ISLAMIC ISLAMIC GUNPOWDER GUNPOWDER

EMPIRESEMPIRESEARLY MODERN ISLAM EARLY MODERN ISLAM

1450 TO 17501450 TO 1750

DYNASTIC STATEDYNASTIC STATE The Ottoman, Safavid, Mughal rulers and Islam The Ottoman, Safavid, Mughal rulers and Islam

All three Islamic empires were military creationsAll three Islamic empires were military creations Called Gunpowder empires as guns were critical to rise of empireCalled Gunpowder empires as guns were critical to rise of empire Military prowess of rulers, elite units critical Military prowess of rulers, elite units critical

Authority of dynasty derived from personal piety Authority of dynasty derived from personal piety Devotion to Islam led rulers to extend faith to new landsDevotion to Islam led rulers to extend faith to new lands

Steppe traditions Steppe traditions All three were Turkish in origin; two were ShiaAll three were Turkish in origin; two were Shia Autocratic: emperors imposed their will on the state Autocratic: emperors imposed their will on the state Ongoing problems with royal succession Ongoing problems with royal succession Ottoman rulers legally killed brothers after taking the throneOttoman rulers legally killed brothers after taking the throne

Royal women often wielded great influence on politicsRoyal women often wielded great influence on politics Wives, sisters, daughters, aunts, mother of sultan lived in haremWives, sisters, daughters, aunts, mother of sultan lived in harem Eunuchs protected women; both eunuchs, women had influenceEunuchs protected women; both eunuchs, women had influence Children raised in harem; often not allowed out until teenagerChildren raised in harem; often not allowed out until teenager Harem politics: women often influenced policies, selectionsHarem politics: women often influenced policies, selections

MAP: THE MUSLIM WORLDMAP: THE MUSLIM WORLD

OTTOMAN EMPIRE, 1566OTTOMAN EMPIRE, 1566

RISE OF OTTOMAN EMPIRERISE OF OTTOMAN EMPIRE Anatolian clan of the Seljuk TurksAnatolian clan of the Seljuk Turks

Frontier Emirate Founded 1289Frontier Emirate Founded 1289 Founder was Osman BeyFounder was Osman Bey Led Muslim religious warriors (Led Muslim religious warriors (ghazi)ghazi)

Ottoman expansion into Byzantine empire Ottoman expansion into Byzantine empire Seized city of Bursa, then into the Balkans Seized city of Bursa, then into the Balkans Organized Organized ghazi ghazi into formidable military machine into formidable military machine Central role of the Janissaries (slave troops) Central role of the Janissaries (slave troops) Effective use of gunpowder in battles and siegesEffective use of gunpowder in battles and sieges

1414thth – 15 – 15thth Century Expanded into S. E. Europe Century Expanded into S. E. Europe Conquered Bulgaria, Serbia, Albania, GreeceConquered Bulgaria, Serbia, Albania, Greece Would have conquered Byzantines early except for TimurlaneWould have conquered Byzantines early except for Timurlane Established the Established the devshirmedevshirme

Mehmed the Conqueror (reigned 1451-1481) Mehmed the Conqueror (reigned 1451-1481) Captured Constantinople in 1453Captured Constantinople in 1453 Renamed city Istanbul, the Ottoman capital Renamed city Istanbul, the Ottoman capital Absolute monarchy; centralized state Absolute monarchy; centralized state Expanded to Serbia, Greece, AlbaniaExpanded to Serbia, Greece, Albania Attacked ItalyAttacked Italy

TURKISH SOCIAL STRUCTURETURKISH SOCIAL STRUCTURE Four social groupings in settled, urban environmentFour social groupings in settled, urban environment

The men of the penThe men of the pen Judges, imams (prayer leaders), other intellectualsJudges, imams (prayer leaders), other intellectuals Under Suleyman, became the empire’s bureaucratsUnder Suleyman, became the empire’s bureaucrats Later split into men of the pen and men of religionLater split into men of the pen and men of religion

Men of the sword: militaryMen of the sword: military Men of negotiations, such as merchantsMen of negotiations, such as merchants Men of husbandry: farmers, livestock raisersMen of husbandry: farmers, livestock raisers

Life on the frontier was far less structuredLife on the frontier was far less structured Society there was divided into two groupsSociety there was divided into two groups

AskeriAskeri (the military) (the military) Consisted of the men of pen, religion, swordConsisted of the men of pen, religion, sword Protected the realm, rayaProtected the realm, raya Conquered new territoriesConquered new territories

