and mode. "n addition a genre alsodetermines stages of social interaction. "deology, a very abstract element of socialconte!t, refers to a social construct that says what one should and>or should not do.

This book is prepared for Functional Grammar lecture at the &nglish BepartmentFaculty of anguages and Arts (F6#) the #tate :niversity of 3edan. The theory behindthe description of grammar in this book is that of #ystemic Functional inguistics (#F ).-owever, this is not to say that this book is an account of systemic functional linguistics.#pecifically, this book is focused on the syntagmatic (not that of paradigmatic) aspects of #F .

"n terms of current educational trend in "ndonesia, the book is designed on the basis of competency based curriculum (known as kurikulum berbasis kompetensi or C6C for short). After covering the materials in this book it is e!pected that the students gainthe competence of analy*ing te!ts related to their potential professions or occupationsand e!pertise after the completion of their studies, such as ability to analy*e editorialte!ts of newspapers, te!ts of advertisements, te!ts of business contracts, politicians%doctrines and te!ts of the court. This very broad competency is elaborated in eachchapter of the book.

This book is designed to be used by the lecturer and the students for a period of '1 session class meetings each lasting for 'DD minutes which is known as #C# (credits) in "ndonesian higher education system. For practical use each chapter of the

book divides into sections of /rientation, Analysis, Troubleshooting, &!ercises, Eeview onte!tuali*ation and Further Eeading.

'1( O /ective presents general and specific instructional ob7ectives e!pected to beachieved in one unit of lesson or chapter of the book. The ob7ective is based onthe competency e!pected of the students after completing the books. #pecifically,the competency is based on the potential professions and e!pertise of the students.The competency based ob7ective serves as a guide for the students to see how far they have achieved what is e!pected of them. This is also a basis for the lecturer to evaluate the students% achievement.

1



Chapter +

T R%N*ITI7IT8 9 C!%U*$ %* R$#R$*$NT%TION1 O /ectivesa :eneral Instructional O /ective

After completing this chapter you are e!pected to be competent to apply the theoriesof transitivity accurately in te!t analysis in terms of e!periential function of language.

*pecific Instructional O /ectivesAfter studying the materials in this chapter you are e!pected to be competent to

analy*e te!ts of daily activities. #pecifically you are e!pected to be competent') to identify processes in the te!ts) to classify processes into their types) to analy*e te!ts using labels of transitivity1) to distinguish the same form of process in different conte!ts of use.

+ Orientation/ne of the functions of language is to construe or represent e!perience.

Eeali*ation of language as e!perience is seen in a clause. This is because a clause isconsidered as a unit of e!perience, which is constituted by three elements, namely

process, participant(s) and circumstance. A process refers to activity done which ise+uivalent to verb in traditional terminology. 5articipants are persons or things, whichare involved in a process. A circumstance indicates situations or surroundings in whichthe process occurs. The notion of circumstance is e+uivalent to adverbs in traditionalterminology. "n the clause The man bought a book yesterday, bought is the process, boththe man and a book are the participants and yesterday is the circumstance. &ach of thethree elements is subdivided in the following sections.

a #rocess5rocesses are specifically categori*ed into si! types namely material, mental,

relational, behavioral, verbal and e!istential processes. The categories of process are based on semantic or syntactic criteria or both. As the processes are numerous only a fewe!amples are given as representatives in the following subsections.

1( ;aterial #rocess#emantically material processes indicate activities or events, which happen in the

outside world of human beings. "n other words, material process occurs outside human beings. This process refers to physical e!perience of human beings. #yntactically the

unmarked tense associated to material process is the present continuous tense. This is tosay that material processes are normally acceptable in the present continuous tense. Theverbs run, buy, and write in the clauses the boy is running, my son bought a new car last

year , and she has written a lette r are material processes.

+( ;ental #rocess3ental processes refer to verbs indicating perception, cognition , affection and

desire . #emantically a mental process involves sense, which is inside the human or

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conscious being. 3ental process is related to psychological matters. #yntactically theunmarked tense associated with this type of process is the simple present tense. "naddition, the participant that is related to the sense must be a conscious or human being."t is a re+uirement of this process that one of the participants must be human or considered as human being (as in the case of literature). To e!emplify, the verbs know,

like and hear are mental in the clauses I know his name, do you like the new car? and Thewitness heard her oice . Further, a mental process has potential to pro7ect another clauseinitiated by that clause (see hapter 4).

Another feature of mental process is bi directional. This is to say that the participantsin the clauses are reversible. To e!emplify, in a mental clause I like the story , the reverseis the story pleases me , with the mental process like is parallel to please . Thus, thehuman participant as the doer of the mental process may be reversed to whom the mental

process is addressed to by the other participant that is typically thing. The clause with thehuman participant as the doer of the mental process is known as the clause of $like% type,whereas the reverse is called the $please% type. The $like% and $please% types clause of mental process are e!emplified in (4) with the processes of like, notice, en!oy, belie e,

"ear, admire, "orget , and resent as the $like% type and the mental processes of please,strike, delight, convince, frighten, impress, escape, and annoy as the $please% type.

(4)The $like% type The $please% type

#he likes the story. The story pleases her " noticed the announcement. The announcement struck me;e en7oy the dance. The dance delights usThe man believes the story. The story convinces the man6enny fears his absence. -is absence frightens 6ennyThey admire the beautiful scenery. The beautiful scenery impresses them" forget the meeting. The meeting escapes meThe people resented the visitors. The visitors annoyed the people.

( Relational #rocessEelational process construes being and relation among entities through identification,

attribution and possession. The process occurs out side and inside human being andtypically indicates identification, attribution and possession. #yntactically the process

belongs to the HcopulaI construction. The common verbs belonging to this type are #E (is, am, are, was, were, have been, etc.), become, seem, cost, weigh , etc. The verbs in theclauses My son is a doctor , The car was in my garage , and The pro"essor seemed unhappy , she has got a car are relational.

.( 7er al #rocesserbal processes show activities related to information. #pecifically, the process includesthat of saying, commanding, asking, and offering. #yntactically the process can pro7ectanother clause. The verbs say, tell, ask , to name only a few, in clauses $he said %Good morning&, My uncle told me a story about his trip to #ali and He asked me where I put the book are verbal.

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#articipants1( #articipant I and II

The core or nucleus of an e!perience in a clause is the process. As the nucleus the process controls the participants. #pecifically it is found that a process has an ability to

bind or attract the participants. The capacity of a process to attract or tie participant isknown as valency. Bue to the potential of the process to bind the participants, it isdetermined that the participants are labeled according to the process types.

5rocesses are classified in terms of the valency. A process which has a capacity to bind, tie or attract one participant such as in )li slept is called monovalent . Further, processes which bind two and three participants such as shown in the clauses )li hit thecat and )li sent his son a letter are respectively called ivalent and trivalent . A processmay bind no participant at all such as in the clause It rained, hailed, snowed, dri**led where rained, hailed, snowed, dri**led attract no participant are called avalent . Thevalency of a process is indicated in Figure .

6igure + 7alenc) of #rocess

For practical purpose, the participants divide into one that does the activity(5articipant ") and one that the process is done or addressed to (5articipant ""). Toe!emplify, the labels for participants in the material process are )ctor (participant ") andGoal (5articipant ""). Thus, in the clause My son bought a new car , my son is Actor anda new car is Goal. ;ith reference to the process types the labels for participants aresummari*ed in the following Table .

K



Ta le + Characteristics of #rocessNo& #rocess

T)pe*emantic 6eatures *)ntactic 6eatures

' 3aterial out side human being, physical the unmarked form L"MGrun, do, work, write 8

3ental inside human being, psychological, one participantmust be human, reversible

cognitionaffection

perceptiondesire

the unmarked form not inL"MG form, pro7ecting (that) clause bi directional or reversible (withthe $like% and $please% type)know, reali*e, remember...like, lo e, hate+

see, "eel, hear+want, wish, intend, wander 8

Eelational outside and inside human being

identificationattribution

possession

the syntactic structures M N 6& N M

M N 6& N ABO M N 6& N AB #E is, are, was..- become, sound, look, play, cost, ha e, get own, posses, weigh+

1 6ehavioural physiological unmarked with one participantonly

sleep, smile, die, bow, cough 82 erbal indicating information and

verbal activities pro7ecting (that) clause8 say, tell, ask, order, instruct

4 &!istential indicating e!istence There N 6& N M8

There N 8There is a car in the garageThere came a man

+( #articipant IIIThe participant functions previously described are directly related to the process.

-owever, there are other participant functions which have preposition as intermediary. "naddition, there is another function which is specific to one type of process. The other

participant functions are categori*ed as 6eneficiary, Eange and Target.

a( <eneficiar)

6eneficiary is a participant to whom>which or for whom>which the process is saidto give benefit. The participant functions may occur with material, verbal andoccasionally in relational processes.

"n a material process the beneficiary may be either Eecipient or lient with theEecipient being a function that goods services are given to and the lient being afunction that goods services are done for. orrespondingly, the Eecipient typicallyoccurs with preposition to and the lient with for& -owever, in reality the prepositionmay be clearly stated or implicitly understood by its occurrence. "n the clauses -e sent a

'D



;hen a process is the part of a Eange, the 5rocess is deletable and transferred intothe Eange. "n this situation, the 5rocess takes the form of the 5articipant. "n thefollowing e!amples, the Eange is italici*ed with the corresponding 5rocess in the clause.

(9b)

-e took a bath (material) -e bathedan " have a look at the photo (mental)@ an " look at the photo@They held a discussion (verbal) They discussed-e made a speech (verbal) -e spoke;e had break"ast at 9 (3aterial) ;e breakfasted.;e had a talk (verbal). ;e talked

c( TargetThe Target is the participant function in verbal process. Apart from #ayer,

erbiage and Eeceiver, a participant functions as the Target, which is the 5articipant towhom>which the verbal process is directed or addressed. "n the following clauses, the

Target is italici*ed.(J)The man praised me.The lady insulted my bother .The officer abused some o" the documents .'e were critici*ed by the viewers.;e flattered the naughty boys .

c Circumstancesircumstances are general across process types (precisely because they are less

centrally involved in the process than participants). "n the clause My son bought a car yesterday , yesterday is the circumstance. #pecifically, circumstances divide into ninetypes. &ach of which may also be delicately subdivided. "n the following e!amples, thecircumstances with e!amples are presented in a table.

'



Tale . CircumstancesT)pes of Circumstance

*u categories #ro e $xamples of Reali4ation

'. &!tent temporal for how long@ for three hours

every three hoursspatial how far@ for si! miles. ocation temporal when@ in #eptember

before teaspatial where in the market

in 5arishere

. 3anner how +uicklyas fast as possible

1. ause why because of youfor better results

2. ontingency in whatcircumstances@ in the event of rainin spite of the rainin the absence of proof

4. Accompaniment together with@ with(out) his friendsinstead of them

9. Eole what as@ as a concerned parent(smashed) into pieces

J. 3atter what about@ about thiswith reference to that

K. Angel says who@ according to the #horter /!ford

%nal)sis;ith reference to the types and labels of process, participants and circumstances a

clause is analy*ed into its components. The analyses of a few clauses are presented below.

(K)3y daughter bought a new car yesterdayActor 5rocess 3aterial Goal ircumstance ocation temporal

The boy loves his mother very much

#enser 5rocess 3ental 5henomenon ircumstance manner The old lady told a interesting story last week #ayer 5rocess erbal erbiage ircumstance ocation temporal

The manis a doctor arrier 5rocess Eelational Attribute

'



There was a car in the car park 5rocess &!istential &!istent ircumstance ocation space

. Trou leshootinga& ;aterial or non-material clause=

An important test for distinguishing a material process among the other types of process is to check the unmarked tense selection used to represent present time. "s it thesimple present or the present continuous tense@ /f the three main types only materialclauses favor the present continuous.

('D)Eight now Oane is digging the garden 3aterial processAt the moment Oane likes arty films 3ental processEight now Oane has no energy Eelational process

& ;aterial or relational=A process can function as a relational or a material process. A process isrelational when it indicates relation in space not movement in space. The verb go may berelational or material depending on conte!t as shown in the following.

('')The idea of relativity goes back to Mewton and Galileo (relational0relation in space)The man goes back home (material0movement in space)

c Relational process 2ith identification or attri ution=A relational process with identification is reversible whereas one with attribution

is not reversible. Thus, the pairs of Token0 alue is for reversible relational clausewhereas arrier 0Attribute is irreversible

(' )The man is the doctor (reversible identification)Token 5rocess Eelational alue

The man is a doctor (irreversible0attributive)arrier 5rocess Eelational Attribute d& :ap in interrogative clauses"n interrogative clauses analysis, particularly the 5rocess, is interrupted by the gap. "nsuch a situation the analysis of 5rocess is separated by another clausal element asindicated in the following e!amples.

(' )Bid you go to the party@5rocess Actor 3aterial ircumstance ocation spatial

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;here did you park the car@ircumstance ocation spatial 5rocess Actor 3aterial Goal

0 $xercises

$xercise 19 Biscriminating the process types. abel the following processes in theclauses as relational, verbal, material, mental, behavioral or e!istential.

For e!ample" met the man material#he is my sister relational

'. #he is a very tall woman. ' 8

. The man built a new house. 8. There can be no e!cuse for your absence. 81. #he made a mistake. 1 82. Are you going out@ 2 84. #he told me a story. 4 89. They will be here tomorrow. 9 8J. ;e went to Oakarta last week J 8K. #he smiled a nice smile. K 8'D. The three cats were sleeping in the room 'D 8

$xercise + Biscriminating circumstance types. abel the underlined circumstance in thefollowing clauses.

For e!ampleOohn slept in the car ocation space-e lay with open eyes 3anner

'. Are you going out ' 8. ?ou can come with me 8. "t seemed odd to him 81. -e laughed in spite of himself 1 82. -e played a trick for a laugh 2 84. The man was born in "taly in 'K2J 4 8, 89. "t will rain according to the weather watch 9 8J. ;here did she go@ J 8K. ;hen did his uncle arrive@ K 8'D. -ow often do you go to the party@ 'D 8

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Chapter

* #$$C> 6 UNCTION* %ND ; OOD* 9 C!%U*$ %* $?C>%N:$

1 O /ectivesa :eneral Instructional O /ective

After completing this chapter you are e!pected to be competent to accurately analy*ete!ts of daily activities and academics in terms of interpersonal meaning systems.

*pecific Instructional O /ectivesAfter studying the material sin this chapter you are e!pected to be able

') to identify speech function,) to identify types of 3ood in te!ts) to label elements of clauses with reference to 3ood systems1) to match speech functions with 3ood systems2) to distinguish different functions of the same element of clause in the 3ood

systems.

