Introduction

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CChhaapptteerr 11  

IINNTTRROODDUUCCTTIIOONN 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Integrated Solid Waste Management 1.3 Review of Earlier Studies 1.4 Research Gap 1.5 Scope and Importance of the Study 1.6 Relevance of the Study 1.7 Statement of the Problem 1.8 Objectives of the Study 1.9 Hypotheses 1.10 Research Methodology 1.11 Data Source 1.12 Research Approach 1.13 Period of Study 1.14 Research Instrument 1.15 The Population 1.16 Pilot Study 1.17 Sample Size 1.18 Method of Sampling 1.19 Type of Analysis and Statistical Tools used 1.20 Important Terms and Concepts Used 1.21 Limitations of the Study 1.22 Scheme of Presentation

1.1 Introduction

Every human activity creates waste in one form or another. Due to

population increase and unplanned urban development, unlike in the past, a

slight mismanagement of waste will invariably damage human health and

environment. The world over, accumulation of solid wastes is creating

numerous problems. Experts are yet to find out productive solutions to the

ever-growing solid waste issues. Most of the technological options put forward

for waste treatment and disposal are either impracticable due to many reasons

or just transform waste in one form into another. The quantum of waste

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generation in most of the countries is unmanageably huge and is increasing

constantly. Moreover, the waste composition is unpredictably changing, leaving

the major portion non-biodegradable waste. In all walks of life, people are

speaking about sustainable development but, in Solid Waste Management,

sustainability remains as a distant dream.

In urban areas, issues related to solid wastes are intensified due to high

density of population and unplanned development. Especially in developing

countries, where resources are limited, waste problems are really burning

issues. In Kerala, Municipal Administrations do not have the required

technical support and resource backing; they fail miserably in managing

solid wastes in Municipal limits. In spite of highly educated population here,

the efforts of Municipalities in managing waste often meet with failure. It

seems that the ‘NIMBY Syndrome’ (Not In My Backyard) is ruling the

Municipal areas in the State, where the slogan ‘waste generators are

responsible for waste treatment and disposal’ has not yet reached the hearts

of the people. All success stories of Municipal Solid Waste Management may

be traced to public participation. But, in Kerala, people are escaping from

everything by just casting the whole responsibility of waste collection,

transportation, treatment and disposal upon the Municipal Administration. So,

Solid Waste Management is a highly misunderstood subject in the State. The

Municipal Administrations are rightly expected to supervise the functions of

Solid Waste Management and they should not be brought down to the status of

mere waste collectors, transporters or treaters. Amid serious discussions on

who has to manage solid wastes, the waste levels in Municipalities of Kerala

are growing like anything, contaminating fresh air, water and ecology.

Municipalities account for a quarter of solid wastes generated in Kerala.

Rapid urbanization, changing life styles, and scarcity of free space for waste

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treatment and disposal have made solid waste issues sky-high. Above all, a

highly sensitive population and unwanted political interference propelled the

solid waste issues to alarmingly unmanageable levels. Rapid urbanization

and increased population density, coupled with improper waste management,

make the State of Kerala a breeding place for a variety of life-threatening,

rare diseases. It is reasonably suspected that mismanaged solid wastes are

directly or indirectly responsible for this situation. Undoubtedly, these life-

threatening diseases will crumble the economic backbone of thousands of

poor people living in the State. A much talked-about subject, Integrated

Solid Waste Management (ISWM) has to find out solutions to the manifold

problems of MSWM.

1.2 Integrated Solid Waste Management

As a holistic approach, Integrated Solid Waste Management combines

waste streams and waste collection, treatment and disposal methods with the

objective of achieving environmental benefits, economic optimization and social

acceptability. Such a waste management system will be environmentally,

economically and socially sustainable, maintaining the fast-depleting natural

resources with less harm. The success of any ISWM depends largely on the

dedication and committed expertise of the decision makers as there is no

universal step-by-step method for selecting and developing ISWM components

and systems (T V Ramachandra, 2006). Public education and involvement are

the essence of developing integrated solutions for waste management problems.

Integrated SWM is an integral part of good local governance because it

is one of the most visible urban services influencing local perceptions of

governance. It is conducted in a transparent and accountable manner to

minimize opportunities for corruption and unwarranted political interference.

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Based on the principle of equity, integrated SWM provides a minimum level

of acceptable service to all urban residents and establishments. Moreover, it is

responsive to the service levels and conditions desired by those residents and

establishments, with higher levels of service where there is either a greater

need (for example, in terms of business development or tourism) or a greater

desire to pay for a higher level. Sustainable and integrated SWM recognizes

that willingness to pay is affected by perceptions of the service quality

received and by the involvement of stakeholders in decision making; it

therefore places a high priority on keeping stakeholders informed about and

involved in issues and proposals. Furthermore, it looks for ways to enable

communities to be responsible and for individuals to take action in ways that

build public cooperation with the service. It provides workers with uniforms

and safe working conditions and defines clear collection routes and verifiable

performance tasks and outputs. To do so, it establishes management information

systems that enable cost-effective accounting and overall cost-related

performance monitoring. Besides, it provides economical service delivery and

establishes cost-recovery mechanisms for long-term sustainability. A modern

SWM program can be implemented for a reasonable cost. This fact is important

because there are ample numbers of developing countries where SWM costs are

high and the level of service low. But if the underlying reasons for these

situations are analyzed, one can see in many cases that cost-effective waste

management systems would result if the deficiencies identified in the systems

were remedied. ISWM ensures cost recovery through a range of revenue

sources, including direct fees, indirect general taxes, and revenues from

recycling and resource recovery. Furthermore, it establishes tariffs that ensure

cost recovery but are adapted according to the ability to pay, the service

provided, and the level of waste pollution generated. Segregated accounts for

solid waste revenues further ensure that a reliable cash flow is available to

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meet service needs. ISWM minimizes resource use and environmental impact. It

is conducted in an environmentally conscientious manner that conserves natural

resources and recovers waste where appropriate. For all equipment required by

the service, including vehicles, machines, and parts, sustainable and integrated

SWM encourages the use of indigenous manufacturing capacity. It also provides

incentives for waste minimization, recycling, and resource recovery at source or

as near to the source as possible. ISWM optimizes segregation of recyclable

materials at the source of waste generation and encourages the development of

markets for recyclable materials in major centres of waste generation, including

incentives for increased industrial demand for secondary materials as feedstock.

It involves environmental impact assessment and public involvement for all new

transfer, treatment, and disposal facilities, and it ensures that those facilities are

designed to meet environmentally cost-effective discharge and impact standards.

It monitors the emissions and environmental changes related to all waste

storage, handling, and disposal activities and uses systems to track and

document hazardous waste. It sensitizes the public to environmental issues,

occupational health and safety issues, waste minimization opportunities, and the

values of recycling and resource recovery. Sustainable and integrated SWM

builds institutional capacity. Sustainable and integrated SWM also allows local

governments to enter multi-year private sector arrangements that match periods

of depreciation for investments and that strengthen local capacity in planning,

operation, and rationalization of operations (Da Zhu et al., 2008)

1.3 Review of Earlier Studies

Raghavan Nambiar, K. (1992) reveals that, Kochi city generates about

250 tons of waste per day. The study concludes that composting is the most

suitable method for treatment of solid waste in Kochi as biodegradable waste

is the major component of municipal solid waste there.

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Menon R. V. G. et al., (1994) examine the existing system of waste

collection and recycling and suggest ways for its formalization/improvement.

It is observed that no recycling facilities are available in Kerala. It is suggested

that, in all the fifteen waste management circles in Trivandrum city, personnel

can be appointed to collect waste. Remuneration can be paid to them by

collecting a nominal fee from the citizens. Degradable and non-degradable

waste should be separately collected and a formal committee can be appointed

in each residential area to supervise the waste collection. Decentralised waste

treatment facilities are suitable in the city because of shortage of free space. A

clean Trivandrum city with people’s participation is the ultimate aim.

Dileep Kumar, M. (1995) examines the composition and sources of

municipal solid waste in Thiruvananthapuram city. It is found that, the major

generators of municipal solid wastes in the city are markets, slaughter houses,

hospitals, hotels and houses. It is estimated that the quantity of MSW generated

from the Corporation area comes to 264.5 tons per day. The study suggests that

composting is the most suitable waste treatment option for solid wastes since 70

per cent of the wastes generated in the city consist of biodegradable matter.

Geetha, C. (1995) reports that to reduce the total cost of solid waste

management in Thiruvananthapuram city mathematical models are helpful. An

optimization model and a simulation model are suggested and tested for the

purpose.

Gejo Anna Geevarghese et al. (1997) examine the utilization of solid

waste for energy generation. It is concluded that vermin-composting is one of

the most suitable options for domestic level management of biodegradable

wastes, whereas, at the community level, both vermin-composting and

biomethanation processes can be implemented.

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Sosamma Oommen, K. (1998) deals with the utilization and application

of local earth worms in the bioprocessing of different organic wastes, and the

efficacy of compost thus produced in plant growth. The study aims at setting

up vermitech units using local varieties of earthworms and analyses nutrients

like NPK and other factors in the vermiwash collected. It also evaluates the

efficiency of local varieties of earthworms in waste recycling and assesses the

calorific value of food to correlate with the feeding behaviour of earthworms.