RayaRaya (the subjects) (the subjects) In the early daysIn the early days

Possible for raya to cross over, become askeri Possible for raya to cross over, become askeri Through outstanding military serviceThrough outstanding military service

Over timeOver time Separation between askeri and raya became more rigidSeparation between askeri and raya became more rigid Military became almost hereditaryMilitary became almost hereditary

Women had no rights aside from tradition, class, husbands’ wishesWomen had no rights aside from tradition, class, husbands’ wishes

TIMAR AND LAND SURVEYTIMAR AND LAND SURVEY Timar systemTimar system

Askeri was given a share of the agricultural taxes of a designated regionAskeri was given a share of the agricultural taxes of a designated region Usually consisting of several villagesUsually consisting of several villages In return for military service as cavalryman, assisted in provincial government In return for military service as cavalryman, assisted in provincial government Those who were given such grants were called Those who were given such grants were called timarlýtimarlý Like other askeri, they were exempt from taxation. Like other askeri, they were exempt from taxation. Values of timars varied, military obligation attached to the timar variedValues of timars varied, military obligation attached to the timar varied At height Ottomans put more than 100,000 cavalrymen into the fieldAt height Ottomans put more than 100,000 cavalrymen into the field Gradually became hereditaryGradually became hereditary

Timar was not feudalismTimar was not feudalism Timar-holder did not dispense justiceTimar-holder did not dispense justice Justice was the sultan’s prerogativeJustice was the sultan’s prerogative European feudalism European feudalism

Government on local levelGovernment on local level In absence of central governmentIn absence of central government

In Ottoman Empire In Ottoman Empire Central government was active and crucialCentral government was active and crucial Timar more like Japanese shogun fief systemTimar more like Japanese shogun fief system

TahrirTahrir The tahrir took place when a new area was conqueredThe tahrir took place when a new area was conquered Team of officials surveyed, recorded by Team of officials surveyed, recorded by sanjaksanjak

Names of all adult male farmersNames of all adult male farmers All sources of wealth in the areaAll sources of wealth in the area Their yields and the taxes paid on themTheir yields and the taxes paid on them

GHULAMGHULAM A ghulam was a slave A ghulam was a slave

An old Muslim traditionAn old Muslim tradition By definition, the slave was a non-MuslimBy definition, the slave was a non-Muslim Educated and trained for state serviceEducated and trained for state service Similar to the Mameluk systemSimilar to the Mameluk system

Ottomans modified the ghulam system by the infamous Ottomans modified the ghulam system by the infamous devshirmedevshirme Young Christian males between the ages of 8 and 15 Young Christian males between the ages of 8 and 15 Were removed from villages in the Balkans to be trained for state serviceWere removed from villages in the Balkans to be trained for state service Youths were brought before the sultanYouths were brought before the sultan Best of themBest of them

In terms of physique, intelligence, other qualitiesIn terms of physique, intelligence, other qualities Were selected for education in the palace schoolWere selected for education in the palace school They converted to IslamThey converted to Islam Became versed in the Islam, its cultureBecame versed in the Islam, its culture Learned Ottoman Turkish, Persian, and ArabicLearned Ottoman Turkish, Persian, and Arabic Were trained in the military and social artsWere trained in the military and social arts Owed absolute allegiance to the sultan Owed absolute allegiance to the sultan Were destined for the highest offices in the empireWere destined for the highest offices in the empire

Those not selected for the palace schoolThose not selected for the palace school Converted to Islam, worked for rural Turkish farmersConverted to Islam, worked for rural Turkish farmers Learned vernacular Turkish, folk Islamic cultureLearned vernacular Turkish, folk Islamic culture Became sultan’s elite infantry: Janissaries.Became sultan’s elite infantry: Janissaries.