+ Orientationanguage is simultaneously used as representation, e!change and organi*ation of

e!perience (-alliday 'KK1 4JP ;ilson #perber 'KK ' ). As social beings, humankinds can not live isolatedP they need to interact with others in order to fulfill their needs.The use of language to interact is said to perform interpersonal function.

The interpersonal function is reali*ed at two levels namely at the level of (discourse) semantics and le!icogrammar which is termed 3ood. At the level of semantics human being perform two roles namely G " "MG and B &3AMB"MG . Thecommodity e!changed may be either " MF/E3AT"/M or G //B# # &E " &# . ;hen theroles and commodities are cross classified, four specific activities or speech functions

are derived as summari*ed in the Table 2.

Ta le 0 *peech 6unctionsR O!$* C O;;ODIT8

" MF/E3AT"/M G//B # &E " &#

G" "MG statement offer B &3AMB"MG +uestion command

The term speech function is used in this book rather than the speech act since thelatter is related to formal interpretation. #peech function is more oriented to functionalinterpretation, specifically systemic functional one. ;hen the roles and commodity areintersected or cross classified with reference to systemic functional linguistic theories, asdeveloped by -alliday ('KK1), 3atthiessen ('KK ) and other systemicists, four speechfunctions are resulted as summari*ed in ('1)

('1)(a) <giving>information= Q statement

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(b) <demand>information= Q +uestion(c) <give>goods services= Q offer (d) <demand>goods services= Q command

The four speech functions are semantic in nature. They find their reali*ations in

3ood which is an aspect of interpersonal meaning at the level of le!icogrammar (-alliday 'KK ). "n their unmarked or congruent representations the speech functions of statement, /uestion and command are reali*ed by declarati e, interrogati e andimperati e 3oods. -owever, the speech function of offer does not have an unmarkedrepresentation of 3oodP rather it is potentially coded by any one of the three 3oods. "n&nglish the unmarked reali*ations of the speech functions are summari*ed in thefollowing figure.

#5&&,- F:M,T"/M

statement offer

+uestion command

declarative

interrogative imperative

/

3//B

Q $reali*ed by%

Eeali*ation of speech functionin 3oods

6igure Reali4ations of *peech 6unctions in ;ood

"n &nglish a statement may be either positive or negative such as He came to theo""ice yesterday and He did not come to the o""ice yesterday . These are coded by positiveand negative declarative mood respectively. A +uestion may be either information+uestion (wh +uestion) or yes>no +uestion such as 'here did you go last week? and 1id

you go to the mo ie? respectively . ike a statement, an imperative may be positive or negative as in 2pen the door3 or 4lease don5t smoke here R. An offer may be coded by astatement such as 0et me take the book "or you.

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The four speech functions are initiated by the speaker. "n real interaction, theinterlocutor i.e. the addressee in his>her turn also responds to the speech functions

produced by the speaker i.e. the addresser. "n other words, a speech function by anaddresser is responded by the addressee. 3artin ('KK 24) holds that when the initiation

and response as orientation of both the interlocutors are taken into account, other four speech functions are derived, thus making eight speech functions. The derivations of speech functions are summari*ed in a system network as represented in the followingfigure.

Eoles

,ommodity

/rientation

Give

Bemand"nformation

Goods F #ervices

"nitiating

Eesponding

&

! c

h a

n g

e &

! p

e r i

e n c e

6igure . *)stem Net2or@ of *peech 6unctions

;ith reference to the figure, systemically eight speech functions are derived asfollows

('2)

(') <give>information>initiating= Q statement (#)( ) <give>information>responding= Q acknowledge statement (A#)( ) <demand>information>initiating= Q +uestion (S)(1) <demand>information>responding= Q response statement to +uestion (E#S)(2) <give>goods services>initiating= Q offer (/)

'K



(4) <give>goods services>responding= Q acknowledge offer (A/)(9) <demand>goods services>initiating= Q command ( )(J) <demand>goods services>responding= Q response offer to command (E/ )

#peech functions may be coded in congruent or incongruent representations. As

stated earlier, statement, +uestion and command may be congruently coded bydeclarative, interrogative and imperative moods respectively. "t is not uncommon to findthat a statement is coded by the interrogative 3ood as seen in the following conversationwhich involves two friends in which they e!change their e!perience related to their children. As shown in the analysis below 6%s 1id he? is an A# speech function which istypically coded by a declarative mood. -owever, in the conversation the A# is coded byan interrogative mood which is a marked reali*ation. A speech function may be coded byan elliptical mood or minor. 6y minor is meant an e!pression which has no process or verb. ;hen the speech functions are analy*ed and their reali*ations in le!icogrammar are found the following descriptions are derived.

('4) CON7$R*%TION *#$$C>6UNCTION ;OOD

A 3y son passed the entrance test@ # Beclarative6 Bid he@ A# "nterrogativeA ?es # &lliptical Bec. " am very happy # BeclarativeA ongratulation to your son. A# 3inor -ow is your daughter@ S "nterrogative6 #he is fine. E#S Beclarative #he is doing her #panish # BeclarativeA Bid she go to 3e!ico@ S "nterrogative6 Mo. E#S &lliptical Bec. 6ut she will be attending a course in #pain this #ummer. # BeclarativeA Good. A# 3inor

"n its function as an e!change of e!perience or interpersonal function, a clause isconstituted by five structural elements, namely *u /ect, 6inite, #redicator,Complement and %d/unct . #ub7ect and Finite form 3//B whereas 5redicator,omplement and Ad7unct constitute E&#"B:&. Thus, a clause divides into two main

parts 3//B and E&#"B:&. 3//B marks a clause as declarative, interrogative andimperative which are respectively reali*ation of the speech functions of statement,+uestion and command. The elements of clause in terms of interpersonal function areelaborated as the following.

# :6O& T is something (person or thing) which is argued about. The #ub7ect functions asthe resting point of the argument (-alliday DD1 hapter 1). The notion of #ub7ect infunctional grammar is to some e!tent e+uivalent to the term #ub7ect in traditional

D



grammar. -owever, the function of #ub7ect indicates the resting point o" the message inthe clause. "n the clause The man bought a new car , the #ub7ect is the man .

F"M"T& is defined as verbal operator that is an aspect of verbal phrase which, togetherwith #ub7ect, makes something arguable. "n The man bought a new car , the Finite is did .

#imilarly, in (ane sells books the Finite is does . #pecifically, the split of Finite from verbor verb phrase is shown as the following, where the Finite is italici*ed.

('9)- bought Q did L buy- sells Q does L sell- has done Q has L done- write Q do L write

5 E&B" AT/E is the verb phrase minus Finite. "n The man bought a new car , the5redicator is buy. #imilarly, in (ane sells books , the 5redicator is sell . The predicators

are italici*ed in the following verb phrases.('J)

came Q did L comewill come Q will L comehas written Q has L writtenwill have done Q will L ha e done

As indicated in the e!amples, the 5redicator and Finite are easily represented in ane+uation as QFL5, where , F and F respectively stands for erb, Finite and 5redicator.This e+uation implies that FQ 5 and 5Q F.

/35 &3&MT is an element of clause which is potential to become the #ub7ect. Thenotion of omplement is e+uivalent to the term /b7ect in traditional grammar. "n Theman bought a new book , a new book is the omplement. -owever, not all elements ofclause functioning as the omplement can be changed to #ub7ect and the omplement isnot fully similar to the notion of /b7ect in traditional terminology as shown in the clause

(ohn is a doctor where a doctor functions as the omplement in systemic functionalgrammar.

ABO:M T is an element of the clause which is not potential to be promoted to be the#ub7ect. The notion of Ad7unct is e+uivalent to adverb in traditional grammar. "n theclause He came to my house yesterday , to my house and yesterday "unction as the

)d!unct.

The #ub7ect and Finite are two main structural elements which operate amechanism whereby the 3ood is determined. "n other words, #ub7ect and Finitedetermine and mark the types of 3ood of a clause. "n the conversation below A and 6

7ust repeat she and did as the #ub7ect and Finite respectively to change and move fromone 3ood to another.

'



The interrelations among the elements of clause to 3//B and E&#"B:& aresummari*ed in Table 4.

Ta le ;OOD and R$*IDU$ elements#ub7ect

; O O DFinite5redicator

R $ * I D U $omplementAd7unct

"n &nglish the 3ood is coded by the elements of #ub7ect and Finite. The twoelements are turned to and fro as in the following conversation where the conversantmanipulates only the #ub7ect she and Finite did .

('K)

A Oane came to my office yesterday.6 1id she?A ?es, she did 6 $he didn5t A $he did 6 $he did not A $he did for sure6 $he didn5t for God%s sake

As e!emplified in the conversation a Beclarative 3ood is coded by both the#ub7ect and Finite with that order. This is systemically coded as #ub7ect Finite, where

means $followed by%. Further, the 3ood of interrogative divides into two categories,namely polar interrogative with the structure of F "M"T& # :6O& T and wh interrogativewith structure ;- F"M"T& # :6O& T . The polar interrogative is also known as yes>nointerrogative (since the response re+uired is ether ye or no) and the wh +uestion is alsocalled content or information +uestion. The ;h words include what, who, where, when,which, whose, why and how. A system network for the 3ood in &nglish is presented inFigure 2.

5olar



6igure 0 *)stem Net2or@ of ;ood&

The following table summari*es 3ood with their reali*ations by the twostructural elements of #ub7ect and Finite.

Tale 5 The Coding of ;ood;ood Codin gBeclarative #ub7ect Finite

"nterrogative Finite #ub7ect5olar "mperative (#ub7ect) Finite 5redicator ;(h) "nterrogative ;(h) Finite (#ub7ect)

%nal)sisA clause as representation of e!change is analy*ed in terms of the structural

elements of interpersonal meaning. "n other words, a clause is analy*able with respect tothe functions of #ub7ect, Finite, 5redicator, omplement and Ad7unct. The followinganalyses are meant to e!emplify the 3ood analysis.

( D) 3y son bought a new car last week.3y son did buy a new car yesterday#ub7ect Finite 5redicator omplement Ad7unct

3 / / B E & # " B : &

( ') The secretary has sent the letter to ondon.The secretar y has sent the letter to ondon#ub7ect Finite 5redicator omplement Ad7unct

3 / / B E & # " B : &

( ) ast week the man came to my house.ast week the man did come to my houseAd7unct #ub7ect Finite 5redicator Ad7unct

E & 3 / / B # " B : &

"ndicative

"mperative

Beclarative

"nterrogative

;h3//B



( ) ;ill they be coming to the party ne!t week@;ill they be coming to the party ne!t week@Finite #ub7ect 5redicator Ad7unct Ad7unct3 / / B E & # " B : &

lauses of ('), ( ) and ( ) are in Beclarative 3ood. This is marked by the fact that the3ood is coded by the structural elements of #ub7ect Finite. "n different way, clause (1)is in "nterrogative 3ood which is reali*ed by the structural elements of Finite #ub7ect.

;hen the Transitivity and 3ood analyses are mapped on to a clause a doubleconfiguration is conflated on the same element of the clause as shown in the following.

( 1) 3y daughter bought a new car yesterday.3y daughter bought a new car last week Actor 5rocess 3aterial Goal ircumstance. ocation. temporal#ub7ect did buy omplement Ad7unct

Finite 5redicator 3 / / B E & # " B : &

. Trou leshooting&very $ma7or% &nglish clause will embody a choice from the 3ood system. #uch

choices are also inherent in elliptical clauses, where one or all parts of 3ood or Eesiduemay be absent. For e!ample in the following clause by 6 the Eesidue is elided.

( 2)A Bid you get a letter today@6 Mo, " didn%t <8= &lliptical Beclarative

There are two kinds of clause where the choice of 3ood is not employed, namelythe $non finite% and minor clause.

a The Anon-finiteB clauses&The non finite clause is characteri*ed by the absence of Finite. -owever, the Eesidue

or #ub7ect may be present as shown in the following e!amples- to send his son an e!press letter to ondon- without telling us his name- her having entered the property

;inor clauses3inor clauses are e!pressions such as oh, yuk, hi, yummy, thanks, wow. They are called$minor% clauses because they are not open to any of the ma7or systems of Transitivity,3ood and Theme. The really serve an interpersonal function such as greeting,acknowledgement, surprise, etc.

The 3ood system does not apply in the two kinds of clause.

1



c& :ap in the anal)sis;hen the element of a clause is separated from another in a category, a gap results suchas one in the following e!ample. The analysis is done as the following.

( 4a)

?esterday we went to the beach with a friend.?esterday we did go to the beach with a friendAd7unct #ub7ect Finite 5redicator Ad7unct Ad7unctE & # 3//B " B : &

Another alternative configuration is also used to indicate the gap, as shown in( 4b)

( 4b)

0 $xercises$xercise 1 5racticing 3ood agnation. onstruct a related clause in the appropriatemood to complete the paradigm. For e!ample

"s he a doctor polar interrogative-e is a doctor declarative6e a doctor imperative

'. Bid you go to the market polar interrogative88888888888 declarative88888888888 imperative

. 8888888888 polar interrogativeThe old girl drives it declarative88888888888 imperative

. 8888888888 polar interrogative88888888888. declarativeome for a drink, #haron imperative

1. ;ill " bring home a few chips@ polar interrogative

2

?esterday we did go to the beach with a friend

Ad7unct #ub7ect Finite 5redicator Ad7unct Ad7unct

E & # " B : &

3//B



8888888888888 declarative888888888888.. imperative

2. 88888888888. polar interrogative3y son bought a new car declarative

888888888888 imperative

4. 88888888888.. polar interrogative#he will be visiting us ne!t month declarative8888888888888. imperative

9. ;hen did he go to the party@ wh interrogative888888888888. declarative8888888888888.. imperative

K. ;here were you born@ wh interrogative

888888888888. declarative8888888888888.. imperative

K. ;hy did they send the luggage@ wh interrogative888888888888. declarative8888888888888.. imperative

'D -ow did he go enter the house@ wh interrogative888888888888. declarative8888888888888.. imperative

$xercise +9 Analy*ing clauses. Analy*e the following clauses into its elements of#ub7ect, Finite, 5redicator, omplement and Ad7unct. Group the elements belonging to3//B and E&#"B:& respectively as shown in the following e!ample.

( 9) #he ran very +uickly to the station#he did run very +uickly to the station#ub7ect Finite 5redicator Ad7unct Ad7unct

3//B E&#"B:&

'. #he was usually seen by someone.. Oohn, did you see the man@

. "n general she stopped in some fashionable streets.1. Frankly, she%d hardly visited some of the sights.2. ;here did they go at the weekends@4. 6en did not buy the book.9. ;hy did they sell the new house@J. ;e will leave soon.K. 3y professor has moved to another city.'D. 3y son graduated from the university.

4



1& O /ectivea& :eneral Instructional O /ective

After completing this chapter you are e!pected to be competent to analy*e te!t interms of systems of modality.