The study summarizes that vermitech can convert waste into wealth and this

technology is sustainable and ecofriendly compared to other disposal techniques

like landfilling and incineration. The study has pointed out that the NPK value

of the vermicompost derived after processing is significantly higher than that

of initial soils. Similarly, population density and biomass of earthworms and

population of microorganisms are found to increase during vermicomposting.

Babu Ambat (1999) reveals the types and quality of wastes generated in

each ward of Thiruvananthapuram Corporation. The present waste management

system of the city is analyzed and a pilot scale model is developed for effective

solid waste management. A more effective waste transportation system is

suggested in the study.

Lynn Elisabeth Zender (1999) points out that Solid Waste Management

practices and facilities on Indian Reservations are 20 to 40 years behind those of

conventional urban and suburban communities in the US. The purpose of the

study is to understand the obstacles tribes face in carrying out SWM, especially

conventional SWM. The conclusion of the study is that tribal sovereignty, with

its related issues of cultural integrity, legal authority and economic self-

determination, in the context of reservations are the fundamental forces driving

tribal SWM decisions.

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Raj Mohan et al. (1999) point out that Palakkad Municipality is one

among those places which used an engineered Solid Waste Management

System. The present conditions of waste generation, collection system, storage

facilities and disposal methods are studied. Physical and chemical analysis of

waste and population forecast for 20 years are made for good result. It is

estimated that 20 to 30 trucks and around 75 carts are required for transportation

of the waste. Composting and incineration are suggested for waste disposal.

Gajalakshmi, S. et al. (2000) evaluates the potential of two epigeic species

and two anecic species of earthworms in terms of efficiency and sustainability of

vermi-composting water hyacinth. By using different vermireactors, the efficiency

and sustainability was tested and it was found that in all the reactors the

earthworms grew well, increasing their weights by more than 250 per cent.

Jishi, R. (2000) suggests decentralized collection and disposal of waste

as the most suitable method of waste management for Thiruvananthapuram

city. Composting is highlighted as the suitable treatment option for the city

due to its eco-friendliness and its promotional role in agriculture.

Mahadevan Pillai, P.R. (2000) evaluates the existing system of solid

waste collection and disposal practices in Palakkad Municipality. There is a

proposal for modifying the existing system. It is estimated that daily collection

of waste is almost 30 tons. Almost half of the daily produced waste in

Municipal limits remains uncollected and this indicates the inefficiency of the

waste collection system.

Pillai et al. (2000) identifies that Palakkad Municipality is following

open dumping of MSW without any scientific base. Composting method is

rarely used. The Municipality generates an estimated total of thirty tons of

solid waste per day.

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Ravikumar, D. C. (2000) tries to understand the existing conditions of

Municipal Solid Waste Management and to work out planning strategies and

guidelines to enhance the quality of urban life in Bangalore. Accumulated

garbage and uncleared wastes from overflowing dustbins pose serious health

problems in the city. Waste segregation at source is found to operate at a

minimum level; waste collection service is not reaching all parts because of

accessibility problems, inadequate manpower for Waste Management, scarcity of

land for dumping waste, and waste with 60-70 per cent moisture content, are the

major issues found in the study. Moreover, the study is conducted to examine in-

depth the aspects of MSWM in Bangalore, and its impact on the protection of

urban environment, and suggests proper plans for the future. The study suggests a

community-managed environmentally friendly and viable waste management

system. The waste generation trends of Bangalore City demand not only increased

number of personnel and equipment but also revision of the conventional

approaches and strategies in SWM, and a new integrated plan for waste

management. Education and awareness campaigns for waste reduction, and

discouraging use-and-throw products will help to improve the situation.

Holger Ecke (2001) assesses the possibilities and limitations of

Carbonation as stabilization method in fly ashes from MSW Incineration.

Factors studied are the partial pressure of carbon dioxide, the addition of

water, the temperature and the reaction time. It is found from the study that

Carbonization has a good prospect as a stabilization technique especially with

respect to the major pollutants, Lead and Zinc.

Kerry L Hughes et al. (2001) refers to Bio reactor Landfills, a technically

perfect landfilling system with provisions for leachate and gas collection. It

explains the history of landfilling, meaning advantages and current status of

Bio-reactor landfills in USA.

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Mathew, V. (2001) found that daily around 52 tonnes of solid waste is

generated in Kottayam town. Depositing waste illogically in water bodies are very

common and a meagre amount of non biodegradable waste is used for recycling.

Viktoria Dezs (2001) examines the waste management practice in Hungary

and tries to develop a waste management plan for Hajdu-Bihar country, by

assisting the competent authorities in their future tasks. The various MSW

treatment facilities and their environmental consequences are evaluated. To

implement the recommended waste treatment technologies, legal, economic

and social factors are to be taken into consideration. The study concludes with

recommendations for creating a waste management plan and introducing an

integrated waste management system.

Leonard Brown, M. (2002) evaluates how geopolitical factors affect

waste management on global and local scales. Further, the study has been

guided by looking at how social and economic factors affect global and

national waste management practices. The study concludes that international

waste management issues are also international political and social issues. As

long as waste management issues are impinged upon by factors other than

science, those decisions are unwise and ultimately harmful to the world

ecology.

Mike Bull (2002) points out that there are two state agencies that have

significant responsibilities for managing solid waste in Minnesota: one is The

Minnesota Pollution Control Agency (MPCA) and the other is The Minnesota

Office of Environmental Assistance (OEA). The State’s Solid Waste

Management Policy specifies that the goal of Solid Waste Management in the

State is to protect the State’s land, air, water, other natural resources and

public health. As per the OEA estimates, the amount of solid waste generated

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in Minnesota has increased 37 per cent since 1992, notwithstanding a statutory

goal to reduce the amount of waste generated by 10 per cent in that period.

The paper further says that, of the 5.6 million tons waste generated,

approximately 47 per cent is recycled, less than half is composted, roughly

20 per cent is incinerated and about 33 per cent is disposed of in landfills.

Pramod, B. (2002) reports that improper routing and scheduling is

the major problem in waste collection and disposal at Vilappilsala,

Thiruvananthapuram. By using GIS the problem can be overcome. It will help

to collect waste effectively from every point without irregularity and time delay.

Ranjini (2002) evaluates the inadequate facilities for the segregated

collection of biodegradable and non biodegradable waste and for the transfer

and disposal of waste in Thripunithura Municipality. The Municipality

generates almost 7.93 tonnes of solid waste per day.

Robert Bortner (2002) deals with improper disposal of e-waste, which can

create personal health and environmental problems for developing countries

across the Asia and the Near East Region. E-waste contains significant quantities

of hazardous waste, including lead, mercury and cadmium. Improper recycling

and disposal operations in these regions, such as open burning of plastic waste,

exposure to toxic solders, river dumping of acids, and widespread general

dumping contaminates land, air and water. The paper makes recommendations for

how the United Nations Agency for International Development might help

affected nations deal effectively with e-waste such as independent onsite

evaluation of the extent of e-waste in the region, raising awareness of the hazards

of e-waste in developing nations, help target countries build safe collection and

salvage capability, help improve rules and their enforcement and develop

environmentally responsible hazardous waste disposal capabilities.

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Tsadkan, G. et al. (2002) examine the overall pattern of solid waste

generation, collection and disposal of Mekelle City by analyzing primary as

well as secondary data. The findings show that about 39792.9 kg of solid

waste in a day and 1424408.5 kg in a year were generated in Mekelle in 2001,

where 75 per cent of the solid waste was of residential origin. The amount of

solid waste generated was found to be a function of household income, where

the lower, the middle and the higher income groups generate 0.227 kg, 0.301 kg

and 0.412 kg per capita per day respectively. In the year 2001, the solid waste

collection and disposal service coverage by the Health Office of Mekelle was

only 39.38 per cent. The reason behind this is improper organizational

structure, shortage and dissatisfaction of the workers, inadequacy of the

collection and transportation facilities, unfair distribution and placement of the

containers and inadequate financial resources. The study recommends to the

Mekelle City Administration to take necessary measures to improve the city’s

solid waste management service. It should also invite community participation

at a meaningful level to create a clean and healthy environment.

Babu Ambat (2003) points out that lack of waste segregation and

burning of household waste are the major problems in Thiruvananthapuram.

The unsegregated waste are carelessly thrown away to streets.

Christer Berglund (2003) has conducted a study which consists of four

self-contained papers that deal with economic efficiency issues with respect to

recycling behaviour and waste management policies.

Paper 1 makes an econometric analysis of the most important determinants

of inter-country differences in waste paper recovery and utilization rates. The

paper concludes that relatively waste paper recovery and use depend largely on

long-standing economic factors. Moreover, rich countries tend to recover

Introduction

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relatively more waste paper than low income countries; so, there is a higher

demand for waste management and environmental policies in such countries.

Paper 2 provides a critical analysis of Van Beukering and Bouman’s

article on World Development on Global Paper Recycling and Trade.

Paper 3 analyses the spatial cost efficiency of the Swedish legislation

regarding waste disposal handling.

Paper 4 analyses households’ perceptions of recycling activities in a

Municipality in northern Sweden, Pitea.