SULEYMAN THE SULEYMAN THE MAGNIFICENTMAGNIFICENT

Empire at its height under SuleymanEmpire at its height under Suleyman Reigned 1520-1566 Reigned 1520-1566

Son of Sultan Selim the GrimSon of Sultan Selim the Grim Mother was ChristianMother was Christian Came to power through murder of brothersCame to power through murder of brothers

Conquered lands in Europe, Asia, AfricaConquered lands in Europe, Asia, Africa Conquered Syria, Holy Land, EgyptConquered Syria, Holy Land, Egypt Conquered Hungary, Croatia, RumaniaConquered Hungary, Croatia, Rumania Siege of Vienna in 1529 failedSiege of Vienna in 1529 failed Built powerful navy to rule MediterraneanBuilt powerful navy to rule Mediterranean Conquered Rhodes from Knights of St. JohnConquered Rhodes from Knights of St. John Besieged Malta but did not conquer itBesieged Malta but did not conquer it

Encouraged development of artsEncouraged development of arts Beautified Constantinople with mosquesBeautified Constantinople with mosques

Empire began a slow decline after SuleymanEmpire began a slow decline after Suleyman

THE TURKISH MILLETTHE TURKISH MILLET Each millet Each millet

Was headed by its own religious dignitaryWas headed by its own religious dignitary Chief rabbi in the case of the JewsChief rabbi in the case of the Jews Patriarchs for the Greek Orthodox, Armenian communitiesPatriarchs for the Greek Orthodox, Armenian communities

Heads of millet were responsible to Turkish sultanHeads of millet were responsible to Turkish sultan Advised sultan on affairs in the communityAdvised sultan on affairs in the community Was punished by sultan for problems of the communityWas punished by sultan for problems of the community

Later expanded to other ethnic communitiesLater expanded to other ethnic communities Muslims had not milletMuslims had not millet Muslims ruled by Quran, shariaMuslims ruled by Quran, sharia

In the millet systemIn the millet system Each community was responsible for Each community was responsible for

The allocation and collection of its taxesThe allocation and collection of its taxes Its educational arrangementsIts educational arrangements Internal legal matters pertaining to marriage, divorce, inheritanceInternal legal matters pertaining to marriage, divorce, inheritance

In the pre-modern Middle EastIn the pre-modern Middle East Identity was largely based on religionIdentity was largely based on religion System functioned well until rise of European nationalism System functioned well until rise of European nationalism Most cities were divided into quarters based on religion, language Most cities were divided into quarters based on religion, language

SAFAVID PERSIASAFAVID PERSIA Turkish conquerors of Persia and Mesopotamia Turkish conquerors of Persia and Mesopotamia

Founder Shah Ismail (reigned 1501-1524) Founder Shah Ismail (reigned 1501-1524) Claimed ancient Persian title of shah. Claimed ancient Persian title of shah. Proclaimed Twelver Shiism official religionProclaimed Twelver Shiism official religion Imposed it on Sunni population Imposed it on Sunni population Followers were Followers were qizilbashqizilbash (or "Red Hats") (or "Red Hats")

Twelver Shiism Twelver Shiism Traced origins to 12 ancient Shiite imams Traced origins to 12 ancient Shiite imams Ismail believed to be twelfth, or "hidden," imamIsmail believed to be twelfth, or "hidden," imam

Battle of Chaldiran (1514) Battle of Chaldiran (1514) Sunni Ottomans persecuted Shiites within Ottoman empire Sunni Ottomans persecuted Shiites within Ottoman empire QizilbashQizilbash considered firearms unmanly; lost battle considered firearms unmanly; lost battle

Shah Abbas the Great (1588-1629)Shah Abbas the Great (1588-1629) Revitalized the Safavid empire Revitalized the Safavid empire Modernized militaryModernized military Sought European alliances Sought European alliances Permitted European merchants, missionariesPermitted European merchants, missionaries New capital at IsfahanNew capital at Isfahan Centralized administrationCentralized administration

MUGHAL EMPIREMUGHAL EMPIRE Tamerlame was direct predecessorTamerlame was direct predecessor Babur (1523-1530)Babur (1523-1530)

Founder of Mughal ("Mongol") dynasty in India Founder of Mughal ("Mongol") dynasty in India Central Asian Turk invaded India in 1523Central Asian Turk invaded India in 1523 Seized Delhi in 1526 Seized Delhi in 1526 By 1530, Mughal empire embraced most of IndiaBy 1530, Mughal empire embraced most of India

Akbar (reigned 1556-1605)Akbar (reigned 1556-1605) A brilliant charismatic ruler A brilliant charismatic ruler Created centralized, absolutist government Created centralized, absolutist government Expanded to Gujurat, Bengal, S. India Expanded to Gujurat, Bengal, S. India Encouraged religious tolerance Encouraged religious tolerance

Between Muslims and HindusBetween Muslims and Hindus Employed Hindus in his government Employed Hindus in his government