& *pecific Instructional O /ectivesAfter studying this chapter completely, you are e!pected to be able') to identify modality in te!ts) to classify types of modality) to determine values of modality1) to specify orientations in modality

+ Orientationa Definition

3odality is defined as a personal 7udgment on, opinion, $flavor% or $seasoning% toan e!periential content or a speech function by the addresser. The use of language

involves not only presenting content, i. e. linguistic content or e!changing of e!periencein speech functions which is coded in 3ood, but also conveying of sub7ectiveconsideration on the content of the clause. "n other words, modality refers to opinion or

7udgment of the speaker on the content and speech function of the clause. Any use of language is potential for the use of modality.

& %rea of ;odalit)3odality refers to meaning which lies between positive and negative polar of the

3ood. The area contains consideration, perspective, attitude or personal 7udgment of theaddresser to the information or good services being e!changed in interaction. Thereare four kinds of basic speech functions as stated before statement, +uestion, offer andcommand. &ach of the four types may come either in positive or negative polar as shownin Figure J below. 3odality, hence lies between the two sides of positive and negative

polar.

#he went (L) #he did not go( )GoR (L) Bo not goR ( )

6igure %rea of ;odalit)

Thus, between she went out and she did not go out , selections such as she may

come , she will come , she certainly will come , she de"initely will come , which are clauseswith modality may occur. 3odality is typically coded by modals such as will, must, can,and should . They modify the process or predicator. -owever, modality may be reali*edin metaphor. "n addition, modality can be described with reference to a number of criteria such as type, value and orientation.

c T)pes ;odalit)

J

Area of 3odality



"n terms of its type, modality firstly divides into (') modali4ation , which is thespeaker%s 7udgment to proposition (information commodity statement and +uestion) and( ) modulation , which is a sub7ective consideration to proposal (goods and servicescommodity offer and command). 3odality lies between or in between the positive andnegative polar of the proposition, namely between $she does% and $she doesn%t% and that of

modulation, namely between $do% and $don%t%. "n further intricacy, modali4ation (whichis epistemic modality in the philosophy of language) divides into (a) pro a ilit) and (b)usualit) . 5robability lies between $yes% and $no%, which is $may be% and usuality whichincludes both $yes% and $no% i. e. $sometimes%. "n the same manner, modulation (which isdeontic modality in the philosophy of language) divides into (a) o ligation , which is $iswanted% to carry out a command addressed to the second person and (b) inclination ,namely $want to% to do an offer, typically carried out by the first person.

d 7alue of ;odalit)"n terms of its value, that is the level or degree of its probability of e!ecution or its

distance to the positive or negative polar, the various types of modality probability,

usuality, obligation and inclination divide into one with either (-)igh, (3)edium or ( )owvalue. A modality of - value is near the positive polar, which is the most probable one to be e!ecuted, whereas that of is near the negative polar, which is the least probablemodality to be done. A modality of 3 is intermediate or middle in the continuum, whichlies between the two poles. Table J presents modality and the values.

Tale ;odalit) and the 7alues

alue5ositive 5olar

;odali4ation ;odulationis do

5robability :suality /bligation "nclination

-igh certain must be always re+uired must do determined3edium probably will be usually supposed will do keenow possibly may be sometimes allowed may do willing

is not do not Megative 5olar

3odality as presented in the table above are meanings which may be coded invarious linguistic units. The meanings are samples of modality, which are prospective innature. This is to say that a meaning may be coded by more than one linguistic units. Toe!emplify, the meaning of $certain%, which is modali*ation of - can be coded by modalhe must be in the room , it 6& ad7ective that clause it is certain that he is in the

room , there 6& noun that clause there is a certainty that he is there , etc.

e Reali4ations of ;odalit)3odality can be reali*ed by various kinds of linguistic units, such as modals (such

as must, will, can, may, ha e to ), Adverb, the constructions of 6& en, (#)ub7ect

K



Ad7ective, it 6& Ad7ective that clause, it 6& Moun that clause, there 6& Moun that clause. To e!emplify, modality is represented in the following te!ts.

1( ;odal#he will come to my house.

The man may come to my house tonight.They can finish the work in one day.

+( %dver 4robably , she comes to my house (Adverb).$ometimes she comes to my house (Adverb).6ertainly he did the work.

( * %d/ective I am keen to do the 7ob.$he is certain to do the 7ob.

" am willing to do the work.

.( <$ 7-en?ou are re/uired to do the 7ob ()." am determined to do the 7ob (6& en).?ou are supposed to find a good solution.

0( it <$ %d/ective that-clause It is certain that she comes to my house. It is probable that she comes to my house."t is likely that they come late.

( it <$ Noun that-clause It is a must that she comes It is a determination that " come here."t is a confirmation that the leave for #ingapore tomorrow.

5( there <$ Noun that-clause&There is a possibility that she comes here.There is a willingness o" her to come here.There is a probability that the petition gains public interests.

f Coverage of ;odalit)3odality covers meaning areas of probability, usuality, obligation and inclination.

This is a vast area, which is developing as language changes across times. "n this vastarea of meaning, modality covers the meanings of causalit) , appearance and hedging(-odge Cress 'KJJ ' , Fairclough 'KK '2K).

D



Causalit) is related to obligation since its meaning area involves compelling oneto carry out an activity. The meanings in causality of let, ma@e and force or compel arerespectively modality of , 3 and - values, as shown in the following e!amples.

;e let her go ( )

;e make her go (3).;e "orced the enemy to surrender (-).%ppearance is associated to probability since the meaning involves how visible

an activity is to be conducted. The meaning of expecting , seeming and appearing arerespectively probability of , 3 and - values. To e!emplify, the following te!ts are

presented.

;e e7pected him to come ( ).#he seemed to come (3).#he appeared to come (-).

-edging indicates doubt. Thus, it is related to probability. The use of +uestion

tag (with raising intonation) is probability of value whereas that with falling intonationis probability of - value. "n between the two poles the e!pression of a kind of, sort of areconsidered as probability of 3 values. The following te!ts indicates the use of hedging.

?ou came to the party, didn%t you@ (rising intonation)?ou are sort of went to the party?ou went to party, don%t you (with falling intonation).

g Orientation in ;odalit);ith respect to its orientation of meaning, modality may be either sub7ective or

ob7ective. "n addition, modality may also be either e!plicit or implicit.A sub7ective modality is one where the personal 7udgment is e!pressed by the first

person whereas an ob7ective modality is one where the personal opinion is e!pressed bythe third person or by using impersonal it. The clauses of I must go now and she has to

go now or it is a must "or her to go now are respectively sub7ective and ob7ectivemodality. ;hereas in a sub7ective modality, the opinion is e!pressed in modals by thefirst person, in ob7ective modality the personal 7udgment were as if e!pressed by the third

person. "n other words, the modality looks as if it were coded not by the speaker.&!plicit modality is one which is clearly represented by the speaker by using

modals such as in the clauses I must sign the petition , we are re/uired to go now , she is supposed to ha e come earlier . /n the other hand, implicit modality is one which isdirectly coded in modals but in other reali*ations. ommon e!pressions used to codeimplicit modality are I think, I belie e, I doubt, I am doubt"ul, I am worried, there is aworry, there is a con"idence . The e!pressions I think, I belie e, I doubt , etc are all relatedto modali*ation. This is indicated by the fact that in the clause comple! of I think theman came soon , the clause I think is not a separate clause since it can be replaced by

probably . This is shown by the fact that when the clause of I think )li came late istagged, the +uestion tag is didn5t he? not don5t I . This indicates that " think is inherentlycoded in the clause Ali came late as the probability.

'



%nal)sis3odality is an aspect of interpersonal meaning. Therefore, in analy*ing a te!t for

modality the analysis is simultaneously done with the analysis of interpersonal function.The analysis of modality specifies the type, value and orientation. To e!emplify a clause

)li always comes late to school is analy*ed as in the following configuration.

( J)Ali always does come late to school#ub7ect 3odality

3odali*ation:suality-igh

Finite 5redicator Ad7unct Ad7unct

3//B E&#"B:&

. Trou leshooting

3odality divides into probability, usuality, obligation and inclination. "n itsdelicate classification, modality includes causality, appearance and. inguistic formsreali*ing modality varies.

"n the actual use of language there may be more than the use of modality as in itappears that we are re+uired to go now. "n the clause, two types of modality are used,namely appearance and obligation. "f more than one type of modality occurs in a te!t,they are all described.

3odality may be coded in another clause. Thus, a clause comple! which is coded by more than two clauses such as I think the man came here , the clause I think ismodality. This is 7ustified by the fact that when the clause is tagged, the +uestion tag isdidn5t he? rather than don5t I?. This kind of reali*ation is called metaphor. /ther

metaphorical representations of modality includes I think, I belie e, I doubt, I am sure, I suspect, I assume, I reckon, etc. The fundamental element of the metaphoricalrepresentation is that it is coded by the first person " and the process, which is typicallymental, such as believe, think, suspect, etc.

0& $xercises$xercise 1Determine the t)pe of underlined ;odalit) i& e 2hether it is pro a ilit), usualit),o ligation or inclination&(') ?ou must go now 8

( ) ?ou are e!pected to attend the meeting.( ) 5erhap s, she will come soon. 8

(1) " am willing to tell you something. 8

(2) -is parents will leave for Cuala umpur tomorrow. 8



anguage is used to e!change e!perience. "n e!changing e!perience the speaker may give his>her personal 7udgment. This personal 7udgment is called modality.3odality divide into probability, usuality, obligation and inclination. &ach of the threetypes can be further divided into three in terms of value, namely 3odality of -igh,3edium and ow.

5& 6urther ReadingsFowler, E. 'KK'. 0anguage in the 8ews 1iscourse and Ideology in the 4ress . ondon

Eoutledge.Givon, T. 'KK1. H"rrealis and the sub7unctiveI. $tudies in 0anguage 1 . ( 42 9)-alliday, 3.A.C. 'KK1. )n Introduction to Functional Grammar . ondon &dward

Arnold. ( hapter 1, 'D);iddowson, -. G. 'KK . HEepresentation in 5roseI. "n #inclair, O. 3 and G. Fowler

(eds) Techni/ues o" 1escription9 $poken and 'ritten 1iscourse . ondon Eoutledge, '1 '2 .

1



follow(s). "n other languages such as 6atak, Tagalog "n the clause :our reporter repeatedly interrupted her replies the Theme is your reporter whereas the Eheme isrepeatedly interrupted her replies . "n different ways when the clause changes in the order of its elements the Theme and Eheme also change as shown the following.

Ta le Theme and RhemeT-&3& E -&3&

?our reporter repeatedly interrupted her replies.-er replies were repeatedly interrupted by your reporter.Eepeatedly your reporter interrupted her replies

Unmar@ed and ;ar@ed ThemeThe Theme is coded by the first element of the transitivity system. This implies

that an element of the clause may occupy more than one function. Thus, an element of the clause may function as the Actor, #ub7ect and Theme simultaneously. The status of

the Theme i. e. whether it is unmarked or 3arked is associated to the 3ood. Thisspecifies that in every kind of 3ood there is unmarked Theme"n the clause of declarative 3ood where a Theme simultaneously functions as the

#ub7ect the Theme is called unmarked. "n different way, when the Theme is not conflatedwith or mapped on to the #ub7ect the Theme is marked.

"n a clause of imperative 3ood the unmarked Theme is the 5rocess or verb. "n polar imperative the unmarked Theme is indicated by the Finite and #ub7ect. "ninterrogative 3ood, the unmarked Theme is completed with the ;h element. Thus, thestatus of Theme in &nglish is associated to the 3ood system. The following clausesshow the unmarked and marked Theme in association with the 3ood

Ta le 1E Unmar@ed Theme3aria picked up a flower yesterday./pen the door now.Bid you open the door 7ust now@;ho open the door slowly@;here did they go last week@

Ta le 11 ;ar@ed Theme?esterday 3aria picked up a flower

Mow open the door.Oust now did you open the door@

#lowly who open the door@ast week where did they go@

c ;ultiple ThemeThe Theme in a simple sentence may be simple or multiple. A simple Theme is

coded by one element of the clause, that is a 5rocess, 5articipant or ircumstance. Thissimple Theme is also called topical theme. -owever, it should be noted that where the

4



Theme is simple the term topical is not stated in the analysis. The multiple Theme iscomprised of Topical, "nterpersonal and Te!tual one.

1( Topical ThemeTopical Theme, as stated earlier, is coded by the first element of the Transitivity

system. Topical Theme are underlined in the following clauses.

( K)" love the smell of 7asmine.#omeday you%ll understand the matter.Eepeatedly she asked me the newsast year they went to "taly.3y elder sister was placed in the new branch office in Cuala umpur.

+( Interpersonal Theme"nterpersonal Theme covers one or more of the elements of (') Finite, typically

reali*ed by an au!iliary verb, ( ) a ;h element, signaling that an $answer% is re+uiredfrom the addressee, ( ) ocative, identifying the addressee in the e!change and (1) anAd7unct, typically coded by an adverb.

Finite indicates that a response is e!pected from the addressee. The "nterpersonalTheme of Finite are underlined in the following clauses.

( D)#hould they be doing that@Bid you meet my sister at the party@Bon%t touch thatRBo come tomorrowR

;h elements include the +uestion words such as where, when, what, why, which,whose, how. "n the following clauses the wh elements functioning as the Theme areunderlined.

( ');hy can%t you come over tonight@;here did he stay@-ow did he come up@;hen did they go to the beach@

ocative indicates (the names of) persons of whom information is asked. "n thefollowing clauses the vocatives are underlined.

( a)Oohn, did you go to the market yesterday@#on, you must be careful so as not to disturb the insect.Angelie, gold is very precious.

9



Mot all vocatives thematic. As shown in ( b) Oohn and folks are vocativesP however,they are not Themes since they appears at the end of the clause. "n this situation they are

parts of the Eheme.

( b)

Bid you go to the movie, Oohn@Are we leaving now, folks@Ad7uncts commonly function as the theme. Typically, the theme is reali*ed by an

adverb which may provide the speaker%s comment, assessment or attitude towards themessage. "n the following clauses the underlined adverbs are themes of the clauses.

( b)#adly, it doesn%t look like a good place.5erhaps women make good vets./ften he came late at night.5robably they will do the 7ob tomorrow.

( Textual ThemeThe element of te!tual theme includes (') con7unctions, ( ) relatives, ( )

con7unctives and (1) continuatives.

#tructural con7unctions link two clauses in a coordination relation or dependencyon another. on7unctions such as and, but, so, whether, when, while, etc. in the followingclauses are themes.

( a)(" went there) and she returned home.(" don%t know) whether he left for Cisaran.(-e came) when " was reading a newspaper.(" was ill) so " could not attend the meeting.