Heleen Bartelings (2003) indicates that about 40 per cent of the entire

budget spent on environmental problems in the Netherlands is reserved for the

Waste Management Problems. The study investigates policy options that can be

used to reduce generation of MSW and looks specifically at the direct and indirect

effects of introducing unit-based pricing, which are of two types, namely full unit

based pricing scheme and selective unit-based pricing scheme. A modelling

framework is used to simulate the waste market in the Netherlands. The result

shows that the selective unit-based pricing scheme is the most effective policy

tool to reduce generation of MSW. The study further reveals that waste leakage is

a major problem and that it is not advisable to introduce unit-based pricing in

every Municipality. In small Municipalities with a relatively large number of

environmentally concerned consumers, selective unit-based pricing can be

introduced and in larger Municipalities full unit-based pricing is a better option.

Ruby, S Prawiradinata (2004) provides an Integrated Solid Waste

Management (ISWM) Model using more realistic formulation of cost function

allowing economies of scale in waste collection, facility development and

facility operation. The model adds flexibility and realism to facility management

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options including the simultaneous use of several disposal facilities, each with its

own locational advantage, and it allows for the promotion of recycling. Initially

an analytical model is developed using control theory to solve the optimal

waste management policies. Based on the initial findings, ISWM is formulated

as mixed integer programming model and is calibrated to the Central Ohio

Solid Waste Management District and solved under a variety of scenarios.

Model findings suggest that the State mandated 10-15 year planning horizon

for waste authorities should be modified to be longer and/or requiring a

minimum terminal disposal capacity. The current recycling levels are close to

optimal (based on a 30-year planning horizon), but will have to be redoubled

within the next five years.

Shahjahan Hafez Bhuiyan, M.D. (2004) describes the community

development and the community action in the field of Solid Waste

Management (SWM) in two major cities, Dhaka and Chittagong in

Bangladesh. The objective of the study was to identify whether or not the

community-based SWM initiatives had emerged through the influences of

the characteristics (or sources) of social capital. The theory of social capital

has been used here as an analytical tool. It was found that social capital alone

was not sufficient to form community based SWM initiative in Bangladesh.

It works well together with the influence of kinship, patron-client

relationship, and power and authority relations of Bangladesh society.

Failure to organize a community-based SWM initiative not only indicates the

lack of sufficient social capital but also is a result of many contesting factors

such as: the law and order situation of the country, power politics, political

conflict and threat, etc.

Sreedhar, R. (2004) analyses the solid waste management of Kovalam,

the famous tourist spot in Kerala. The Zero Waste Kovalam, is a scheme

Introduction

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adopted in Kovalam for employment generation by processing waste with less

harm to environment.

Sunil Kumar (2004) reports that, based on the studies conducted by

NEERI, the quantum of waste generation varies between 0.2-0.4 kg/capita/day

in the urban centres and it goes up to 0.5 kg/capita/day in metropolitan cities.

The paper aims to outline the existing situation of SWM as well as problems

associated with the system and also highlights some best practices and

lessons learnt by NEERI’s experience along with EXNORA’s Zero Waste

Management in two South Indian cities. An approach for design of sustainable

SWM compatible to Indian situations is also detailed. EXNORA is a local

non-governmental organization (NGO) based on a ‘zero waste management

scheme’ set up, run and financed by the residents themselves. EXNORA,

which is an acronym for ‘Excellent Novel Radical’, has been driving the

environmentalist movement for sustainable urban development in Chennai

(INDIA) since 1989. It is concluded that SWM is a vital, ongoing and large

public service system, which needs to be efficiently provided to the

community to maintain aesthetic and public health standards. Municipal

agencies will have to plan and execute the system in keeping with the

increasing urban areas and population. There has to be a systematic effort in

the improvement in various factors like institutional arrangement, financial

provisions, appropriate technology, operations management, human resource

development, public participation and awareness, and policy and legal

framework for an integrated SWM system. Public co-operation is essential for

the successful operation of such a system.

Visvanathan, C. et al. (2004) compare the Municipal Solid Waste

Management in Asia, in respect to China, India, Sri Lanka and Thailand. The

project states that unattended Municipal Solid Waste is a problem in developing

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countries, mainly because of lack of institutional capability, shortage of funds,

insufficient legal provisions, insanitary disposal of high moisture content

waste, poor monitoring of existing non-engineered landfills, uncontrolled

release of landfill gases and open dumping of biomedical waste. The project

cautions that, the increase in the GDP and the changing lifestyles of the people

in these four countries have increased the solid waste generation which requires to

be handled effectively to avoid significant environmental problems.

Alexander, P. Whitworth (2005) states that, in 2004, China surpassed

USA as the world’s leading producer of solid waste with over 1billion tons.

Almost one-fifth of this waste is MSW, with an estimated production of

190 million tons per year and rising. The World Bank estimates that only

20 per cent of China’s MSW is properly disposed of at present. Landfills are used

without liner, gas collection or leachate treatment systems. China is developing in

Waste to Energy (WTE) technologies as it aims at disposing of 30 per cent of

MSW by 2030 by using WTE. Due to the excess moisture content of MSW, it

is developing its own local brand of fluidized bed combustion technology for

WTE.

Balakrishna Moorthy (2005) points out that sustainable development is

the order of the day. A brief account of the solid waste generation levels of

different Indian cities is given. Source reduction, reuse and recycling are the

ways to overcome the growing solid waste problem.

Jonathan Elisha Mull (2005) points out the MSW problems caused by

the rapid expansion of Bangalore District because of the City’s economic

growth. Increased population and development has produced increasing

volumes of waste, and the local SWM has not met the excess demand for proper

waste disposal leading to accumulation of wastes within urban limits. The

Introduction

17

Integrated Urban Environment Initiative for Sahakaranagar Layout (IUEISL)

aims to create an improved community-based Solid Waste Management Program

through conducting community awareness and education programs, and

improving the existing Solid Waste Management Program with the construction

of a composting/dry waste segregation facility. It also aims at providing

education and sanitary working conditions for employees of the SWM

program. The aim of this paper is to identify the current problems creating

unsustainable SWM, to evaluate the sustainable potential for the program, and

to propose solutions to create a sustainable SWM system. The study concludes

that a fully sustainable SWM system is possible only if all stakeholders

become full participants in the IUEISL. Community waste education with

active participation of students, monitoring program to examine the quality of

the compost and its impact on the soil and crop yield, and inclusion of the

informal waste collecting sector in the program to improve their working

conditions are the keys to the success of the program.

Michikazu Kojima (2005) points out that the international trade in

recyclable resources like recyclable waste and second-hand goods is on the

rise in Asia. Japan is the largest exporter and China the largest importer.

According to the Basel Convention, the movement of hazardous waste across

international frontiers should be strictly regulated and controlled. The trans-

boundary movement of unrecoverable waste to developing countries falsely

labelled as recyclable resources are common practice and should be controlled.

Sukumari, P. (2005) evaluates environmentally friendly tools for solid

waste management with optimum cost. Different types of composting techniques

are studied in detail and suggest them as best techniques in producing organic

fertilizers.

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Ajayakumar Varma, R. (2006) highlights the status of municipal solid

waste generation and their characteristics. The paper says that at present the

MSW generation of the State of Kerala is beyond the assimilative capacity of

its environment and management capacity of the existing waste management

system. The paper concludes with a remark that even though database

regarding waste generation, composition of waste, etc., are available, they are

not reliable as they are generated based on different approaches.

Jelena Todorovic (2006) tries to identify the components that might

be environmentally critical during the utilization of MSW Incineration

bottom ash in road construction, to develop an assessment method for the

leaching of contaminants from utilized bottom ash, to suggest a treatment

method facilitating an environmentally compatible reuse of MSW Incineration

bottom ash in road construction, and to quantify the effect of excess

carbonization on the mobility of critical elements in MSW Incineration bottom

ash. The study concludes that Carbonation in excess is a key factor enhancing

the effectiveness of MSW Incineration bottom ash by wet extraction.

Maria Christina B. de Araujo et al. (2006) state that Tamandare,

Pernambuco State, Brazil has nine kilometres of beaches that form three bays

protected by coastal reefs. Until July 2001, these beaches were frequently

covered by solid wastes, mainly plastics. The accumulated large amount of

solid waste made the beach aesthetically objectionable. Since August 2001,

the Municipal Administration started a beach cleaning service. There were

aesthetic, sanitary and environmental benefits from the cleaning services. It is

concluded that Municipalities will have to implement solid waste collection at

their municipal sources and adequate disposal to solve the problem at the

beaches of Tamandare. Controlling the source of solid wastes from beach

users through environmental education actions is also urgently needed.

Introduction

19

Ramachandra, T. V. (2006) points out that the objective of Solid Waste

Management is to minimize the negative environmental effects. Solid Waste

Management has economic, social and environmental dimensions. A waste

stream assessment is inevitable in the planning and design of waste management

activities. The viability of establishing and maintaining transfer stations as well as

the usefulness of Motion Time Measurement (MTM) Technique is indicated. The

waste treatment and disposal options are evaluated. In order to minimize the

overall environmental burden, an Integrated Waste Management system has to

be implemented.