Developed a syncretic religion called "divine faith“Developed a syncretic religion called "divine faith“ Eliminated head tax on Hindus, banned satiEliminated head tax on Hindus, banned sati

Aurangzeb (1659-1707) Aurangzeb (1659-1707) Expanded the empire to almost the entire Indian subcontinent Expanded the empire to almost the entire Indian subcontinent Revoked policies of toleration: Hindus taxed, temples destroyed Revoked policies of toleration: Hindus taxed, temples destroyed His rule troubled by religious tensions and hostilityHis rule troubled by religious tensions and hostility Arrival of Europeans: permitted them to trade, establish basesArrival of Europeans: permitted them to trade, establish bases

MAP OF THE MUGHAL STATEMAP OF THE MUGHAL STATE

COMMERCE & DEMOGRAPHYCOMMERCE & DEMOGRAPHY Food crops Food crops

Agriculture: the basis of all three empires Agriculture: the basis of all three empires Major crops: wheat, rice Major crops: wheat, rice Little impacted by new American crops Little impacted by new American crops

Imports of coffee, tobacco very popularImports of coffee, tobacco very popular Coffee discovered in Jaffa Province (Ethiopia)Coffee discovered in Jaffa Province (Ethiopia) Coffee houses developed, a major social traditionCoffee houses developed, a major social tradition

Peasants Peasants Tended to be overtaxed, overworked by noblesTended to be overtaxed, overworked by nobles Many so mistreated that they abandoned their landsMany so mistreated that they abandoned their lands

Demographics Demographics Population growth less dramatic than in China, Europe Population growth less dramatic than in China, Europe

India: significant growth due to intense agriculture India: significant growth due to intense agriculture Less dramatic growth in Safavid and Ottoman realmsLess dramatic growth in Safavid and Ottoman realms

All empires were multi-national, multi-religiousAll empires were multi-national, multi-religious CommerceCommerce

Long-distance trade important to all three empires Long-distance trade important to all three empires Minorities controlled trade in all three states in trade diasporasMinorities controlled trade in all three states in trade diasporas Trade goods tended to be traditional arts, crafts; little manufacturingTrade goods tended to be traditional arts, crafts; little manufacturing

Ottomans, Safavids shared parts of east-west trade routes Ottomans, Safavids shared parts of east-west trade routes Safavids offered silk, carpets, ceramics to Europeans Safavids offered silk, carpets, ceramics to Europeans Mughal empires less attentive to foreign or maritime trading Mughal empires less attentive to foreign or maritime trading

Mughals permitted stations for English, French, DutchMughals permitted stations for English, French, Dutch Europeans gradually exclude Indian influenceEuropeans gradually exclude Indian influence

RELIGIOUS AFFAIRSRELIGIOUS AFFAIRS Religious diversity Religious diversity

Created challenges to rule of empiresCreated challenges to rule of empires Uniformity hard with religious differences Uniformity hard with religious differences

Religious minorities Religious minorities Generally tolerated in Islamic states Generally tolerated in Islamic states In Ottoman empireIn Ottoman empire

Conquered peoples protected, granted religious, civil autonomyConquered peoples protected, granted religious, civil autonomy Organized into quasi-legal millets to regulate own affairsOrganized into quasi-legal millets to regulate own affairs Much of population was Christian, JewishMuch of population was Christian, Jewish Each communities had own millet which handled judicial affairsEach communities had own millet which handled judicial affairs

In IndiaIn India Majority of population was HinduMajority of population was Hindu Early Muslim rulers closely cooperated with Hindu majority Early Muslim rulers closely cooperated with Hindu majority Under Aurangzeb: Islam proclaimed state religion, nonbelievers taxedUnder Aurangzeb: Islam proclaimed state religion, nonbelievers taxed

In PersiaIn Persia Shia were fanaticalShia were fanatical Enforced articles of faithEnforced articles of faith

Religious diversity in India under the rule of Akbar Religious diversity in India under the rule of Akbar Akbar encouraged religious tolerance Akbar encouraged religious tolerance

Advocated syncretic "divine faith“ called Din i-ilahi Advocated syncretic "divine faith“ called Din i-ilahi Emphasizing loyalty to emperorEmphasizing loyalty to emperor

Catholic missionaries welcomed at court of AkbarCatholic missionaries welcomed at court of Akbar Tolerated SikhismTolerated Sikhism

A new faith arose by combing elements of Islam, HinduismA new faith arose by combing elements of Islam, Hinduism Egalitarian faith whose members were soldiers, merchantsEgalitarian faith whose members were soldiers, merchants