Eelatives relate a dependent clause to another clause. The underlined relatives arethemes in the following clauses.

( b)(;e heard 5rofessor #mith%s lecture,) which was a great disappointment.(Mews of the bombing threat alarmed the visitors,) who were listening to the music.(-e was born in Cisaran,) which was a city in the eastern coast of #umatra.

on7unctives provide a cohesive link back to previous discourse. "n the followingclauses the con7unctive themes are underlined.

( c)Furthermore, this alternative is too costly."n addition, the news may shock his mother.As a matter of fact, he is the doctor we%re looking for.

J



As the conse+uences, the man was arrested by the police.

ontinuatives indicate a relationship previous discourse. The underlined parts of clauses in the following are themes.

( d);ell, there was a little bit of misunderstanding in this matter./h, " like that fruit.#o, "%d better go now.Thus, they left me shivering in the rain.

A multiple Theme is typically reali*ed by an obligatory element of Topical Themeand optional elements of either one of the Te!tual or "nterpersonal Theme. ;hen thethree elements are present, the order of occurrence is Te!tual, "nterpersonal and TopicalTheme or T"To for short. Thus, when a clause with a multiple theme such as 'ell, (ohndid you lo e the girl? is analy*ed the analysis looks like the following.

( e);ell Oohn did you love the girl@ontinuative ocative Finite

TopicalE -&3&

Te!tual "nterpersonalT-&3&

Ta le 1+ T)pes of Theme

"n terms of its markedness a Theme may be unmarked or marked. ;ith referenceto its simplicity the Theme may be simple or multiple. ;hen the markedness and

3arkedness

:nmarked

3arked

#implicity

#imple 3ultiple

:nmarked #imple

3arked #imple

:nmarked 3ultiple

3arked 3ultiple

K



+( %d/unctsAn ad7unct occupying initial position in a clause may function as an interpersonal

or te!tual theme. ;hen an ad7unct functions as an interpersonal theme it typically adds$flavor% or not separated from the combination of #ub7ect Finite. "n different ways anad7unct functions a te!tual theme when it tends to connect or link a clause with another.

"n the following e!amples evidently is an interpersonal theme whereas in fact is a te!tualone.

&vidently, no body was found in the room. ( e idently is an interpersonal theme)"n fact, no body was found in the room. ( in "act is a te!tual theme)

The following list summari*es ad7uncts typically function as interpersonal andte!tual themes.

Tale 1 Textual and Interpersonal ThemesTextual Themes Interpersonal Theme

in fact evidentlyanyway broadly speakingat least obviouslyin conclusion provisionallyin brief briefly

Interpersonal or Topical1( Time $xpression

Time e!pression such as sometimes, o"ten, ne er, always, seldom, hardly , etc.function as interpersonal themes. -owever, e!pressions such as on $undays, last week,

yesterday , etc. are topical themes. To test whether an e!pression of time is topical theme,

predicated theme can be used ( It is+ ). "n the following e!amples, usually is aninterpersonal theme whereas on $undays is a topical one.

:sually he comes late to the office. ( usually is an interpersonal theme)"t is usually that he comes late to the office.

/n #undays we used to go to the beach. ( on $undays is a topical theme)"t is on #undays that we used to go to the beach)

+( Fuestion ordsSuestion words such as where, why, when, how, who are both interpersonal and topical

themes. This is because the +uestion words function both in the interpersonal ande!periential structures of the clause.

;ho discovered the continent of America@ ( who is both interpersonal and topical theme).

1'



c Textual or Topical1( Relative #ronoun

Eelative items such as who, whom, which, whose function as both te!tual andtopical theme. This is because the relative pronouns function in the transitivity structureand as the linking element.

3y son met a doctor >> who operated on the patient. ( who is both a topical and te!tualtheme).

+( Reference ItemEeference item such as this is a topical theme. "t is often mistakenly viewed as a

te!tual theme since it functions as a linking element. Thus, in the following te!t this is atopical theme.For many years women have been neglected. This has resulted in a number of problems.

This has resulted in a number of problems. ( this is a topical theme).

( Temporal $xpressions;hen a temporal e!pression functions as a te!tual linker combining two clauses

the temporal e!pression is te!tual theme. -owever, when it specifies a time setting of theclause it is topical. "n the following clauses "irst is te!tual whereas during his li"etime istopical.

First " put my hand on his shoulder ( "irst is te!tual) 1uring his li"e he hardly made any charity. ( during his li"e is te!tual).

The following table summari*es te!tual and topical themes.

Ta le 1.9 Textual and Topical ThemesTextual Themes Topical Theme

previously before breakfastafterwards after many trials tribulationsfinally by the end of the racein conclusion provisionally

briefly

0 $xercises

$xercises 1 "dentifying the theme (te!tual, interpersonal and topical). "dentify the themein the following clauses. &!amples are given after the clauses for your guide.'. 3ay be you call them $bullshit%.. 5erhaps he won%t notice you, Oohn.. Frank, it was fantastic.

1. Bid " ever say that@2. -ow old are you@4. 6ut surely you can see the difference between -arold Eobbins and the other two@

1



Chapter

! O:IC%! ; $%NIN:

1 O /ectivesa :eneral Instructional O /ective

After completing this chapter you are e!pected to be competent to analy*e clausecomple!es terms logical meaning.

*pecific Instructional O /ectivesAfter studying the materials in this chapter you are e!pected to be able

') to identify interdependent relation between or among clauses in te!ts) to classify logical semantic relations between or among clauses in te!ts) to analy*e clause comple!es in terms of logical meanings

+ OrientationA clause can combine with another or further ones. This combination forms a

comple! known as a clause complex . The logical meaning is devoted to the clausecomple!. Thus, logical function occurs in a clause comple!. "n the previous chaptersanalyses were conducted to a single clause in terms of e!periential, interpersonal andte!tual meanings. These analyses are known as multivariate anal)ses . An analysis of logical meaning is known as univariate anal)sis since it applies only to a clausecomple! from one point of view. A univariate analysis is done with respect to twocriteria of ta!is and logicosemantic relations.

a& Taxis

Ta!is refers to the interdependency relations between or among clauses forming aclause comple!. "n its relation to another or other clauses, a clause may have a dependentor independent status. An independent status indicates that a clause or clauses can standindividually when separated such as both the clauses My son buys "ruit and His wi"e

grows rice in the clause comple! o" My son buys "ruit and his wi"e grows rice. Thisindependent status is termed as parataxis . Thus a paratactic relation is one in which theclauses as in a clause comple! can stand individually. "n traditional terminology such arelation is commonly known as coordinating relation.

:nlike parata!is, in a relation of hypota!is, one clause can stand by itself whereasthe other has to be dependent on the clause. "n other words, in a hypotactic relation oneelements of the clause comple! is dependent on the other in the sense that one of the

clause can not stand by itself. Thus, one of the clause is dominant while the other isdependent. The clause comple! of They spoke to 1r. onaha, who was an ear, nose and throat specialist forms a hypotactic relation since it is only They spoke to 1r. onahawhich can stand alone by itself whereas who was an ear, nose and throat specialist cannot. "n other words, the latter is dependent on the former. /ther e!amples of hypotacticrelation are given below.

12



Ta le 10 Dominant and Dependent ClausesDominant DependentThe man rarely left the village

" can do my best thing

-e told me

apart from visiting his sister in ?ork once amonth.when you sit there in your rocking chair

that his father would sell the house.

Technically a paratactic relation of clause comple! is marked as ', , , 8whereas a hypotactic one is indicated by α, β, χ,...

!ogicosemantic Relationogicosemantic relation indicates the meaning formed when a clause is combined

with another in a clause comple!. ogicosemantic relation includes e!pansion whichincludes the meaning reali*ed by con7unction and pro7ection which includes direct andindirect speech and thought. &!pansion divides into elaboration, e!tension andenhancement. 5ro7ection divides into +uotation or locution and reporting or idea.

Technically the logicosemantic relations are marked as the following&laboration Q&!tension L&nhancement Uocution H"dea H

;hen the ta!is and logicosemantic relation are cross classified and mapped onclause comple!es ten categories are derived as summari*ed in the following table.

Ta le 1 Taxis and !ogico-semantic Relations

/G" / #&3AMT" E& AT"/M " MT&EB&5&MB&M ? (T AU"# )5aratactic -ypotactic

&!pansion&laboration (Q) ' The boy did not waitP

Q he ran awayα The boy did not wait,Q β which surprised hismother

&!tension (L) ' The boy ran awayL his friend stayed

behind

α The boy ran awayL β whereas his friendstayed behind.

&nhancement (U) ' Oohn was scaredU so he ran away.

α Oohn ran awayU β because he was scared.

5ro7ection ocution (H) ' The babysitter said,I HBon%t make a noiseI α The babysitter told usHβ not to make a noise

"dea ($) ' #he thought$ $"%ll go now%

α #he thought$β he would go then.

14



1( $la oration"n elaboration one clause elaborates on the meaning of another by further

specifying or describing it (-alliday 'KK1 2). This divides into two types paratacticand hypotactic elaboration.

a( #aratactic $la oration '1G+(5aratactic elaboration is indicated by 'Q . This specifically divides into(') e!position $in other words% 5 i.e. S( ) e!emplification $for e!ample% 5 e. g. S( ) clarification $to be precise% 5 vi* S

"n e!position the second clause restates the thesis of the primary clause in differentwords, to present it from another point of view, or perhaps 7ust to reinforce the messagePfor e!ample- That clock does not workP it%s not working.- &ach argument was fatal to the otherP both could not be accepted.

The relationship may be e!plicitly coded by a semicolon (P), or rather- , in other words ,that is , i. e.

"n e!emplification the secondary clause develops the thesis of the primary clause by becoming more specific about it, often citing an actual e!ample, for e!ample- Oohn is a naughty boy he used to cheat his friends.- -is face is the same as everybody lese has0the two eyes, nose in the middle, mouth

under.The relationship between the primary and secondary clause may be e!plicitly stated bycon7unctives such as "or e7ample, "or instance, in particular, e. g . or by the use of hyphen( )

"n clarification the secondary clause clarifies the thesis of the primary clause by backing it up with some form of e!planation or e!planatory comments as shown bythe following e!amples.- -e never said anything to herP in fact his remark was evidently addressed to a tree.- " was not surprised0it was what " had e!pected.

&!plicitly the relationship may be coded by con7unctives such as in "act, actually, indeed,at least or i* .

( >)potactic $la oration ' α= βommonly the hypotactic elaboration refers to Mon defining relative clause. Thisdivides into finite and non finite clauses. The finite hypotactic elaboration indicates thatthe dominant clause functions to elaborate the meaning of the independent clause in nondefining relative clause as shown in My neighbors always /uarreled late at night, whicho"ten disturbed us . The dominant clause may elaborate the independent one in either oneof the following ways whole clause or part of the clause. As groupings, not as types,finite hypotactic elaboration clauses includes

19



a. lauses with which whose domain is either the whole of the primary>dominant clauseor some part of it that is more than a nominal group such as

- -is son graduated from /!ford :niversity, which gives good reputation to the family.(whole clause)

-They stayed in Cisaran for two days, which is a good memory in their lives.

b. lauses with which, that, who or whose whose domain is a nominal group.- 3y son bought a new Toyota car, which is a genuine Oapanese car of the year.- The ancient 6ataks usually believe in datus, whose teachings became the views of

life

;hen a nominal group is not in the final in the primary clause, the hypotactic clauseis often enclosed. "n this circumstance the structure is coded as α VV Qβ >> as shown inthe following clauses- "nflation, which is an important indicator in economic development, struck "ndonesia

in 'KKJ

c. lauses with when or where which have as their domain of time or place such as- ;e need a cooling period, when the problems are becoming less important- #he was born in Cisaran, where the river of #ilau flows.

The non finite hypotactic elaboration clause shows that the second clause is dependent tothe previous clause in its non finite forms as shown in the following e!amples.- -e worked in a farm at that time, growing rice.- That is his idea to maintain the purity of his ethnic group identity.- There was a huge fire in 5arapat, burning all trees all around.

+( $xtension"n e!tension, one clause e!tends the meaning of another by adding something new

to it. This is done by some sense of addition and variation to the primary clause. Thespecification of e!tension is summari*ed in the following Table '9.

Ta le 159 #rincipal ;ar@ers of $xtensionCategor) ;eaning'. addition additive>positive $and% A and 6 additive>negative $nor% not A and not 6

adversative $but% A and conversely 6. variation replacive $instead% not A but 6 subtractive $e!cept% A but not all 6 alternative $or% A or 6.

1J



a( #aratactic $xtensionThe paratactic notation is ' L . "n addition type, one process is simply ad7oined

to another. ommonly the primary clause is 7oined by the words and, too, in addition,also, moreo er, on the other hand, etc. as shown in the following e!amples.- 3y father grows rice and my mother sells fruit.-

" said you looked like an egg, sirP and some eggs are very pretty, you know.- They did not come here, nor did their sons."n variation type one clause is presented as being in total or partial replacement of

another. ommonly used con7unctions or con7unctives to indicate the relationship arecon ersely, alternati ely, on the other hand, etc as shown in the following e!amples- Bon%t 7ust sit there, but tell me your name.- " should have informed you about the matter, only " couldn%t find your telephone

number.

( >)potactic $xtensionThe hypotactic notation is α L β. This hypotactic e!tension divides into finite and

nonfinite types. ommonly the dependent clause is marked by the con7unctions or con7unctives of whereas, while, e7cept that, but "or the "act- that (not in the sense of temporal).- The boy opened the door, whereas his sister cleaned the floor.- -e pretended to know all about it, whereas in fact he had no idea of what was

happening.- The director did not attend the meeting e!cept that the personal manager was also on

leave.

The non finite form of hypotactic e!tending is an imperfective clauses seen thefollowing e!amples. ommonly the non finite hypotactic e!tension is marked by

besides, apart "rom, instead o", other than, without 8 as shown in the followinge!amples.- ;e used to go away at the weekend, taking all our belongings with us.- 6eside spending a week in Cisaran, she searched for a prospect for her business- ;e stayed at home for days instead of following his instructions.- They did everything without asking further instructions from her.- #he wandered on, talking to herself as she went.

( $nhancement"n enhancement one clause enhances the meaning of another by +ualifying it in either onof the following ways by reference to time, place, manner, cause or condition (-alliday

'KK1 ).

a( #aratactic $nhancement&The paratactic enhancement notation is 'U . The paratactic enhancement in a

clause comple! gives a notion of coordination with a circumstantial feature. Typically aclause comple! with paratactic sense is e!pressed by either (') the con7unctions then, so,

"or, but, yet, still , ( ) by a con7unction group with and and then, and there, and thus, and so, and yet or ( ) by and in combination with a con7unctive (that is cohesive devices0not

1K



structural) such as and at that time, and soon a"terwards, and till then ,and in that case,and in that way . The principal markers for paratactic enhancement are summari*ed in thetable below.