Ramia Bassam Rida Tuffaha (2006) states that many Palestinian cities,

especially Nablus City, have high vulnerability with regard to solid waste

issues. Neither short-term nor long-term effect of MSW on soil and ground

water in Palestine has been adequately evaluated and there is need to explore

these effects and impacts. The study aims at evaluating the temporal and

spatial variations of MSW leachate in landfills, evaluating the impacts of

MSW leachate on soil, and on ground water.

Shaikh Moiz Ahmed (2006) describes waste management as a global

environmental issue indicating that unsegregated waste disposal leads to

economic and environmental sufferings. The study emphasises the need of

segregation of waste at generation level, as segregation at a later stage is

expensive and inconvenient. This case study conducted in Aurangabad City,

India, deals with how Geographical Information System (GIS) can support

waste management to reduce the waste management workload and to find

solutions for SWM problems in the study area. A GIS model is designed for

the purpose of planning waste management.

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Thomas George (2006) examines the Solid Waste Management of Kollam

Corporation. The study tries to verify the physical and chemical composition of

household waste and the existing methods of collection, transportation and

disposal practices. It also examines the environmental challenges and health

hazards of surrounding locals.

Afon Abel (2007) reports on patterns of household solid waste

generation in the three distinct ecological zones that make up the city of

Ogmoboso, Nigeria. It gives details of how total waste volumes and the

components of waste varied over time in each of these zones. Household waste

generation across the three zones shows that, as education, income and social

status increase, per capita waste generation declines, especially with regard to

heavier organic waste products, which account for more than three-quarters of

the total waste generated in the study area.

Esakku S et al. (2007) report that the MSW generation in Chennai, the

fourth largest metropolitan city in India, has increased from 600 to 3500 tons

per day within 20 years. The highest per capita solid waste generation rate in

India is in Chennai. Door-to-door collection system is widely used in Chennai

and the collected wastes are disposed at open dump sites located away from

the city. The waste collection services are outsourced to a foreign private

agency – ONYX, a Singapore-based company. ONYX collects about

1100 metric tons of waste from three zones per day and transports it to open

dumps. Besides, various Community-Based Organizations are also involved in

the MSWM of the city.

Jafar Abd-Alqader Abd-Alrazzaq Eid (2007) describes the problems,

issues and challenges of MSWM faced by local authorities in Qalqilia district.

It reveals that little or no consideration of environmental impacts is paid in the

Introduction

21

selection of dumpsites; inspection and monitoring of the dumpsites is not

consistent; the majority of the local authorities dispose of wastes in open

random dumps without further treatment; 100 per cent of the local authorities

employ workers in the MSW services without any training; waste bins are

very few in number; in villages the waste collection frequency is less than two

times per week, and budget allocation for SWM is very meagre. The study has

found that public involvement is the core to a successful MSWM system. As

many as 97.3 per cent of residents are willing to pay more for better service

and 60.6 per cent are willing to separate waste into organic and inorganic

without money.

Mathew, K. C. (2007) analyses the importance of Solid Waste

Management in the urban areas in the context of urbanization and economic

development. The strengths and weaknesses of the existing Municipal Solid

Waste Management system is analyzed from an economic perspective. The

quantity, characteristics and disposal of residential solid waste in Trivandrum

city is evaluated in the study. It is found that educational status is the most

significant factor influencing solid waste awareness levels among households,

followed by occupational status and monthly income. It is further stated that,

as residential waste is the single largest generator, addressing the issue at the

household level is the key to sustainable MSWM.

Mohammed Hamidul Islam Chowdhury (2007) describes that Dhaka

City Corporation fails to extend service delivery to the poor inhabitants of

slum areas where some sort of service delivery is provided by NGOs. In solid

waste service also, NGOs have started operations through Public-Private

Partnership (PPP). Through a competitive bidding process, the DCC has

entered into contract with NGOs for solid waste service delivery. But, the

solid waste services do not sufficiently reach the urban poor. Hence, the

Chapter 1

22

largest section of the population of the city is not served by solid waste

services who are underestimated in their capabilities to contribute financially

and manually to the solid waste sector.

Mufeed Sharholy et al. (2007) deal with the Municipal Solid Waste

Management of Indian cities. It states that improper MSWM is one of the

major environmental problems of Indian cities. About 90 per cent of MSW is

disposed of unscientifically in open dumps and landfills, creating problems to

public health and environment. The study has been carried out to identify the

current status and the major problems. Various adopted treatment technologies

are critically reviewed along with their advantages and limitations.

Santhosh G Thampi et al. (2007) discuss the existing Municipal Solid

Waste Management practices in a Corporation (Kozhikode), a Municipality

(Koyilandi) and a Grama Panchayath (Chathamangalam) in the State of Kerala.

The paper concludes with specific approaches to a Sustainable Municipal Solid

Waste Management System for the State of Kerala. The study emphasizes

segregated storage and collection of solid waste, household level management

of biodegradable waste, coordinated efforts from different agencies to overcome

the marketing problems of bio-fertilizers derived from composting, decentralized

waste processing units, construction of “engineered landfills”, strategies for

e-waste and hazardous waste management including ‘take-back schemes’ by

manufacturers of electronic goods, implementation of “polluter pay” principle,

strict enforcement of existing legislation and protection of health of workforce.

Da Zhu et al. (2008) address the problems of efficient delivery of public

services and infrastructure in developing countries, especially in India. A country

like India, with high economic growth and rapid urbanization, requires immediate

solutions to the problems related to mismanagement of urban waste. For cities to

Introduction

23

be sustainable and to continue their economic development, they must be clean

and healthy. Climate change and the effect of greenhouse gas emissions have

made Solid Waste Management one of the pressing environmental challenges,

globally as well as locally. The book analyses the issues from a technical point

of view and suggests policy changes that will help local Govt. officials and

solid waste managers.

Darshini Mahadevia et al. (2008) state that in India composition of

solid waste is an issue. Vegetable matter accounts for usually half the total

waste. The moisture content of solid waste in India is 50 to 60 per cent much

higher than that of North America or Europe and its calorific value is low.

Hence incineration or using it for thermal generation of electricity requires

drying and or pelletization, which is very expensive.

Sunil Kumar et al. (2008) report that solid waste management is one of

the most challenging issues in most cities, due to the potential pollution

problems created by solid wastes. It gives an assessment of the existing

situation of MSWM in the major cities in India. The quantity and composition

of MSW vary from place to place, and is strongly correlated with the average

standard of living. Field investigations carried out reveal the physical

composition, and characteristics of MSW in each of the identified cities. The

MSW management status has also been assessed, and an action plan for better

management has been formulated and presented. Studies carried out in 59

selected cities in India have revealed that there are many shortcomings in the

existing practices used in managing the MSW. Inadequate manpower,

financial resources, implements, and machinery required for effectively carrying

out various activities for MSWM are found to be the major drawbacks. To

overcome these deficiencies in the existing MSWM systems certain strategies

Chapter 1

24

and guidelines are suggested. Municipal agencies can prepare specific action

plans for their respective cities by using these as models.

Upendra Mani Pradhan (2008) attempts to find out the current waste

management system and practices in Darjeeling, to highlight the factors that

influence waste management, and to assess the newly proposed SWM system.

The study reveals that the current SWM system practised in Darjeeling is

unsustainable as waste is not segregated; collection, transportation, treatment

and disposal systems are inadequate and inappropriate. It further observes that

the newly proposed system is better than the existing system as waste

segregation, improved waste collection and transportation and composting of

biodegradable waste are given emphasis in the new system. The study

identifies the factors that influence the SWM in Darjeeling, namely, top-down

and bureaucratic decision-making system, people’s perception of SWM as a

low priority area, limited information transmission between decision makers

and people, and political rivalry killing many good projects. The study

concludes with recommendations like public participation in SW decision-

making process, creation of three-stream waste system, promotion of

reduction, reuse and recycling, promotion of community-based composting,

door-to-door collection of segregated waste and responsible bureaucracy. The

study indicates sustainable SWM as the ultimate solution for the Darjeeling

Municipal area.

Ajayakumar Varma, R. (2009) deals with the overwhelming quantum

of solid waste generated in urban centres of Kerala, India, which is reaching

unmanageable heights, seriously polluting environment and creating health

problems. Rapid urbanization and changing lifestyles are the root causes for

the problem. The paper explains different technological options available for

treating and disposing of solid waste, like composting, vermi-composting,

Introduction

25

biomethanation, incineration, pyrolysis and gasification, plasma pyrolysis,

pelletization, etc. The choice of a technology is based on different parameters

especially environmental implications and cost implications. The study

concludes that windrow composting, vermi-composting and biomethanation

are the most appropriate technological options for Kerala.

Anthony Baabereyir (2009) explains the poor environmental conditions

prevailing in urban settlements in Ghana as a result of unsustainable

urbanization. Mounting MSW generation is the major cause. The study

investigates the nature of SW problem in two Ghanaian cities, Accra and

Sekondi-Takoradi. It describes the waste situation in the study areas, identifies

the causes and problems, delivery of SW collection services across different

socio-economic groups of the urban population, and siting of waste disposal

facilities. The major issues identified are that Ghanaian cities are experiencing

a worsening SW situation but the authorities lack resources to tackle the

situation. Lack of political commitment in urban environmental management

is another problem.

Mukisa Philemon Kirunda (2009) has carried out a study in Kira Town

Council which is located within Wakiso District in Central Uganda, in Buganda

Region. The main objective of the study is to explore the level of public

participation in SWM in Kira Town Council, in the light of challenges and

prospects for future management. It uses a combination of both qualitative and

quantitative methodologies in research. The study reveals that the majority of

the public in Kira Town Council exhibited concern, and amount of sensitivity

about SW, though sorting of SW is less adopted. Waste reuse and reduction

are less practised. The Town Council faces financial difficulties to manage

SW. Formal disposal facilities, use of legal instrument and awareness-raising

tools are at the planning stage. The low level public participation is the major

Chapter 1

26

problem in the Kira Town Council, which can be eradicated by ensuring

public participation by different means by the authorities.

Saidatul Suhaila Binti Ros (2009) investigates the SW collection

system within the University of Teknology, Malaysia, and the level of

recycling practice and awareness of its benefits and importance among the

students. The students have been surveyed for reaction of waste management

and handling and recycling via questionnaire. Awareness of recycling among

the students shows a positive result where students are able to acknowledge

recycling culture.

Sasikumar, K. et al. (2009) examine the existing solid waste management

system in three Municipal Corporations of Kerala. The levels of public awareness

and public involvement in Solid Waste Management in the Corporations of

Thiruvananthapuram, Kochi and Kozhikode are studied. The strategies adopted

by these Corporations to secure public cooperation are also evaluated.

Sasikumar, K. et al. (2009) examine the existing Solid Waste Management

System with respect to waste generation, collection, transportation and disposal in

the three Municipal Corporations of Kerala, Thiruvananthapuram, Kochi and

Kozhikode. The extent of public awareness and public involvement in Solid

Waste Management of these three Municipal Corporations is evaluated.

Sunil Edward et al. (2009) discusses the MSWM System existing in

Trivandrum City, Kerala, India. The system does not function properly in the

City because of various reasons. The paper tries to find out the challenges

faced by the present system, including measures to prevent or minimize the

potential impact of landfills on the environment. The study concludes that

landfilling is not an ideal or sustainable solution for disposing of solid waste.

The study favours reducing, recycling and reusing as the ideal solutions for

Introduction

27

treating non-biodegradable waste. Further, it puts forward public involvement

and public education programmes as the key to the success of an effective

Solid Waste Management plan.

The Friends of the Earth (2009) in a paper deals with modern

technologies like Pyrolysis, Gasification and Plasma. It explains how these

processes work and what their benefits and drawbacks are. It advocates less

waste to landfills, less harm to air and water to develop an environmentally

friendly waste management system. The paper concentrates on the UK and the

European Union. The paper concludes that local authorities are still not

maximizing recycling and composting which are far better techniques to save

energy and resources. Pyrolysis and Gasification are not 100 percent

renewable energy technologies. So Friends of the Earth does not favour these

methods.

Julia Kaazke (2010) states that a continuous rise in waste volume

produced has been recorded in the Russian Federation for several years.

Therefore, the conventional methods of waste disposal have reached their

limits and there are gaps in the Russian legislation that complicate the

development of integrated waste management concepts. The study verifies

whether the decision support tools developed within the European framework

programme are transferable to Russia and finds that such tools are more likely

transferable to Siberian conditions. Consequently, several tools usable for the

development of integrated waste management concepts are researched and

their transferability to the Khanty-Mansiysk Autonomous Region – Ugra

(research area) tested. A strength-weakness analysis of all tools in the research

area in Siberia has expressed that almost all tools are transferable with

modifications, but hardly any correlations are recognizable. However, only

interlinking these tools will lead to an integrated waste management concept.

Chapter 1

28

Therefore, the aim is to make a better correlation among these tools in order to

optimally develop an integrated waste management concept.

Suchitwa Mission (2010) indicates that the prime responsibility of

providing Solid Waste Management Services in the State is vested with Local

Self Government Institutions. The Municipal authorities are entrusted with the

responsibility for the collection, segregation, storage, transportation,

processing and disposal of municipal solid waste as per the Municipal Solid

Waste (Management and Handling) Rules, 2000. The provisions of solid

waste management services in the Urban Local Bodies are detailed in the

Kerala Municipality Act, 1994. A review of the Solid Waste Management in

Urban Local Bodies (ULBs) reveals the failure of ULBs and the State

Pollution Control Board (SPCB) in discharging their responsibilities fixed by

MSW Rules. Poor record maintenance leads to inability to measure the

quantity and composition of waste generated. The report reveals that the ULBs

did not have any mechanism to ensure the quality of ground water, surface

water, ambient air and standards of composting, leachate and incineration in

and around landfills as stipulated in MSW Rules. Perumbavur, Cherthala and

Chavakkad Municipalities resorted to landfilling without observing the

provisions of the Act and Rules. The District Collectors did not ensure that the

facilities provided in the ULBs for waste disposal were meeting the standards

prescribed in the MSW Rules. Though Suchitwa Mission was entrusted with

the responsibility of ensuring proper utilisation of funds released to ULBs,

information relating to actual stage of implementation of the projects was not

available with them.

Thanooja, V. P. (2010) identifies the different types and quantity of

waste generated, establishing a suitable varmi-bed for bio-conversion of organic

waste, analyzing the quality of compost, organizing training programme for

Introduction

29

domestic and community-based composting methods, and designing a portable

vermin-compost device suitable for households. The study concludes with the

need of an attitude change in waste management and highlights the necessity

of preserving the environment for the next generation.

The Environmental Information System (ENVIS) (2010) explains the

ever-increasing quantum of municipal solid waste in India and its composition.

It further elaborates the solid waste problems connected with mercury-bearing

wastes, packaging wastes, waste paper, plastic wastes, construction debris,

battery wastes, waste tyres, biomedical wastes and electronic waste.

The Ministry of Urban Development, India, (2010) examines the

issues in the implementation of regional arrangements for delivery of

Municipal Solid Waste Management services. Some of these issues are

common to all Municipal Solid Waste Management initiatives, and there are

specific issues that need to be addressed in the context of regional arrangements.

The establishment of regional initiatives in compliance with the MSW Rules

2000 is the core element of discussion. Regional or inter- municipal solutions

for waste treatment and disposal will definitely help to overcome the scarcity

of landfill sites, share resources and can take advantage of the economies of

large scale that such arrangements would provide. It will definitely reduce

environmental damage and health hazards.

The United Nations Human Settlements Programme (2010) states that

managing solid waste is one of the biggest challenges of the urban areas of all

sizes, and is almost always among the top five of the most challenging problems

for city managers. It highlights the escalating changes in Solid Waste

Management across the globe by capturing the current waste management trends

in twenty-two cities around the world, large and small, rich and poor.

Chapter 1

30

Sivaharsh S. et al. (2011) deals with two key issues, Farming and Solid

Waste Management, and tries to come up with a model which addresses these

two issues to some extent. The study concentrates in Kerala, India, and

highlights the advantages of organic farming against inorganic farming.

Moreover, the paper puts forward certain key issues regarding poor SWM

practices prevailing in the State, ultimately leading to pollution and emission

of greenhouse gases. It tries to bring out a model to solve these two problems

in a cost-effective manner. The hub and spoke model developed claims to have

certain key benefits such as reduction in transport cost, low pollution, supply

of inputs to organic and inorganic farmers, biogas generation, less resistance

from people, synergy in Kudumbasree, Carbon Credits Trading, and bridging

the information gap.

George Chakkancherry (2012) states that solid waste management is a

mandatory responsibility of the Local Self Govt. Institutions. The State Govt.

is responsible for coordinating and assisting the LSGIs for implementing the

MSW Rules. The total solid waste generation in the State is about 8300

tonnes per day and 70-80 per cent of it is biodegradable in nature. Several

concrete steps have been taken by the Government during the year 2011 - 12,

through Suchitwa Mission, for solving issues in the waste management sector in

the State, such as popularisation of source level treatment, modernisation/

improvement of existing solid waste processing plants, steps for establishing

modern waste treatment systems, etc., focusing on thermal technologies. It is

further reported that, in the State, 27 Municipalities and all five Municipal

Corporations have already completed the construction of solid waste

processing plants and made the plants operational. Support has been

provided to 17 Municipalities for upgrading their plants to minimize the

environmental issues caused by them.

Introduction

31

Siji, S. R. (2013) examines the role of Kudumbasree in solid waste

removal and disposal in the urban areas of Ernakulam District. The study tries

to analyze the role of Kudumbasree in raising the economic status of women,

the problems faced by Kudumbasree and their solutions, to understand the

various types of wastes, how wastes can be properly managed, and compares

the different waste management techniques in different areas. In Ernakulam

District, the Kudumbasree members formed several groups to segregate,

collect and transport solid wastes from households, flats, hotels, etc., and this

has helped in employment generation and poverty alleviation. It is stated that

less education and a job of permanent income prompted them to select the job

of waste collection and treatment. It is pointed out that material and equipment

insufficiency, lack of training, lack of financial and other support from

authorities are the major barriers to the success of the system.