Ta le 1 #rincipal ;ar@ers and ;eanings of #aratactic $nhancement

Categor) ;eaning ;ar@ers(') temporal same time A meanwhile 6 (and) meanwhile, (when) different time later A subse+uently 6 (and) then, and L afterwards different time earlier A previously 6 and>but L before that>first

( ) spatial same place A there 6 and there

( ) manner means A is via>by means of 6 (and) in that way), (and) thus comparison A is like 6 (and) similarly, (and) so, thus

(1) causal conditional

cause effect because A so result 6 (and) so, (and) therefore effect cause 6ecause intention A so

action 6for, because

condition positive if A then 6 (and) then, (and) therefore condition negative if not A then 6 or else, (or) otherwise concession conse+uence if A then contrary to

e!pectation 6 but, (and) yet, still, but Lnevertheless

conse+uence concession contrary to e!pectationA then 6

(though)

The following clause comple!es show the use of paratactic enhancement.

- temporal"t is the officer from the -ead /ffice, now " have to talk to him#he fired two shoots, then the deer collapsed to the ground.

- spatial3y son stood, and there he showed us his power The man stared at me from a small hole on the wall, thence " knew him

- manner #it there and in that way you can observe their behaviors-e looked at me and so did his companion.

- causal conditional-e did no want to interfere with our problems so he said nothing-e left +uickly for he did not want to interfere with our problem.The tiger lay motionlessP still it breathed its power through its silent roars.&ven a small boy knows the answer though he does not know the words.

2D



( >)potactic $nhancementThe notation for hypotactic enhancement is α ! β. The combination of enhancement with hypota!is is reali*ed by the traditional formal grammar of $adverbial clauses%. The finite hypotactic enhancement is typically marked bycon7unctions commonly known as $subordinating con7unctions% in traditional

formal grammar. "n different way the non finite hypotactic enhancement clausesare marked either by (') a preposition such as on, with, by, be"ore, a"ter or ( )one of a subset of hypotactic con7unctions such as when, while . The markers of non finite and finite hypotactic enhancement are summari*ed in the followingtable.

Ta le 1 #rincipal ;ar@ers of >)potactic $nhancementCategor) 6inite Non-finite

con/unction con/unction proposition(') temporal

same time e!tent as, while while in (the

course>process of) same time point when, as soon as, the

momentwhen on

same time spread whenever, every time different time later after, since since after different time earlier before, until>till until before

( ) spatial same place e!tent as far as same place point where same place spread wherever, everywhere

( ) manner

means com parison as, as if, like, the way like by (means of)(1) causal conditional cause reason because, as, since, in

case, seeing that,considering

with, through, by,at, as a result,

because of, in caseof

cause purpose in order that, so that (in order>so as) to,for (the sake of),with the aim of, for fear of

condition positive if, provided that, aslong as

if in the event of

condition negative unless but for, without condition concessive even if, although despite, in spite of,

without

2'



.( #ro/ection5ro7ection refers to a representation of linguistic e!perience in another linguistic

e!perience. The clause I5ll "inish the !ob is a linguistic e!perience. "n the clause comple!he said, %I5ll "inish the !ob& , the linguistic e!perience is represented again in another linguistic e!perience of he said .

a( !ocution and IdeaA pro7ection consists of two parts the pro7ecting (clause), he said and the

pro7ected (clause), "%ll finish the 7ob. The pro7ecting is marked by the pro7ecting process,which is said. ;ith reference to the pro7ecting process pro7ections divide into locutionand idea.

A locution is a pro7ection with verbal process. ;ith reference to -alliday ('KK12 ) verbal processes used as the pro7ecting processes include'. the general process say. specific verbs to (') statements tell L Eeceiver , remark, obser e, point out, report,

announce , etc. ( ) +uestions ask, demand, in/uire, /uery,

. verbs $say% combining with some circumstantial elements, such as reply (say L inresponse), e7plain (say L in e!planation), protest (say L with reservation), continue(go on L saying), interrupt (say L out of turn), warn (say L undesirableconse+uences).

1. erbs having connotations of various kinds such as insist (say emphatically), ,complain (say irritably), cry, shout (say loudly), boat (say proudly), murmur (saysotto voce), stammer (say with embarrassment)

"n line with locution, a linguistic e!perience pro7ected by mental process is calledidea. 3ental processes used to pro7ect a linguistic e!perience include think, imply,wonder, re"lect, want, wish, surmise , etc.

#aratactic #ro/ection5aratactic pro7ection is one where linguistic e!perience is pro7ected as wording. This isalso known as +uoting. To indicate the wording double +uotation marks (H) are used.lause comple!es he said, %I5ll "inish the !ob& and he thought , %I5ll "inish the !ob& areidentified as paratactic pro7ections. -ere the pro7ecting and pro7ected clauses arereversible since both have independent status. Thus, it is acceptable to say %I5 ll "inishthe !ob&, he said and %I5ll "inish the !ob&, he thought.

c >)potactic #ro/ection-ypotactic pro7ection is one where linguistic e!perience is pro7ected as meaning. This isalso known as reporting. To indicate the meaning pro7ected a single +uotation mar (H) isused. lause comple!es he said he would "inish the !ob and he thought he would "inishthe !ob are identified as hypotactic pro7ections. -ere the pro7ected clause gains the statusof dependent to the primary clause or pro7ecting clause. Thus, in many cases it is notacceptable to reverse the pro7ecting and pro7ected clause. The clause ; he would "inishthe !ob he said is fairly unacceptable.

;hen +uoting, reporting, locution and idea are cross classified four categories of pro7ection are derived as shown in the following table

2



Tale +E 6our T)pes of #ro/ectionTypes of

pro7ecting process

Ta!is

5aratactic (+uoting)' -ypotactic (reporting)α βerbal (locution) 'ording

< %=

-e said, H "%ll finish the 7obI

'ording represented as meaning α &β

-e said he would finish the 7ob3ental (idea) Meaning represented as

wording < >=

-e thought ,I"%ll finish the 7obI

Meaning α 5 β

-e thought he would finish the 7ob

6igure 5 #ro/ection

%nal)sisAnalysis of logical meaning is done by separating clause comple! into clauses.

The clauses are written in lower cases and the relationship among the clauses is soughtand determined with reference to ta!is and logico semantic relation. The analysis can bedone by using either (') tree diagram, ( ) bracketing or ( ) hori*ontal analysis. For

2



practical purpose, hori*ontal analysis is commonly used. To e!emplify, the clausecomple! He told us that he would go to the country and isit the man, which surprised usis analy*ed in the following.

T R$$ D I%:R%;

α Hβ

α Q β

' L

he told us that he would go and visit the man which surprised us

6igure %nal)sis of Clause Complex

< R%CH$TIN:

(((α he told us))) (H β (α (1 that he would go) ( Land visit the man)) ((Q βwhich surprised us)))

> ORI ONT%! %N%!8*I*

α he told us

Hβ α ' that he would goL and visit the manQ β which surprised us

;ith reference to the descriptions of logical meaning in &nglish the following analysisserves as e!amples of analysis of clause comple!es.

. Trou leshootinga Unit of %nal)sis

A unit of analysis in logical meaning is a clause. Thus, whenever a longstretch of linguistic form is found the linguistic form should be separated into clauses.The clauses are then analy*ed with reference to the ta!is and logico semantic relation.

<oundaries of ARan@ingB ClausesThere are problems of determining where clauses begin and end within a comple!.

c $m edded Clauses&mbedded (i. e. rankshifted) clauses do not enter into relations of hypota!is or parata!iswith other clauses and should be ignored. "t is relations between WrankingW clauses which

21



are to be analy*ed. "n The man who came here yesterday was reading a newspaper when I le"t the embedded clause of who came here is not analy*ed since it has no relation to theclause of when I le"t . Thus, the clause comple! is analy*ed as

α the man <<who came here== yesterday was reading a newspaper ! β when " left

d Included Clauses/ne clause sometimes interrupts another without being embedded in it. The followinge!amples are interrupted clauses- #ometimes, when we arrive before J, the place is still locked up.- H3otherR,I the girl implored, Hdon%t wear that nubbly little bonnet.I

"n the above clause comple!es one clause is included within the other. For e!emplification the position of the clause when we arri e be"ore can be described as#ometimes VVwhen we arrive before JXX the place is still locked up. Thus, the clausecomple! is analy*ed ad the following.

α sometimes the place is still locked up! β when we arrive before J

e 7er al :roup or Clause Complex="n analy*ing a clause comple! one should distinguish a clause comple! from verbalgroup comple!. "n He stopped to smoke the stopped to smoke is a verbal group comple!rather than a clause comple!. -owever, He stopped the car in order to smoke is a clausecomple!.

f *eparate Clause or Circumstance 2ithin Clause"t is important that one should distinguish a clause comple! separated by thecircumstance of time, cause, manner, etc. from a clause with the circumstance. Thesentence He came here by riding on horseback is a clause comple!P but the clause Hecame here on horseback is not.

g #arataxis or >)potaxis;hen uncertain as to whether a clause is hypotactic or paratactic, the signals of hypota!iscan be used below. A non finite ranking clause is hypotactic.#he entered, laughing happily3y son went to ondon to broaden his knowledge o" English

Ha ing "inished the work , she went home.

A ranking clause is hypotactic if introduced by a relative pronouns who, whose, whom,which

A ranking clause is hypotactic if it is introduced by a con7unction that $stays with% itsclause even when that clause is shifted to another place in the clause." didn%t attend the meeting because I was ill.

22



$xercise #eparate the following te!t into clauses. Then, analy*e the clause comple!es withreference to ta!is and logico semantic relation.

The numbat is an unmistakable slender marsupial with a pointed mu**le and short erect

ears. The body is reddish brown but the rump is much darker and has about si! white bars across it. The eye has a black stripe through it and the long bushy tail is yellowish.The toes are strongly clawed and very effective in digging out termites. The tongue ise!tremely long, as in all mammalian ant or termite eaters. :nlike most marsupials, it issaid that the numbat is active during the day. 5eople say that it shelters in hollow logs. "twas once relatively common but now lives only in a small area of #. ;. #outh Australia.(Adapted from The oncise &ncyclopedia of Australia nd. 6uderim, Sueensland,6ateman 'KJ1 12K).

Revie2 3 Contextuali4ationanguage is multifunctional. "t has been describe previously that language can be

used e!perientially, interpersonally and te!tually that language is used to represent,e!change and organi*e e!perience respectively. "n this chapter the use of languagelogically is described. The use of language logically means that language is used to relatee!perience. 5ractically this implies that how a clause is related to another or others. Tostudy this logical meaning two criteria are used the interdependency between or amongthe clauses and logico semantic relations between or among clauses. "n terms ta!is or status of the clauses two categories are derived parata!is and hypota!is. ;ith respect tologico semantic relation two categories are derived that of &!pansion which further subdivides into elaboration, e!tension and enhancement and that of 5ro7ection whichfurther divides into locution and idea. The two criteria are used to analy*e logicalmeanings in clause comple!es.

5 6urther Reading&ggins, #. 'KK1. )n Introduction to $ystemic Functional 0inguistics . ondon

5inter ( hapter K)Gerot, . 5. ;ignell 'KK1. Making $ense o" Functional Grammar . #ydney

Gerd #tabler ( hapter 2)-alliday, 3.A.C. 'KK1. )n Introduction to Functional Grammar . ondon

&dward Arnold ( hapter )3artin, O. E. , . 3. ". 3. 3atthiessen . 5ainter 'KK2. 1eploying Functional

Grammar9 a workbook "or Halliday5s Introduction to Functional Grammar. #ydney :niversity (:npublished)( hapter 4)

3artin, O E. 'KK . English Te7t9 system and structure . Amsterdam Oohn6en7amins ( hapter 1)

3atthiessen, hristian 'KK2. 0e7icogrammatical 6artography . Tokyo"nternational anguage #ciences ( hapter )

29



Chapter 5C O>$*ION

1 O /ectives

a :eneral Instructional O /ectiveAfter completing this chapter completely, you are e!pected to be competent toanaly*e te!ts in terms of cohesive devices.

*pecific Instructional O /ectivesAfter studying the materials in this chapter you are e!pected to be competent') to identify references in the te!ts,) to analy*e ellipsis>substitutions in te!ts,) to identify con7unctions in relating clauses,1) to apply appropriate cohesive devices, and2) to analy*e le!ical cohesions in te!ts.

+& OrientationA te!t forms in a unity or oneness. "ndeed one of the features of being a te!t is

the unity of meaning. The unity of meaning in te!t is called cohesion . The unity of meaning forms in two ways structurally and non structurally. #tructurally, the unity iscreated by the structure of Theme and Eheme. Mon structurally the unity is made byrelations of meaning of words r le!ical items. Thus, it can be said that link of meaningfor achiveing unity in te!t>discourse using non structural elements is called cohesion. Ate!t is said to be cohesive if the clauses as reali*ations of the te!t are linked or connected."n other words, the te!ture of a te!t is indicated by the relatedness of the clauses. Asindicated in ( 1) below the te!t in ( 1b) is more cohesive than ( 1a). "n other words, te!tin ( 1b) makes more unity or oneness than ( 1a). This is caused by the fact that ( 1b)has more number of threads which tie, fasten or link the clauses. The thread of discoursein this book is termed cohesive devices .

( 1)a. Ali bought a new book. Ali gave a new book to Oack.

b. Ali bought a new book. Then, he gave the book to his cousin.

ohesion is set up by applying cohesive devices. There are four types of cohesivedevices, namely

(') Eeferences,( ) &llipsis> #ubstitution,( ) on7unction and(1) e!ical cohesion.

a ReferenceAs a cohesive device reference is subdivided into

(') pronouns (", we, you, us, him, one, nothing...)

2J



( ) demonstratives (near this,these, here P far that, those, there P not near nor far but$you know what " mean% the, yonder )

( ) omparative (positive as...asP comparative er, more P superlative est, most@ as,like, such as )

The cohesive device of reference has a retrieval power, that is, it has a power to refer to

the participant previously introduced. ;ith reference to the retrieval system a referencemay be(') Anaphora,( ) ataphora,( ) &!ophora,(1) -omophora,(2) &sphora, and(4) &ndophora.

An anaphoric reference refers or point to the identity of the refrence to the preceding participant. "t is also said that an anaphoric reference refers backward as shown in ( 2a)

where he and it respectively refers backward to the participants #en and a "lower . The back and forward position of written te!t depends on the orthographic systems. "n&nglish following the atin writing systems, the back is to one%s left side while theforward is the right hand side. Th eopposite occurs in Arabic.

( 2a) 6en picked up a flower. Then, he gave it to 3ary

A cataphoric reference points to the ensuing participant as the identity as shown in( 2b) below.