1.4 Research Gap

From the review of available literature, it can be seen that, internationally,

Solid Waste Management is a highly discussed subject. But, in Kerala, no

serious deliberation has been made regarding Municipal Solid Waste

Management. All operational areas of MSWM require critical attention to its

potential for degrading environment and human health. Most of the Municipalities

in the State are currently unable to fulfil their duty to ensure environmentally

sound and sustainable ways of dealing with waste generation, and its

collection, transport, treatment, and disposal. The failure of MSWM can result

in serious health problems and environmental degradation. Indiscriminate

dumping of uncollected waste in streets and in drains leads to flooding,

breeding of insects and vectors which, in turn, results in spreading of diseases.

Furthermore, even the collected waste is disposed of in uncontrolled dumpsites

Chapter 1

32

or burned openly, thus contributing to severe environmental impacts including

pollution of water resources, soil and air.

As a densely populated State, in Kerala a slight mismanagement of solid

waste will invariably affect the masses inhabiting the urban areas. It will create

multi-dimensional but far-reaching repercussions for the urban population.

Unfortunately, MSWM is a subject left out with little consideration by policy

makers. No proper studies have been conducted on this subject, which is required

to be highly prioritized, but getting very little attention presently. In this context, it

is attempted to study all the operational areas of MSWM in Kerala, including

Waste Collection, Storage, Transportation, Treatment and Disposal. In addition,

the Planning, Controlling, Financial and Accounting aspects are also examined.

The Awareness Levels of the public are also evaluated. The above said variables

are examined by applying appropriate statistical techniques.

1.5 Scope and Importance of the Study

Being a consumer state, Kerala is depending on the neighbouring states

for all its needs. Further, it is fast becoming a world tourist centre because of

its natural beauty. It is assumed to have a developed modern society with

comparatively unique social development indices than other Indian states. The

fast-changing life styles of the people in Kerala make solid waste composition

extremely vulnerable. Though ranked as a top layer State based on many

indices, its solid waste efforts are far below the accepted standards. There is an

urban-rural continuum with even the rural areas displaying distinct urban

characteristics like high population densities and composite primary and

tertiary occupation structures (KSIDC). The efforts of the Government for an

organized MSWM are not hitting the target because of lack of commitment of

people who are in the clutches of the ‘NIMBY Syndrome’ (Not in My Backyard),

Introduction

33

carelessly throwing away waste to streets and water bodies. In Kerala,

household sanitation level is very high but, environmental sanitation level is

surprisingly low. Unplanned disposal of solid waste seriously contaminates the

air and fresh-water sources in Municipal Limits. On the other hand, Municipal

Authorities do not possess the required expertise and professionalism to tackle

the ever-mounting waste issues. A group of Government servants, called

‘Health Wing’ in each Municipality, is performing solid waste operations

without proper training and technical knowledge. The issues are too big to be

handled by them who try to resolve the problems with a weak resource base and

technical support.

The State accounts for one per cent of the area of India but contains about

three per cent of the country’s population. The population density of the State is

about 859 people per square kilometre, three times the national average. So, it is

one of the densest States in the country. Hence, extreme scarcity of free space

for landfilling waste adds fuel to the fire. Hence, some urgent steps are highly

needed from authorities as well as stakeholders to bring the waste situation of

urban areas under control with proper collection, treatment and disposal, so that,

in future, the urban centres of Kerala should be known for its cleanliness. Now,

in Kerala, the pace of urban growth is undergoing a rapid explosion on a scale

totally unpredictable. From 2001 to 2011 the State witnessed a decadal growth

of 92.72 per cent on urban population, whereas the rural population has declined

by 25.96 per cent. The huge growth in urban population during the past decade

could be attributed squarely to the manifold increase in number of towns in the

State between 2001 to 2011, from 159 to 520. Currently, 47.72 per cent of the

total population of Kerala dwells in urban areas (Census 2011). This is on a par

with global figures. Considering the current scale of migration from rural to

urban areas, within the coming fifty years, Keralites will become predominantly

Chapter 1

34

an urban species. Municipalities in Kerala account for almost one-fourth of the

total solid wastes generated. Official estimates indicate that Kerala generates

8338 tons of MSW every day (updated as on 31st July 2012) (CPCB). The

higher the urban population, the greater the amount of wastes generated. In the

context of these major issues, this study is conducted to throw some light on the

MSWM operations and issues of selected Municipalities in Kerala and to act as

a torch-bearer for policy making.

The study attempts an evaluation of the awareness levels of the public

regarding the different aspects of SWM. It also studies the effectiveness of the

different methods used by Municipalities and other agencies to collect, treat

and dispose of solid waste in Municipal limits. Further, environmental

degradation, air pollution, water pollution, noise pollution and health problems

created by mismanaged solid wastes are also evaluated. The major problems

faced by the public as well as Municipalities due to improper SWM are

examined. The financial management, accounting system and human resource

management of Municipalities are also evaluated. Hence, the responses and

perceptions of the different groups of the public, who are responsible for

generation of solid waste, and the opinions of the experts in the field of

MSWM are identified and measured under the title “A Study on the

Effectiveness of Solid Waste Management of Municipalities in Kerala”.

1.6 Relevance of the Study

Any type of man-made development should be sustainable and should

not hinder the balance of the environment. Cautious efforts are highly demanded

for making the fast-depleting resources available for the future generation also.

Human activities essentially generate waste. Unprocessed waste creates immense

environmental damage and health problems. Sensing the potential problems

Introduction

35

Solid Waste Management can cause, developed countries evolved a variety of

solutions to treat and dispose of waste with minimum harm to Mother Earth.

In Kerala, Municipal Solid Waste Management is a much talked-about

subject at present. People are slowly becoming increasingly concerned about the

adverse effects solid wastes can cause. It is becoming a very sensitive subject in

the State for its high scale of vulnerability on environment and human health. The

issues have already become totally unmanageable and authorities are groping in

darkness for an ultimate solution. Waste generators and waste managers are

blaming each other on their failure to manage a high altitude problem like

MSWM. Official estimates indicate that Kerala generates 8338 tons of MSW

every day, but only 1739 tons are collected and treated (updated as on 31st July

2012) (CPCB). What is happening for the remaining 80 per cent of solid waste is

a matter of big concern. So, the majority of MSW either remains uncollected or

untreated. Feeling the gravity of the solid waste menace and the potential health

threat it can exert on the inhabitants, the Government is coming forward with a lot

of corrective measures. These positive changes will find result only if it is

supported by better awareness, participation of stakeholders, and active support

from the public. Households, accounting for 49 per cent, are the major

contributors of the solid wastes generated in Kerala (KSIDC).

Almost a quarter of the total waste generated in the State is contributed

by the Municipalities. But, Waste Management is not yet considered as a high

priority area by Government, which extends only a handful of efforts to tackle

the ever-mounting waste issues. This being an area which should be highly

prioritized by the Government, but currently receiving very little attention, a

study based on the effectiveness of Municipal Solid Waste Management in

Kerala is quite relevant.

Chapter 1

36

1.7 Statement of the Problem

Waste Management is an essential service to be provided by municipal

and local bodies. Failure of efficient delivery of solid waste services could be

disastrous. As far as Municipal solid waste is concerned, a major chunk of it

emanates from households, hotels, schools, institutions, marriage parties,

slaughter houses and electronic sources. It is estimated that, on an average, over

8000 tons of Municipal Solid Waste is being generated across Kerala. The major

reasons for growing municipal waste generation are changing lifestyles and food

habits, changes in standards of living, fast economic development and

urbanization, and development of the tourism industry. Uncollected garbage

pileup and stinking waste all over the urban centres of Kerala is a normal right

today. Uncontrolled waste accumulation and failure to adopt state-of-the-art

methods of waste management processes have serious consequences on the

environment, public health and economy. Even though people are well aware

about the problems and issues that improper Solid Waste Management can create,

they are highly reluctant to participate in the work for a Sustainable Solid Waste

Management System. In urban areas, as the commitment of people is too low, the

efforts of the State Government and Urban Local Bodies for an organized Solid

Waste Management System are not hitting the target. Huge heaps of unsegregated

wastes are quite common in the urban limits of Kerala. The slogan, Waste

generators are responsible for waste treatment and disposal has not yet reached

the hearts of the people and they blame the Municipal Authorities for all issues

related with Solid Waste Management. A complete and environmentally sound

Solid Waste Management requires effective contribution from all those who are

involved in this problem. Everyone is part of the solid waste generation problem

and everyone shall also be part of the solution of solid waste problem, that is,

the solution depends upon collective human action and efforts.

Introduction

37

It is true that Municipalities lack professionalism and commitment in Solid

Waste Management. Besides, Municipalities in Kerala, which account for about

25 per cent of the total waste generated, are starving for funds and free space for

waste treatment and disposal. Hence, Municipal Solid Waste Management is

really a burning issue in a State like Kerala, where population density is

three times the national average. It is a subject which needs the immediate

attention of the Government, different agencies and groups of people because

of the potential health threats and environmental damage it can cause.