( 2b)

An e!ophoric reference points to the outside of the te!tP the non verbal conte!t or conte!t of situation as shown in ( 4c). The identity of me, the, you as the e!ophoricelements can be found by going outside f the te!t. "n other words, the identity is onlyunderstood by the speaker or the interlocutor.

( 2c)5ass me the knife, will you@ Bid you see the man@

2K

Alhough he was young #en was very wise.

6en picked up a flower. Then, he gave it to 3ary



A homophoric reference indicates the identity of the rference to the outside, that isto the conte!t of culture. "n ( 2d) below it is indicated that the identity of the isunderstood if one knows the &nglish culture that the moon refers to the only moon, theonly moon of the earth. #imilarly the state rferrs to the state where the spea7er is at andthe president is the president of the country where the spekers in at the moment.

( 2d)The moon was shining.The president is visiting a party.The state governmebt approves a petition.

An esphoric refrence points to the identity of the reference in the same clause. Asshown in ( 2e) the identity of the man is in the same clause which is who came here.#imilarly the identity of his is retrievad from 6ennny at the same clause.

( 2e)The man who came here las night is a doctor

6enny gave a book to his brother.The term endophora is used to indicate that the identity of the reference is

retrievable from the te!t, that is from what is written and read. Thus, the term serves as acover for anaphora, cataphore and esphora. #trange still is that there is no a cover term foe!ophora and homophora.

$llipsis and *u stitution

1( $llipsis&llipsis is defined as the deletion of a linguistic unit that is retrievable or

recoverable from its conte!t. A linguistic unit (typically word, phrase and clause) may bedeleted because of the influence or constraints of social conte!t. As a cue the deletedelement is traceable with reference of the social conte!t. &lliptical elements may beclausal, group>phrasal, le!ical or morphemic. The deleted is indicated by the sign J .

a( Clausal9A Bid you go there@6 ?es. Y ( I went there )

( :roupK#hrase" advised him to write a report but he refused to Y(write a report)

c( ordA Bid he go@6 ?es, he did Y ( go)

d( ;orphemeBatang( i) dan kun7ungi T3"".

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( 9a)6enny was thirsty so he grabbed a glass of water.They crossed the river in the canoe because their boats had been damaged by the bombs.As the weather was not conducive to the plan, the trip was abandoned.

( 9b)6enny was thirsty so the previous e!planations are verified.After all they crossed the river in the canoe because their boats had been damaged by the

bombs."n conclusion, as the weather was not conducive to the plan, the trip was abandoned.

"n terms of the interdependency, con7unctions are classified into paratactic andhypotactic ones. The two categories are related to the paratactic and hypotactic relationsas elaborated in hapter 4. Thus, and and but are paratactic whereas because and whereare hypotactic.

Tale +1 Con/unctionsT)pes Distinctiveinternal

$xternalKInternalCohesive

#aratactic >)potactic

Additive 3oreover "n addition

And

/r

and

or

besides

if not8thenomparative Alternatively

&+uallyThat is/n the other hand

ikewise"n contrast"nstead

so N Finite but

like, as, as if,like when,whereas,e!cept that

Temporal At the same timeFinallyAt first

3eanwhileThroughout5reviouslyThereupon

andmeanwhilethen

while, when, aslong as, after,since, now that

onse+uential To this endThen

"n conclusionAfter all

MeverthelessAdmittedly

"n this way

To this endThen/therwiseThereforeFor -owever ?et

Thus

soso

so

but

and thus

so that, lestso as, in caseif, even if,unless

because, as,sincealthough, in

spite of by, thereby

e !exical Cohesione!ical cohesion indicates relation of meaning based on the meanings of words.

e!ical cohesion is established through si! types namely'. Eepetition,. #ynonymy,

4



. Antonymy,1. -yponymy,2. 3eronymy, and4. ollocation.

1( Repetition

:nity of meaning is set up by the repetition of a word. This is attributed to twokinds, namely the complete or full repetition in which a word is completely or whollyrepeated as the first time it is introduced and the partial or derivational repetition in whichthe derived form of a word occurs after its introduction. The te!t in (( Ja) is the case of complete repetition in which the words book and mayor are repeated in the secondclauses. "n a different way in ( Jb) the word write is repeated in its derived form of writer and announced in its derivational form of announcement.

( Ja)6en bought a book . The book was given to 6ill.The man intended to meet the mayor but he was told that the mayor had left for

#ingapore.( Jb)#he wrote a new book. "ndeed she is a well known writer in her country.The minute of the meeting was announced but the announcement confused all members.

+( *)non)m)A meaning relation forms when words of similar meanings are used in two

clauses. "n ( Jc) the use of left for and depart, dangerous and ha*ardous.

( Jc)3y daughter le"t early "or the port. -er brother departed much earlier.#moking is ha*ardous. "ndeed it is dangerous for health.

( %nton)m)A meaning relation forms by two words with opposite meanings. The opposing

meanings may either be categorical, gradual or relational. Two words are categoricallyantonymous when the absence of one absolutely results in the presence of the other andreversibly the presence of one makes the absence of the other. As indicated in ( Jd) if one is dead there is no reason to claim him or her to be alive. Thus, dead and alive arecategorically antonymous.

A gradual antonym indicates that the meaning of a word can not be claimed to bethe opposite of a single word since other words may be possible. There is no strongground to claim that the only opposite of the word hot is cold since the two words spreadin a continuum or cline of meanings as indicated "ro*enAcoldAwarmAhotAboilA e aporate . There is a gradual increase of the degree of heat from the point of fro*en tothat of evaporation. Thus, there are a number of alternatives serving as the opposite of cold P they may be warm, hot , boiling, and e aporate .

4



A relational antonym is one in which when a word is used it has its relatedopposites, such as day will relate to night, boy to girl, good to bad, give to take. The te!tin ( Jd) indicates a categorical, gradual and relational antonym.

( Jd)All his men were declared to be dead . 3iraculously, one was found ali e (categorical).Bid you cope with the cold weather@ " know you were born in hot and humid area(gradual)." borrowed some money from the man. " did not lend him (relational).

.( >)pon)m)-yponymy indicates a relation of $member to group%. As a cover or group the

word animal covers tick, ant, cockroach, snake, rat, cat, tiger, elephant, whale, etc. Therelationship is indicated in Figure K. The relation between the word animal and rat ishyponym us one. This is a vertical relation. The relation between or among members is

called co hyponymy. This is a hori*ontal relation. Thus, a co hyponym us relation forms between rat and whale .

0( ;eron)m)3eronymy indicates a $part0whole% relation. As a cover term tree is constituted

by its parts as root, trunk, branch, twig, lea", and bloo m. The relation between tree androot is one of meronymy, in which tree is vertically related to root , whereas the relation

between or among the parts, which is hori*ontal in nature as indicated in Figure 'D, is oneof co meronymy.

Animal

tick ant cockroachsnake rat cat tiger

elephant

6igure >)pon)m)

41

whale



ast week 6enny with his class mate went to the *oo. -e saw an elephant. The animal ishuge with a long trunk. "ts feet are as large as a tray. Then, the children went to observea python. The snake was shy and hid its pointed face in the log.

)nswer9

'1( Reference6enny0his esphora, the (*oo) e!ophora, he anaphora, the (animal) anaphora, its(feet) anaphora, the (children) anaphora, the (snake) anaphora, its (pointed face)anaphora, the (log) e!opora.as large as comparative

'+( $llipsisand Y (the snake) hid its pointed face

' ( Con/unctionthen temporal hypotactic

and additive paratactic

'.( !exical Cohesionelephant, snake0animal hyponymytrunk, feet0elephant meronymytrunk0feet co meronymy

python0snake hyponymyface0snake meronymyhuge0large synonymy

. Trou leshootinga !ogical or Textual 6unction=

A con7unction as a cohesive device should be distinguished from its function inlogical function. The use of con7unction in logical function refers to the relation of clauses based on structure. As a cohesive device, which is related to the te!tual function,con7unction serves to link le!ical item only.

>o2 is h)pon)m) differentiated from meron)m)=The meaning relation of hyponymy and meronymy as indicated in the two figures

are similar. -owever, they are inherently different. To test if a relation is that of hyponymy or meronymy, delete one member or part. After the deletion if the remaining

parts or members still constitute the cover word, the relation is that of hyponymy.-owever, if the remaining parts or member do not constitute its cover word, the relationis that of meronymy. As indicated in Figure 2, if the whale is deleted the remainingmembers still constitute the word animal . /n the contrary, if the trunk is deleted theremaining parts do not constitute the tree since there is no tree without a trunk.

0& $xercises$xercise 1Identif) the cohesive devices in the follo2ing text

44



'. 6ill went to the beach. Then, he went to the coffee shop.. "ndonesia is rich with natural resources. -owever, the country is facing economic

problems.. As a civil servant, 6enny should give good public services.1. Bid you see the man@

2. -ow long have they been waiting in this office.4. The man asked me to resign but " refused to.9. ;ho said that he would come soon@J. #tudents are willing to do the work. -owever, they are not allowed to as their

works may be inefficient.K. " saw a lion yesterday. The animal was about to grab a baby deer.'D. Mo body would like to visit the man. This is because he is very boastful.

$xercise +:se appropriate cohesive devices in the following incomplete te!t

'. Bid you notice Zman who was under the tree@

. " did not agree with Zpetition, the man insisted on voting for the public voices.. They watched the tiger going out of the forest and they decide to shoot the .1. " never approved the proposalP it was the man that0with it.2. ;hen the man is available in his office, his wife must be Zfrom home.4. The more she thought of the program the Zlikely she abandoned it.9. 3y sister prefers cold weather, being the opposite of my cousin who like Z

weather.J. 5lease remember the program and do not Zto support it in the meeting.K. ;ho said that Zworld is coming to an end tomorrow.'D. -e said he was sorry Zhe had upset me.

$xercise "dentify the cohesive devices in the following te!t.&ditors of newspapers and maga*ines often go to e!tremes to provide their readers withunimportant facts and statistics. ast year a 7ournalist had been instructed by a wellknown maga*ine to write an article on the president%s place in anew African republic.;hen the article arrived, the editor read the first sentence and then refused to publish it assufficient facts were not provided. The 7ournalist felt disappointed by the refusal despitethe fact that he had spent dangerous time in collecting data about the palace.

& Revie2 3 Recontextuali4ationohesion is an aspect of te!tual meaning. ohesion refers to the unity of

meaning in a te!t. "ndeed a te!t is inherent with the feature of unity of meaning. There isno te!t without unity of meaning. "n order to create the unity of meaning there must belink of meaning between or among clauses constituting the te!t. The link of meaning ismade by some sort of thread of discourse. This thread is achieved by using cohesivedevices, which cover reference, ellipsis>substitution, con7unction and le!ical cohesion.The more cohesive devices used, the more tightly the meaning relation is resulted in thete!t.

49



5 6urther ReadingGerot, . 5. ;ignell 'KK1. Making $ense o" Functional Grammar . #ydney

Gerd #tabler ( hapter J-alliday, 3.A.C. 'KK1. )n Introduction to Functional Grammar . ondon

&dward Arnold ( hapter K-alliday, 3.A.C. and E. -asan. 'KJ1. 6ohesion in English . ondonP ongman.

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Chapter ; $T%#>ORIC%! R $#R$*$NT%TION*

1 O /ectives

a :eneral Instructional O /ectiveAfter completing this chapter you are e!pected to be competent to analy*egrammatical representation in academic te!ts.

*pecific Instructional O /ectivesAfter studying the materials in this chapter you are e!pected to be competent') to identify representations of grammatical metaphor ) to unpack metaphorical representation into literal ones, and) to investigate motif behind the use of grammatical metaphor.

+& Orientation

3etaphor is defined as representing meaning in or interpreting meaning from twosides or perspectives (Buranti 'KK9 J, 41P #tern DDD 2). The term metaphor isconstituted by metaB which means $half% or $partly% as in metaphysics meaning $half

physical% or $partially physical% and phora or phoric meaning $referring to% or $pointingto% as inanaphora , cataphora and e7ophora respectively meaning $pointing to the back%,$pointing to the front%, and $pointing out side%. Thus, metaphor implies representing or interpreting meaning from two viewsP that is partially from one side and partially fromanother side. 3etaphor inherently implies two points comparison and uncommonrepresentation. Firstly, a metaphorical coding involves a comparison with an emphasison similarity such as the e!pression of the door o" his heart where his heart is viewed ashaving similar feature to that of a house in that a house has a door and his heart also hasone. #econdly, a metaphor implies an uncommon way of coding e!perience. "n #Ftheory where language is viewed as a social semiotics, there are two poles of codinge!perience the unmarked or congruent and marked or incongruent coding. Thecongruent coding is also known as a common, usual or literal representation whereas theincongruent one is called uncommon, unusual or metaphorical representation. 3etaphor divides into le!ical and grammatical metaphor. ;hereas le!ical metaphor has been wellknown for long ( akoff and Oohnson 'KJD), grammatical metaphor is relatively new(-alliday 'KJ2). This paper elaborates both le!ical and grammatical metaphor andfocuses on the use of grammatical metaphor in scientific te!ts.

a !exical ;etaphore!ically there is a usual, common or congruent coding of meaning in language.

ongruently, the word snake in the clause the snake is crawling on the grass refers to an$animal% or $reptile%. Another way of coding e!perience is called incongruent or metaphorical representation. "n the clause don5t trust (ack@ he is a snake the snake nolonger refers to a $reptile%. This is an unusual way of coding e!perience. Oack is not asnakeP he is a human being but he is considered as if he were a snake. "t is implicitlyunderstood in the metaphorical representation that Oack is compared with a snake wheresome characteristics of snake are seen to e!ist in Oack. To e!emplify, some features or

4K



characteristics of a snake are <Lhaving scales=, <Lcrawling=, <Lcoiling its body=, <Lhavingfangs=, <Lbeing poisonous= and <having fangs=. /f all these features some are mapped onto Oack. "n other words, some characteristics of the snake apply to OackP for e!ample Oack has the characteristics of <Lcoiling= other people by using his words and <Lbeing

poisonous= in his words or e!pressions. /ther characteristics of < having scales=, <

crawling= and < having fangs= are not applicable to Oack. The metaphorical clause of (ack is a snake implies that Oack is like a snake, not to be trusted and subtly cheating people (coiling or rounding people) and hurting others (by his poisonous words).

e!ical metaphor potentially occurs in comparison in which nouns and nouns,nouns and verbs, nouns and ad7ectives, nouns and adverbs are compared. "n addition,le!ical metaphor may occur in the conte!t of ideology.

e!ical metaphor is reali*ed by a noun in comparison with another. "n the clausewe ha e identi"ied the root o" the matter P the matter (being a noun) is compared with theroot (another noun). The root is deep under ground as the basis of a tree. Thus, the root o" the matter implies $the basis or cause of the matter%. "n other words, the root of thematter means the fundamental cause of the matter. #ome other e!amples of le!ical

metaphors are the "oot o" the mountain, island o" hope, door o" heart, sea o" li"e, guard o" re olution and taste "or music .3etaphorical representations may occur where a noun is compared with a verb.

"n the clause they sailed to their e7pectation , their e7pectation is compared with sailed . "tappears as if their e7pectation was the sea and they sailed through the sea. /ther e!amples of metaphor with verbs compared with nouns are open your heart, smiling city,

"illing one5s li"e , escalating achie ement and rocketing prices .e!ical metaphor also forms with nouns compared with ad7ectives. "n the clause

he has got a bright "uture , the "uture is compared with the bright ness of the sun. -ere,the "uture (being noun) is compared with bright (being ad7ective). /ther e!amples of metaphoric representations are the man is still green (being ine!perienced), greenre olution, golden age and dark li"e.

e!ical metaphor may also form in ideological conte!ts in which a meaning or concept is one community is analogously applied in another culture. The president of the:# (E. Mi!on) was once alleged for a scandal of corruption known as ;atergate scandal.The other president (6ill linton) was also alleged for the scandal of Freshwatergate.#ince then the morpheme gate was used for any corruption scandal. This was later applied in "ndonesia where 5resident Abdurahman ;ahid was accused of #uloggate ,

#runeigate and Golkargate in which gate is used to mark corruption scandal.

&:rammatical ;etaphorGrammatical metaphor is defined as relocation or shift of wording the meaning

from its usual representation to another unusual reali*ation. "n this sense, analogously tole!ical metaphor which is an unusual coding of meaning, grammatical metaphor indicatesan incongruent wording of meaning. This is to say that inherently there are two kinds of wording, namely congruent and incongruent or metaphorical one.

A congruent coding or wording indicates that reality is coded in its usual or common reali*ations. "n other words, congruent representation is the common way of reali*ing semantics in grammarP specifically usual ways of e!pressing meaning inle!icogrammatical aspects. This is also called literal meaning. For e!ample,

9D



le!icogrammatically a thing is congruently coded by noun and activity or event by verb."n the clause of the man arri ed late , the group the man is a thing and is coded in a nounand arri ed is an event, which is coded in a verb. "n Table D, based on 3artin ('KK b'J), congruent coding of meaning is summari*ed.

"ncongruent or metaphorical coding does not follow the congruent representation.

"n other words, metaphorical coding or grammatical metaphor indicates uncommoncoding in which commonality of coding as summari*ed in Table D is violated. Thee!pression of the man5s late arri al in the man5s late arri al surprises us is ametaphorical wording since the congruent function of arri e as an event is now recodedin noun. This indicates that grammatical metaphor indicates relocation or shift of meaning e!pression from the normal to unusual one.

;hen a te!t is not congruent in its reali*ation or the literal reali*ation is violated,grammatical metaphor forms. "n the clause of he succeeded in the !ob the wording iscongruent since it follows the principle as summari*ed in Table . -owever, in his

success in the !ob results in a strong criticism the nominal group his success is ametaphorical wording. The range of grammatical metaphor is summari*ed in Table in

which the sign means $reali*ed by%.

Tale ++ Congruent ordings of ;eaning;eaning Reali4ed ) !exicogrammar

' ording($xamples

thing 5articipant>noun The book was sold.

activity 5rocess>verb ;e ran .

+uality Attribute>ad7ective The house is old.

location, time,manner

ircumstance>adverb -e wrote the letter neatly.The man is in the room.

relation con7unction #he was absent because she wasill.

position preposition The post office is near the bank.

7udgment,opinion,

comment

modality #he may arrive early." must go now.

" will write a report.

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T %<!$ + ; $T%#>ORIC%! C ODIN:

No& Class ;etaphor 6unction ;etaphor $xamples' ad7ective [ noun +uality [ thing unstable [ instability

probable [ probability

a verb [ noun process [ thing transform [ transformationsucceed [ success

b tense>phase verb(adverb) [ noun

aspect of process [thing

going to>try [ prospect>attempthave completed [ solution

c modality verb(adverb) [ noun

modality of process[ thing

can, could [ possibility, potentialis re+uired to go [ duty

d verb Ladverb>prep.phr. [

noun

processLcircumstance [

thing

move in circle [revolutionP behave badly [ misconduct

preposition [ noun minor process [thing

with [ accompanimentso [ effect

1 con7unction [ verb relator [ thing so [ causeP proof if [ condition

2a noun head [ noun premodifier

thing [ class (of things)

engine <fails= [ engine <failure=

2b noun head [ prep.

phrase postmodifier

thing [ possessor glass <fractures= [ <the fracture= of

glassvillage <develop= <the development= of village

2c noun head [ possessive determiner

thing [ possessor (of thing)

government <decided= [ government%s<decision=

4a verb [ ad7ective process [ +uality <poverty= is increasing [ increasing<poverty=

4b tense>phase verb(adverb) [ ad7ective

aspect of process [+uality

was absent [ being absent begin [ initial

4c modality verb [(adverb) [ ad7ective

modality of process[ +uality

always, will [ constant

9a adverb [ ad7ective manner circumstance[ +uality

<acted= brilliantly [ brilliant <acting=

9b prepositional phrase[ ad7ective

circumstance [+uality

<argued= for a long time [ lengthy<argument=<describe= in details [detailed<description=

9



c& Ran@shiftEankshift is the change in the ranking or level of coding from a higher level to a

lower one. This is known as down grading of meaning representation. "n &nglishgrammatical units, from the highest to the lowest one, are constituted by four categories,namely

'. A:#&,. GE/:5>5-EA#&,. ;/EB, and1. 3/E5-&3&.

The relation is that of constituency where a unit is constituted by the immediateunit below it. Thus, a clause is constituted by groups>phrases, a group>phrase consist of words and a word is made is comprised of morphemes.

Grammatical metaphor involves rankshift of two kinds down grading andupgrading. Eankshift of down grading occurs in situations where meaning normally or

congruently e!pressed in a clause is metaphorically coded in group. As a conse+uence of group>phrase downgrading, clause comple!es are recoded in a single clause. ;heremeaning is normally e!pressed in groups>phrases, it is now recoded in words and that inwords is reali*ed in morpheme. "n Table below two types of representation literal or congruent and metaphorical are given.

Eankshift or upgrading is the opposite. ;here a meaning is congruently reali*edin the lower unit, metaphorically it is recoded in the higher units. #pecifically, themeaning of a morpheme is recoded in word, that of a word in group>phrase, that of agroup>phrase in clause, and that of a clause in clause comple!. "n many cases therankshift is not gradual, where a word is recoded in clause leaving the group>phrase as anintermediate unit. Thus, rather than he must be there , the e!pression is recoded in I belie e he is there , it is certain he is there or there is a strong e idence that he is there inwhich the modality of must is represented in a clause. This mode of metaphorical codingtypically occurs in diplomacy, bureaucracy and administration and this is not further elaborated in this paper.

Ta le +. !iteral and ;etaphorical Representations!iteral Representation ;etaphorical Representation

a.'. he was absent. because he was ill

a'. his being absent was caused by his

being ill.. his absence was caused by his

illness.. his absence due to his illness.1. his absence was a conse+uence of

his illness.

b.

'. Ali arrived late,

b. Ali%s late arrival resulted inour worries and our rival team%s

pleasure.

91



. which worried us

. but pleased our rival team.

c

'. the doctor advised. that the patient should stay in a peaceful place for one month

. by which her mental stress can becured.

c.

the doctor%s advice for the patient%sone month stay in a peaceful place ismeant for a probability of cure for her mental stress.

d'. "ndonesia has successfully

developed its economy in 'KJD%s. which affected the people. who live in the rural areas

1. to live in modern ways.

d'. "ndonesia%s 'KJD%s successful

economic development resulted insocial effect of modern ways of lifein rural areas.

. social effects of "ndonesia%s 'KJD%ssuccessful economic developmentresulted in modern ways of life inthe rural communities.

e'. our campus is green and large. and is distant from the city centre. which has provided us with a

natural environment1. to study2. and to hang around comfortably.

ethe greenness, largeness and its distancefrom the city centre are provisions for natural environment study and acomfort of wander.

f '. you may leave now. since you have completed the work . but you must return

1. if " call you2. when " need you4. to help me9. to reshelf the books

f your leave on completion of work isfollowed by an obligatory return on mycall upon assistance for the book reshelf

As shown in Table , by applying grammatical metaphor a clause comple! of two clauses or more in their literal representation is reduced or condensed into a singlesimple clause in its metaphorical representation. For e!ample, the te!t in row f of Table shows that seven clauses are condensed into a single clause. This is the strength of

metaphor and this makes the clause comple! practical in the sense that rather than codinge!perience in some clauses they can be coded in a single simple clause. Thecondensation of meaning is inherent in science since such condensation fits scientificfeatures.

92



All types of process as seen in f, dominantly material process, are $buried% or packed in nominali*ation. This nominali*ation results in thing. As seen in the e!amplesclauses no ' and are buried into thing your lea e on completion o" work and clauses no, 1, 2, 4 and 9 are condensed into thing an obligatory return on my call upon assistance

"or the book reshel" . "n between the two things a relational process is "ollowed by is

placed to relocate con7unction but . This indicates that grammatical metaphor is effectivein burying material process in nominali*ation and transferring the process to thing asshown in the following figure

you may leave now since you havecompleted the work

but you must return if " call you when "need you to help me to reshelf the books

your leave oncompletion of work

is followed by an obligatory return onmy call upon assistancefor the book reshelf

& %nal)sis"n order to grasp or learn meaning of grammatical metaphor, the metaphorical

representation needs $unpacking%, namely the metaphorical coding is compared with itsliteral or congruent e!pressions. /perationally, the comparison is done by the following

procedures(') displaying the congruent e!pression against the metaphorical representation,( ) placing the metaphorical form against its closest congruent form,( ) comparing the two kinds of e!pression in order to find out le!ical or grammatical

metaphor,(1) suggest reasons or motif for the choice of metaphorical form.

"n the following two e!amples, the analysis of metaphorical representation is donethrough unpacking procedures. Firstly, the metaphorical form of the clause #en5sabsence was caused by his illness and its literal or congruent e!pression #en was absent because he was ill are compared. The congruent form is indicated between two singleinverted marks $8%.6en was absent because he was ill vs 6ens absence was caused by his illness$6en% $was% $absent% $because% $he% $was% $ill%arrier 5rocess

EelationalAttribute con7unction arrier 5rocess

EelationalAttribute

α ! β

6en%s absence was caused by his illnessalue 5rocess

EelationalToken

Beictic Thing Beictic Thingmodifier noun modifier noun

94



As shown in the analysis, 6en which is Thing>noun> arrier is converted tolassifier>modifier>Beictic at the nominal group. The con7unction because is relocated asverb was caused by P the case of which is stated in no 'D of Table '. Further changes areelaborated as follows.

(') #en C#en5s, absent Cabsence, heC his, illC illness , and because Cwas caused byP these are all cases of grammatical metaphor ( ) the reason or motif behind this is the condensation, simplification or rankshifting

of the clause comple! into a single clause, where #en was absent was changed or rankshifted to nominal group #en5s absence and that of he was ill to nominalgroup his illness . The condensation of the two clauses makes the clause comple!

practical.

#econdly, the congruent form of they arri ed at the summit on the "i"th day iscompared against its metaphorical representation the "i"th day saw them at the summit .

$on the fifthday% $they% $at the summit% $arrived%

ircumstanceocationTemporal

Actor ircumstanceocation#patial

5rocess3aterial

the fifth day saw them at the summit#enser 5rocess 3ental 5henomenon ircumstance

ocation#patial

After comparing the two modes of e!pression of the two clauses, it is found that(') A le!ical metaphor occurs where it is clearly seen that the fifth

day is a #enser with its congruent form ircumstance of on thefifth day. The the "i"th day does not normally see (saw) anything.

( ) The reason behind the metaphorical coding is to promote thetime or ircumstance location Temporal to be the Theme of theclause.

Grammatical metaphor normally occurs in te!ts of science, technology andacademics because these fields have characteristics, which motivates the use of

grammatical metaphor. #ome features characteri*e scientific te!ts are'. /b7ective,. "mpersonal,. Technical,

1. 5ractical, and2. ;ritten anguage.

All of these characteristics find their e!pressions in language, particularly inmetaphorical representations of le!icogrammatical aspects.

99



.& Trou leshooting3etaphor divides into le!ical and grammatical metaphor. e!ical metaphor is

commonly about relocating congruent le!ical items to other incongruent or metaphoricalones. For e!ample, literally it is known that lion, star are natural ob7ects. -owever when

one says the lion o" England was Ding ichard, she is the star in the classroom thecoding is that of le!ical metaphor where the lion and star metaphorically indicate$authority% and $the most lovely% respectively.

Grammatical metaphor is concerned with the comparison of coding in grammar.#imply, it says that congruent representation is where thing is coded as noun, activity asverb, +uality as ad7ective, manner and location as adverb, relation as con7unction and

position as preposition. ;hen the coding does not follow the congruent representation, itis called grammatical metaphor.

"t is advised that in analy*ing grammatical representation one should be able todistinguish the two types of metaphor.

0 $xercises$xercise 1"dentify metaphorical form in the following te!ts by underlining the parts of the clauses.For e!ample, in the clause the doctor5s ad ice was ery wise the metaphorical part isunderlined as the followingThe doctor%s advice was highly appreciated.-is absence was due to his son%s illness

'. 3y son%s colleagues made a party for his success in his work.. " think they will come tomorrow.. Bid the cause of the event also affect you presence@

1. Bue to the heavy rain the plane departure is cancelled.2. The desire to be a member of a prestige group often influences

adolescent behaviour.4. 5eer group pressure affects young people to behave in the community.9. ;ars cause death and destruction and put resources to non productive uses.J. -owever, wars also bring useful developments.K. There was uncertainty in some +uarters concerning the regulation of free labour.'D. Any threat of force or any persuasion other than that permitted and defined by law

to men who are unionist, or any other form of boycotting should, in the opinion of this onference, be resisted by the united union.

$xercise +;rite the congruent representations of the following te!ts. Then, compare themetaphorical e!pression of each te!t against that of its congruent one. To e!emplify, thete!t in its metaphorical and congruent coding are given.

6en%s early leave was meant for his desire for immediate arrival at his home town.(metaphorical)6en left early because he was eager to arrive immediate at his home town (congruent)

9J



' . The enlargement of companies in "ndonesia owed something to the nationalchallenge of identity

. Buring the ietnam war women became full time members of the armed forces inthe south.