Sensing the heat of the problem, the State Government came forward with a

lot of campaigning and other measures to tackle the solid waste issues. But,

these plans are not sufficient to address the issue of Solid Waste Management

in the State. While general debates and experiments on Solid Waste

Management continue, Kerala still stinks from village to village and from

city to city. Its water reservoirs and all spots of natural beauty are getting

affected as lack of organized Solid Waste Management system is causing

havoc to normal public life. Lack of proper service delivery in this essential

sector of Solid Waste Management results in the outbreak of epidemics like

Chickungunya, Dengue Fever, Malaria, Hepatitis and a series of other unknown

life-threatening diseases in Kerala. The situation suggests the need to address

the issue of waste management on a war-footing.

Municipalities are required to manage solid wastes generated in

municipal limits. According to the Municipal Solid Waste (Management and

Handling) Rules 2000, all activities connected with management of collection,

transfer, transportation, treatment and disposal of solid wastes in the respective

municipal limits are the responsibility of each Municipality. But, the participation

and support of public as well as various agencies like Residents’ Associations,

Self-Help Groups, NGOs, CBOs and Political Parties is essential, that is,

Chapter 1

38

collective efforts are fundamental to the success of MSWM System. Hence,

how effectively the Municipalities in Kerala are managing the collection,

transfer, transportation, treatment and disposal and to what extent they are

gaining support from public and other agencies are matters of major concern.

In this context, it is considered appropriate to conduct a study on the

effectiveness and on the problems of existing methods of Solid Waste

Management of Municipalities in Kerala. The study also intends to gather

suggestions from the general public regarding the waste management

practices of various Municipalities. The problem is stated as A Study on the

Effectiveness of Solid Waste Management of Municipalities in Kerala.

1.8 Objectives of the Study

The general objective of the study is to get an overall idea about the Solid

Waste Management practices of Municipalities in Kerala. The specific

objectives are:

1) To study the nature, magnitude and composition of solid waste

generated in Municipal limits in Kerala.

2) To have a glimpse into the methods and technologies used for the

treatment of solid waste.

3) To study the problems faced by the public with regard to

management of solid wastes in Kerala.

4) To enquire into the effectiveness of managing solid waste by

Municipalities in Kerala.

5) To study the problems confronted by Municipalities with regard to

disposal of solid waste in Kerala.

6) To offer fruitful suggestions for improving the existing system of

Solid Waste Management by Municipalities in Kerala.

Introduction

39

1.9 Hypotheses

Hypotheses of the study are included in the analysis chapters in appropriate

places where they are considered important.

1.10 Research Methodology

The design of the present study is descriptive and analytical in nature.

The study attempts to describe and analyse the effectiveness of Solid Waste

Management of Municipalities in Kerala.

1.11 Data Source

The study requires both primary and secondary data. Secondary data is

collected from different published sources of various Government Departments,

other Agencies and Municipal Authorities. NEERI, Nagpur, ENVIS, Kerala,

Pollution Control Board, Kerala, Central Pollution Control Board, Centre for

Earth Science Studies (CESS), Kerala, State Planning Board, Central Statistical

Organization (CSO), THANAL, SREDHA (NGOs) are the major agencies from

whom secondary data is collected. Moreover, the available literature was

obtained from the libraries of different Universities in India and IIMs. For the

purpose of collecting primary data, the entire state of Kerala is divided into three

Regions, viz., South, Central and North. Out of the total sixty Municipalities in

Kerala, three each from the Coastal, Plain and Hilly Areas are selected from

each region. Altogether, nine Municipalities are selected for the study.

Multi-stage Stratified Random Sampling is used for selecting the

respondents, as Solid Waste Management is a subject affecting different groups of

the public. Households, shops, hotels/restaurants and institutions are the different

groups of the public from whom samples are selected for the study. Initially,

before conducting the pilot study, industrialists, hospitals and labs and slum

dwellers are also included as groups of public, but slum dwellers are eliminated

Chapter 1

40

because, in Municipal limits their presence is very negligible. Industrialists,

hospitals and labs are expected to manage their wastes by themselves; hence, they

are also eliminated from the scope of the study.

1.12 Research Approach

Survey research using two sets of well-structured interview schedules is

adopted. The first set is used for collecting data from four groups of public,

namely households, shops, hotels/restaurants and institutions. The second set

is used for collecting data from Experts in the field of Municipal Solid Waste

Management.

1.13 Period of Study

After review of literature, a preliminary opinion survey for a period of

two months from June 2010 to July 2010 was conducted among Experts on

Solid Waste Management, Municipal Authorities and Public to identify the

variables to be included in the interview schedule. A pilot study was conducted

among fifty respondents belonging to different categories of the public, like

households, shops, hotels/restaurants, institutions, industrialists and hospitals/

labs for a period of two months from January 2011 to February 2011. After

testing the reliability and fixing the sample size, the final interview schedule was

administered to 656 respondents consisting of 240 households, 180 shops,

173 hotels/restaurants, and 63 institutions for a period of six months from May

2011 to October 2011. For gathering information from Experts, the same nine

Municipalities were selected and the interview schedule was administered to

these nine Experts in the month of November 2011.

1.14 Research Instrument

A well-structured interview schedule was prepared with the objective of

getting information from the public relating to the Solid Waste Management

Introduction

41

practices followed by different Municipalities in Kerala. It was primarily meant

to view things from the angle of the public. This interview schedule involves a

waste profile analysis highlighting the volume of various types of waste

generated by groups of the public, awareness levels of the public, performance

of Municipalities in SWM, involvement of different agencies like Residents’

associations, Self-help groups, Non-Govt. organizations, Community- based

organizations, private companies and political parties in SWM efforts of

Municipalities, environmental pollution, health problems and different problems

faced by the public due to improper SWM. This interview schedule was outlined

after a preliminary interview with Experts and the public to identify the crucial

variables. It was administered after a thorough revision based on the data

collected through a pilot study and consultation with an expert in Applied

Statistics. Similarly, a second interview schedule was used to gather information

from Experts regarding the Solid Waste Management System followed by

Municipalities in Kerala. It was meant to know the problems faced by the

Municipalities in performing their SWM efforts. It involves an analysis of

physical composition and characteristics of MSW, level of waste contribution by

different groups of public, components of MSW, role played by stakeholders in

SWM, performance of Municipalities in various aspects of SWM, health hazards,

human resource management, financial management, accounting system,

complaints and problems faced by Municipalities due to improper SWM.

1.15 The Population

Population for the study of Solid Waste Management of Municipalities

in Kerala includes all members coming under different groups of public, such

as households, shops, hotels, restaurants, institutions, slum dwellers, etc.,

dwelling or operating within the Municipal limits of sixty Municipalities of

Kerala who are generating solid waste directly or indirectly.

Chapter 1

42

1.16 Pilot Study

A pilot study was conducted among fifty respondents belonging to different

categories of the public, like households, shops, hotels/restaurants, institutions,

industrialists and hospitals/labs. After testing the reliability and fixing the sample

size, the final interview schedule was administered to 656 respondents consisting

of 240 households, 180 shops, 173 hotels/restaurants and 63 institutions.

Industrialists, hospitals and labs were eliminated after the pilot study, as their

waste management is their own responsibility and not of Municipalities.

1.17 Sample Size

The modified data after Reliability Analysis, collected from the

50 respondents, were studied in detail to identify the extent of variations in the

responses. It may be stated that the sample size was proportional to the level of

variation and the assumed level of error of the estimate of the population

parameter of the study variable. As many as 170 statements relating to the

variables affecting the waste profile analysis, planning and control in Municipal

Solid Waste Management, campaigning, waste collection system, waste disposal

system, ability to generate resource from the public and negative impact of

ineffective MSWM were used for determining the sample size. For an assumed

level of 5 per cent error in the estimates of the means of these 170 responses using

the information on variances from the pilot study, the sample size was obtained,

based on each response. The formula used is n ≥ (1.96 s/d) 2. When ‘n’ is the

sample size, ‘s’ is the estimate of standard deviation, ‘d’ is the standard error of

the estimate of the population parameter, and the value 1.96 is the critical value

from normal test at 5 per cent level of significance. The calculated sample size of

656 was the maximum among the sample size obtained from responses of all the

statements and, so, it was fixed at 656.

Introduction

43

1.18 Method of Sampling

Multi-stage Stratified Random Sampling was used for selecting the

respondents as Solid Waste Management is a subject affecting different groups

of the public. For the purpose of the study in the first stage, the entire State of

Kerala was divided into three regions, viz., South, Central and North. Out of

the total sixty Municipalities in Kerala, three belonging to Coastal, Plain and

Hilly Areas were selected from each region, in the second stage. Altogether,

nine Municipalities were selected for the study as shown below;

Table 1.1 Municipalities selected for study from different Areas and Regions of Kerala

Area/Region South Central North

Coastal Varkala Cherthala Koilandy

Plain Thiruvalla Kottayam Palakkad

Hilly Pathanamthitta Kothamangalam Kalpetta

In the third stage, households, shops, hotels/restaurants and institutions

were taken as the different groups of the public from each Municipality from

whom samples were selected for the study. Initially, before conducting the

pilot study, industrialists, hospitals and labs and slum dwellers are also

included as groups of public but, slum dwellers were eliminated because, in

Municipal limits their presence is very negligible. Industrialists, hospitals and

labs were expected to manage their wastes by themselves; hence, they were

also eliminated from the scope of the study. The final interview schedule was

administered to 656 respondents consisting of 240 households, 180 shops, 173

hotels/restaurants and 63 institutions. The split-up of different categories of

respondents in different Municipalities, region-wise and area-wise is shown

below;

Chapter 1

44

Table 1.2 Frequency of Respondents

Region Area Municipality HH S HR IN Total Percentage South

Coastal Varkala 26 17 16 6 65 9.9 Plain Thiruvalla 30 22 20 8 80 12.2 Hilly Pathanamthitta 26 19 17 7 69 10.5

Central

Coastal Cherthala 24 18 17 6 65 9.9 Plain Kottayam 32 23 24 10 89 13.6 Hilly Kothamanglam 24 21 18 6 69 10.5

North

Coastal Koilandy 24 16 20 5 65 9.9 Plain Palakkad 31 24 22 9 86 13.1 Hilly Kalpetta 23 20 19 6 68 10.4

Total 240 180 173 63 656 100.0 Source: Survey data Note: HH-Household, S-Shop, HR-Hotel/Restaurant, IN-Institution

The sample respondents from each category were selected according to

the proportion of their number in each Municipality.

1.19 Type of Analysis and Statistical Tools used

Bivariate and Multivariate Analysis was done for establishing the

relationship among the variables under study. The tools used for analysis of

primary data consist of descriptive statistics like Arithmetic Mean, Standard

Deviation, Variance etc. The tools used include ANOVA, MANOVA, Factor

Analysis and Multiple Discriminant Analysis.

1. One-way ANOVA

Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) as a tool is appropriate to situations

where more than two categories of samples have to be compared. It is

designed to test whether a significant difference exists among the three

or more sample means. In this analysis the total variance in a set of data

is divided into variation within groups and variation between groups.

Introduction

45

One-way ANOVA is used for studying the differences across the

influence of various categories of one independent variable on a

dependent variable. For waste profile analysis and in measuring

awareness levels of different groups of the public, one-way ANOVA is

used in this study.

2. Two-way ANOVA

Two-way Analysis of Variance (Two-way ANOVA) is an extension of

one-way ANOVA that examines the influence of different category of

independent variables on one dependent variable. While the one-way

ANOVA measures the significant effect of one independent variable, the

two-way ANOVA is used when we have more than one independent

variable and multiple observations for each independent variable. The two-

way ANOVA can not only determine the main effect of contributions of

each independent variable but also identify if there is a significant

interaction effect between the independent variables. To measure the

effectiveness of Waste Collection, Treatment and Disposal System of

Municipalities, to examine the Negative Impact of Ineffective MSWM

and to compare the factors derived through Factor Analysis two-way

ANOVA is used in this study.

3. Two-way ANOVA Interaction Model

There is an interaction between two factors if the effect of one factor

depends on the levels of the second factor. When the two factors are

identified as A and B, the interaction is identified as the A × B

interaction. Here, this interaction model is applied. While analyzing the

Waste Collection and Disposal System, two-way ANOVA interaction

model is used in this study.

Chapter 1

46

4. MANOVA

The MANOVA (Multivariate Analysis of Variance) is a type of

multivariate analysis used to analyze data that involve more than one

dependent variable at a time. MANOVA allows us to test the hypothesis

regarding the effect of one or more independent variables on two or more

dependent variables. It may be noted that some variables may not be

significantly different among groups when considered individually, but

become significant when considered along with other variables. In this

study, the MANOVA model is used in measuring the involvement of

different agencies in MSWM.

5. Factor Analysis

It is a multivariate statistical technique used for determining the underlying

factors or forces among a large number of interdependent variables or

measures. It groups the number of variables into a smaller set of

uncorrelated factors potentially conveying a great deal of information like

what variables belong together and which ones virtually measure the same

thing. In this study, problems faced by the public due to improper SWM in

different Municipalities of Kerala are reduced to seven factors through

Factor Analysis.

6. Multiple Discriminant Analysis

This statistical analysis tool deals with the assignment of individuals of

members of a sample to groups on the basis of a set of independent

variables. A discriminant function is a regression equation with a

dependent variable that represents group membership. This function

maximally discriminates the members of the group and tells us to which

group each member probably belongs. In this study, the discriminant

Introduction

47

analysis is used to identify the most prominent problem (extracted through

Factor Analysis) in each area, by considering two areas at a time.

1.20 Important Terms and Concepts Used 1. Hazardous Waste

Hazardous wastes refer to wastes that cause or tend to cause adverse health

effects on the ecosystem and human beings. A waste material is considered

hazardous, based on its certain characteristics such as ignitability,

corrosivity, reactivity and toxicity of the substance. Pathological wastes,

explosives, radioactive materials, etc., are examples of hazardous waste. It

emanates from different sources such as hospitals, industries, institutions,

households, etc.

2. Electronic Waste

Any type of discarded electrical or electronic equipment, devices or parts,

can be designated as electronic waste. It includes used electronic pieces

which are destined for reuse, resale, salvage, recycling or disposal.

Discarded computers, office electronic equipment, mobile phones, television

sets, refrigerators, etc., are examples. It is one of the most dangerous waste

problems around the globe.

3. Biodegradable Wastes

Biodegradable wastes mainly refer to substances consisting of organic

matter such as leftover food, vegetable and fruit peels, paper, textile,

wood, etc., generated from various household and industrial activities.

Because of the action of the micro-organisms, these wastes are degraded

from complex to simpler compounds. If not treated or disposed properly,

they will create health and environmental problems.

Chapter 1

48

4. Non-biodegradable Wastes

Non-biodegradable wastes consist of inorganic and recyclable materials

such as plastic, glass, cans, metals, etc. They are inorganic and should be

reused or recycled to make new products.

5. Zero Waste Collection

For the purpose of this study, ‘Zero waste collection’ means complete

absence of waste collection or no waste collection. It is prominent in

Municipal limits of Kerala, as Municipalities or other agencies are

mostly unable to provide a waste collection system.

6. Segregation

Segregation in SWM means separation of biodegradable and non-

biodegradable waste. Waste segregation at source of generation is very

essential for the success of any SWM System.

7. Landfilling

Landfilling generally refers to an engineered deposit of wastes either in pits

or trenches or on the surface. A sanitary landfill is essentially a landfill

where proper mechanisms are available to control the environmental risks

associated with the disposal of wastes and to make available the land,

subsequent to disposal, for other purposes.

8. Composting

A composting process is an environmentally sound and beneficial means

of recycling organic material and not a means of waste disposal. Any

organic material that can be biologically decomposed is compostable.

Compost is the end product of the composting process. The by-products

of this process are carbon dioxide and water. Microorganisms such as

Introduction

49

bacteria, fungi and actinomycetes as well as larger organisms such as

insects and earth worms play an active role in decomposing the organic

materials. Windrow composting, aerated static pile composting and in

vessel composting are the most common composting methods.

9. Biomethanation

In biogasification (biomethanation), biogas (a mixture of methane,

carbon dioxide, hydrogen and hydrogen sulphide) originates from

bacteria in the process of biodegradation of organic material under

anaerobic (without air) conditions. Methenogens (methane-producing

bacteria) degrade organic material and return the decomposition

products to the environment. In the process, biogas is generated, which

is a source of renewable energy.

10. Recycling

Recycling is the most widely recognized form of source reduction involving

the process of separating, collecting, processing, marketing and ultimately

using a material that would have otherwise been discarded. Recycling lessens

reliance on landfill and incinerators, protects human health and environment

by removing harmful substances from the waste stream, and conserves the

natural resources by reducing the demand for raw materials.

11. Stakeholders

Stakeholders are the parties who are affected by, or involved directly or

indirectly in, the MSWM system.

1.21 Limitations of the Study

1) The population for the study is large and heterogeneous. Hence, Multi-

stage Stratified Random Sampling is used as the sampling method. Only

Chapter 1

50

four major groups of the public are included in the study. They are

households, shops, hotels/restaurants and institutions. There are many

other prominent groups responsible for MSW generation, such as

hospitals, labs, industries, flats, marriage halls, etc. It is true that, they

have to manage their wastes by themselves but, in many cases,

Municipalities are forced to manage a major part of those wastes also.

Moreover, there are a lot of other groups who are directly or indirectly,

knowingly or unknowingly responsible for MSW generation. Identifying

these parties and including them within the umbrella of MSW target

groups is extremely tedious.

2) The study attempts to cover all functional areas of Solid Waste

Management of Municipalities in Kerala. This task has more or less

affected the depth of the study.

3) During the phase of data collection from experts, it is revealed that except a

few of them have very little knowledge regarding the financial, accounting

and technological aspects of MSWM. This situation has limited the data

collection to a certain extent and affected the scope of the study.

1.22 Scheme of Presentation

1) Introduction

2) Theoretical Framework of Solid Waste Management

3) Household Solid Waste Management of Municipalities in Kerala

4) Solid Waste Management of Shops by Municipalities in Kerala

5) Solid Waste Management of Hotels/Restaurants by Municipalities in Kerala

6) Solid Waste Management of Institutions by Municipalities in Kerala

7) Study based on Data Collected from Group of Experts in MSWM

8) Summary of Findings, Conclusions and Recommendations

Introduction

51

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