. ;ars have revealed inade+uacies in Australia%s scientific and researchcapabilities.1. The government gave its support to the advancement of science in many areas,

including agricultural production2. "ncreased responsiveness may be reflected in feeding behaviour.4. ung cancer death rates are clearly associated with increased smoking.9. -igher productivity means more supporting services.J. The atomic nucleus absorption and energy emission are measured in +uanta or

discrete units.K. The conical space rendering of cosmic strings% gravitational properties applies

only to straight strings.

'D. The modes rest on the locali*ed gravitational attraction e!erted by rapidlyoscillating and e!tremely massive closed loops of cosmic string.

$xercises Eead the following te!t and identify metaphorical e!pressions then state the motif or reason behind the metaphorical coding by comparing the metaphorical representationagainst the congruent one.

For a long time predation has been intuitively considered to be a ma7or driving force inshaping *ooplankton communities. "n contrast to herbivores of terrestrial ecosystems,

planktonic herbivores are e!tremely vulnerable to predation, particularly predation byvisually oriented planktivorous fish. -aving no burrows or bushes for shelter, they areforced to feed in the most illuminated strata of the lake midwater where food is mostabundant, and where they are desperately e!posed to the danger of falling prey to one of the abundant fish species that can visually locate its prey at light intensities as low as 'Dlu!. arge bodied herbivores such as Baphnia are most conspicuous and therefore theyare the first to be decimated or even locally driven to e!tinction.&!tinction of most conspicuous, large bodied *ooplankton are most apparent in thosehabitats, where new species of plantivorous fish have 7ust been introduced. For instance,introduction of Alosa resulted in e!termination of large bodied calanoids in the Greatakes in America and introduction of brook char caused permanent e!tinction of allcladoceran and most copepod species from fish free alpine lakes in Tatra 3ontains.5redation by plantivorous fish seems to be a force that is strong enough to be heldresponsible for the final eradication of many planktonic herbivore species from the faunaof the past.

& Revie2 3 Recontextuali4ation3etaphorical representation indicates an uncommon or incongruent coding of

e!perience. 3etaphor divides into le!ical and grammatical metaphor. "n grammatical

9K



metaphor one codes e!perience in incongruent way, that is in violation of commoncoding as summari*ed in Table '. The use of grammatical metaphor offers twoadvantages. Firstly, grammatical metaphor reduces or condenses a clause comple! into asingle clause. This results in practicality of e!pression in which processes are relocatedas things in nominali*ations. #econdly, grammatical metaphor buries material and other

types of processes in nominali*ation and provides relational process to indicate relations between or among things. 6y the two uses, grammatical metaphor is a powerful tool inturning te!ts of common sense e!perience into scientific te!ts.

9. Further Eeading-alliday, 3.A.C. DD1. )n Introduction to Functional Grammar . (third edition)

ondon &dward Arnold ( hapter 'D)-alliday, 3.A.C. and . 3. ". 3 3atthiessen DD'. 6onstruing E7perience

through Meaning9 a 0anguageB#ased )pproach to 6ognition .ondon ontinuum.

3artin, O. E. , . 3. ". 3. 3atthiessen . 5ainter 'KK2. 1eploying Functional

Grammar9 a workbook "or Halliday5s Introduction to Functional Grammar. #ydney :niversity (:npublished)( hapter 9)

3artin, O E. 'KK . English Te7t9 system and structure . Amsterdam Oohn6en7amins

R $6$R$NC$*6olivar, A. 'KK1. The #tructure of newspaper editorials. "n oulthard, 3. (&d.)

)d ances in 'ritten Te7t )nalysis . ondon Eoutledge, 94 K1.Buranti, A. 'KK9. 0inguistic )nthropology . ambridge ambridge :niversity 5ress.

JD



&ggins, #. 'KK1. )n Introduction to $ystemic Functional 0inguistics . ondon 5inter Gerot, . 5. ;ignell 'KK1. Making $ense o" Functional Grammar . #ydney Gerd

#tabler -alliday, 3.A.C. 'K9J. 0anguage as a $ocial $emiotics . ondon &dward Arnold.-alliday, 3.A.C. 'K9K. 3odes of meaning and modes of e!pression types of

grammatical structures and their determinations by different semanticfunctions. "n Allerton, B.O., &. arney, and B. -oldcroft (eds) Functionand 6onte7t in 0inguistic )nalysis9 a "estschri"t "or 'illiam Hass .ambridge ambridge :niversity 5ress, 29 4K.

-alliday, 3.A.C. 'KJ . -ow is a te!t like a clause@ "n Allen, #. (&d .- Te7t 4rocessing9te7t analysis and generation, te7t typology and attribution. #tockholmAlm+vist ;iskel "nternational, DK 19

-alliday, 3.A.C. 'KJ2. #ystemics 6ackground. "n 6enson, O. B. and ;.#. Greaves (eds)$ystemic 4erspecti es on 1iscourse , ol. ", Morwood Able!5ublishing, ' '2.

-alliday, 3.A.C. 'KJJ. /n the language of physical science. "n Ghadessy, 3. (&d.)

egister o" 'ritten English9 situational "actors and linguistic "eature .ondon 5inter 5ublishers, '4 '9J.-alliday, 3.A.C. 'KK . -ow do you mean@ "n Bavies, 3 and .Eavelli (eds) Advances

in #ystemic inguistics recent theory and practice. ondon 5inter 5ublishers, ' 2.

-alliday, 3.A.C. 'KK1. )n Introduction to Functional Grammar . ondon &dwardArnold

-alliday, 3.A.C. DD1. )n Introduction to Functional Grammar . third edition. ondon&dward Arnold.

-alliday, 3. A. C. DD2. /n grammar and grammatics. "n ;ebster, O. O. (ed.). 2nGrammar. ondon ontinuum, J101'9.

-alliday, 3. A. C. dan hristian 3. ". 3. DD'. 6onstruing E7perience through Meaning9 a 0anguageB#ased )pproach to 6ognition . ondonPontinuum

-alliday, 3.A.C. and E. -asan. 'KJ2. 6onte7t and Te7t9 aspects o" language in social semiotic perspecti es . Geelong Beakin :niversity 5ress.

-alliday, 3. A. C. O. E. 3artin 'KK . 'riting $cience9 literacy and discursi e power .ondon Falmer 5ress

"edema, E., #.Fee* and 5.;hite (in press) Media 0iteracy. B#5 3etropolitan &ast,#ydney.

akoff, G. and 3. Oohnson. 'KJD. Metaphors 'e 0i e #y . hicago :niversity of hicago5ress.

3artin, O.E. 'KK . English Te7t9 system and structure . Amsterdam Oohn 6en7amins.3artin, O.E. 'KK . A conte!tual theory of language. in ope, 6., 3ary Calant*is (eds)

The 4owers o" 0iteracy9 a genre approach to teaching writing . ondonThe Falmer 5ress, ''4 ' 4.

3artin, O. E. DDD. lose reading functional linguistics as a tool for critical discourseanalysis. "n :nsworth, . (ed.). esearching 0anguage in $chools and 6ommunities9 Functional 0inguistic 4erspecti es . ondon assell,920 D

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3artin, O. E. DD4. 3entoring semogenesis $genre based% literacy pedagogy. "nhristies, F. (ed). 4edagogy and the $haping o" 6onsciousness . ondonontinuum, ' 0'22.

3atthiessen, hristian 3. ". 3. (in press) 0e7icogrammatical 6artography &nglishsystems. #ydney #ydney :niversity

van Bi7k, Teun A. 'KJ4. Mews #chema. "n ooper, .E. and #. Greenbaum (eds)$tudying 'riting9 linguistic approaches . 6every -ills #aga, '22 'J1.#tern, O. DDD. Metaphor in 6onte7t . ambridge The 3"T 5ress.Trimble, . 'KJ2. English "or $cience and Technology9 a discourse approach . ambridge

ambridge :niversity 5ress.Tucker, G. -. 'KKJ. The 0e7icogrammar o" )d!ecti es9 ) $ystemic Functional )pproach to

0e7is. ondon assell% rief account of the 2riter& Amrin #aragih was born in 5ematangbandar,#imalungun on '1 Oanuary, 'K22. -e is a senior professor of linguistics at the &nglishApplied inguistics #tudy 5rogram, #chool of 5ostgraduate #tudies and at the &nglishBepartment, Faculty of anguages and Arts, the #tate :niversity of 3edan. After completing his Brs. (e+uivalent to 6A honours in Australia) degree at the "C"5 ("nstituteof Teacher Training and &ducational #ciences in ) 3edan ('KJ ) he was awarded ascholarship by the Australian Government ( olombo 5lan, A"BA6, ABA6, Aus Aid) tostudy in Australian :niversities for J years. -e completed his Biploma in the Teachingof &nglish as a Foreign anguage (BT&F ) at the :niversity of #ydney, Mew #outh;ales in 'KJ4 and obtained an 3A degree in linguistics at the same university in 'KJJ.-e was then transferred to 3elbourne, ictoria and continued his studies at a Trobe:niversity where he obtained the 5hB degree in inguistics in 'KK4. "n DD2 Br. Amrin#aragih was promoted to his professorship. 5rof. Brs Amrin #aragih, 5hB, 3A,BT&F has attended seminars as speakers and participants in linguistics, languageteaching, culture and semiotics in Australia, "ndonesia, 3alaysia, Thailand, Mew\ealand, and #ingapore. -is interests are discourse studies, semiotics and ideology inte!ts. -is works are mostly related, influenced by and based on systemic functionallinguistics theories as developed my 3. A. C. -alliday one of the world leadinglinguists and O. E. 3artin ( anada) who were his lecturers at the :niversity of #ydney,

M#;, Australia. 5rof. Amrin #aragih, 5hB, 3A, BT&F occupied positions of theBeputy Bean for Academic Affairs ('KK40 DD ), the Beputy Birector for AcademicAffairs of the #choolP of 5ostgraduate #tudies ( DD10 DD4), the #tate :niversity of 3edan. urrently he is the hairperson of the #chool of Foreign anguages (#T6A) of -arapan, 3edan and the -ead of The Mational anguage entre (6alai 6ahasa) in3edan. Mow 5rof. Amrin #aragih, 5hB, 3A, BT&F is also a senior lecturer at theinguistics #tudy 5rogram of the 5ostgraduate #chool of :#: (the :niversity of Morth#umatra) and :"#: (the "slam :niversity of Morth #umatra) where he lectures inBiscourse Analysis, Translation, 5ragmatics and #emiotics of anguage. -e has a widerange of publicationsP of which two are very current #ahasa dalam Donteks $osial ( DD4) and Tema dan ema ( DD9).

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is allo2ed to e reproduced, photocopied orcirculated in an) form 2ithout priorpermission from the author&

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# R$6%C$This book is mainly prepared for the students of &nglish Bepartment, Faculty of

anguages and Arts (F6#), the #tate :niversity of 3edan (:M"3&B) doing the lecturesof Functional Grammar and 1iscourse )nalysis each of which is allocated or weighed in #C# or credits. -owever, the book is suggested for use for those who are interested infunctional grammar or functional analysis of language.

"t is a fact that the aim in any educational system is conte!tually determined. Thisimplies that a te!tbook is only relevant with reference to the students% needs. #ince thestudents% needs vary with reference to the social conte!ts and background in which theylive or brought up, obviously there is no book which is wholly or completely suitable toany instructional program, let alone for all purposes. "n other words, materials for

instructions are dependent on social conte!ts where teachings are held. "n the light of thisassumption, the materials in te!tbooks depend on various factors, such as who arelearning the materials, where learning takes place, what ob7ective are to achieve, whatfacilities are available, what e!pectations of the learners are, etc.

This book is primarily meant to meet with the students% needs of the &nglishBepartment, F6# :M"3&B with specific ob7ectives to train teacher students to be goodat (&nglish) grammar and be +ualified &nglish teachers. The materials in this book areobtained from various sources as listed in the references and the present writer%se!perience in teaching $ystemic Functional Grammar and 1iscourse )nalysis for the lastfifteen years to "ndonesian university students in 3edan, Morth #umatra.

Those who want to use the book individually are advised to use it se+uentially by

its chapters. "n this way any unnecessary gaps in the successions and presentations of thematerials are avoided. "n addition, the materials are graded in terms of difficulty.

" would like to thank all those who have contributed to the making of this book.First of all, " would like to thank 5rof. 3. A. C -alliday and 5rof. O. E. 3artin (#ydney:niversity, Australia) who taught me and supervised my works in systemic functionallinguistics during my academic years in Australia ('KJ20'KK4). The two linguists haveinspired me to apply their theories to other languages and their academic and linguisticorientations have deeply rooted in my works. This is because, in my understanding,

J9



theories of systemic functional linguistics (#F ) are very relevant and contributive tosocial, economic and cultural developments in "ndonesia. As a developing country,"ndonesia is now developing all aspects of life and theories of #F are obviously yrelevant to educational developments in "ndonesia.

#econdly, my indebtedness is to 5rof. 6arry 6lake ( a Trobe :niversity ictoria,

Australia) who very often critici*ed my dissertation on systemic functional linguistics.5rof. 6arry 6lake also offered an alternative theory to my dissertation that " could notaccept. -owever, his sincere offer convinced me to continue with my #F theories in mydissertation.

Then, " am indebted to my thesis and academic supervisor at a Trobe :niversity,Br. Graham #cott who assisted me very much in my efforts to write a book on linguistics.The humorously conveyed advice and criticism by Br. Graham #cott motivated me to

bring this book into e!istence." would like to thank all the DD4> DD9 academic year students of &nglish Applied

inguistics #tudy 5rogram, the 5ostgraduate #tudies of the #tate :niversity of 3edan(:M"3&B) who have contributed to the writing of this book and inspired me in arranging

the materials of this book." would also like to thank my colleagues 5rof. T. #ilvana #inar, 5hB, 3A (:#:)and Asruddin 6arori Tou, 5hB, 3A (:M?), 5rof. " 3ade #ut7aya, 5hB, 3A, 5rof. "3ade #uastra, 5hB, 5rof. " Cetut Artawa, 5hB (:dayana) who have motivated andencouraged me to write this book.

3y wife 3as 5. Caban strongly motivated me to bring this book into e!istence.#he has been faithfully responsible to manage family matters. #he endured lonelinessand burden for childcares for almost J years during my stay in Australia.

Then, " would like to thank friends Brs. \ainuddin, 3. -um, Br. 6usminGurning, 3. 5d., Bra. Eahmah, 3. -um., Bra. #iti Aisyah Ginting 3. 5d., Bra. 3eisuri,3A, Bra. ut &rnidawaty, 3. 5d., and Bra. #ri 3inda 3urni, 3# who readily madecontributions to the manuscript of the book.

ast but not least " would like to thank #ukarny who has been responsible for thesetting, lay out and printing of the book.

3edan April, DDJ

5rof. Amrin #aragih, 5hB, 3A, BT&F , Brs.

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