CULTURAL CULTURAL PATRONAGEPATRONAGE

Sponsored arts and public worksSponsored arts and public works Golden Age of Islamic art, architectureGolden Age of Islamic art, architecture Mosques, palaces, schools, hospitals, caravanseraisMosques, palaces, schools, hospitals, caravanserais Miniature painting flourished in Iran, Mughals Miniature painting flourished in Iran, Mughals

IstanbulIstanbul Ottoman capital, a bustling city of a million people Ottoman capital, a bustling city of a million people Topkapi palace housed government, sultan's residence Topkapi palace housed government, sultan's residence Suleymaniye blended Islamic, Byzantine architectureSuleymaniye blended Islamic, Byzantine architecture

IsfahanIsfahan Safavid capitalSafavid capital The "queen of Persian cities“The "queen of Persian cities“ The central mosque is a wonder of architecture The central mosque is a wonder of architecture

Fatehpur Sikri, Mughal capital, created by Akbar Fatehpur Sikri, Mughal capital, created by Akbar Combined Islamic style with Indian elements Combined Islamic style with Indian elements Site abandoned because of bad water supply Site abandoned because of bad water supply Taj Mahal, exquisite example of Mughal architectureTaj Mahal, exquisite example of Mughal architecture

DETERIORATIONDETERIORATION Dynastic decline Dynastic decline

Caused by negligent rulers, factionsCaused by negligent rulers, factions Constant competition between factions within governmentConstant competition between factions within government Former elite military units often became threatsFormer elite military units often became threats

Government corruptionGovernment corruption Bribery became way of doing businessBribery became way of doing business Many officials pocketed taxes, overtaxed, etc.Many officials pocketed taxes, overtaxed, etc.

Harem politics Harem politics Rulers raised in harems let sex carry them awayRulers raised in harems let sex carry them away Rulers took to drinking, partying too muchRulers took to drinking, partying too much Rulers’ mothers, wives jockeyed for position, sonsRulers’ mothers, wives jockeyed for position, sons

Tensions increased Tensions increased Religious conservatives abandoned tolerance Religious conservatives abandoned tolerance Ottoman conservatives Ottoman conservatives

Resisted innovations like the telescope, printing pressResisted innovations like the telescope, printing press Resisted western military innovations, industrializationResisted western military innovations, industrialization Discouraged merchants, commercialism Discouraged merchants, commercialism

Safavid EmpireSafavid Empire Shiite leaders urged shahs to persecute Sunnis, SufisShiite leaders urged shahs to persecute Sunnis, Sufis Non-Muslims lost many protections Non-Muslims lost many protections

Mughal IndiaMughal India Aurangzeb's policies provoked deep animosity of HindusAurangzeb's policies provoked deep animosity of Hindus Rise of SikhsRise of Sikhs Rise of Christians with coming of EuropeansRise of Christians with coming of Europeans

REASONS FOR DECLINEREASONS FOR DECLINE Economy and Military ExpansionEconomy and Military Expansion

The Conquerors 1/5 The Conquerors 1/5 Each conquest provided booty to state to help developmentEach conquest provided booty to state to help development End of territorial expansion meant no bootyEnd of territorial expansion meant no booty Difficult to support armies and bureaucrats Difficult to support armies and bureaucrats Series of long and costly wars with no financial supportSeries of long and costly wars with no financial support

Economy Stagnated by eighteenth centuryEconomy Stagnated by eighteenth century Officials resorted to raising taxes to deal with financial problemsOfficials resorted to raising taxes to deal with financial problems Official, unofficial corruption lost millions in revenue to state Official, unofficial corruption lost millions in revenue to state

Failure to develop trade and industryFailure to develop trade and industry Commerce had always been in hands of Jews, ArmeniansCommerce had always been in hands of Jews, Armenians Lost initiative to European merchants Lost initiative to European merchants

Military decline Military decline Imported European weapons but never made their ownImported European weapons but never made their own Arsenals outdated; tactics outdated; systems outdated Arsenals outdated; tactics outdated; systems outdated Ottoman Empire Ottoman Empire

Even purchased military vessels from abroadEven purchased military vessels from abroad Europeans developed extremely modern militariesEuropeans developed extremely modern militaries 1689: Austrians raise 21689: Austrians raise 2ndnd siege of Vienna, liberate Hungary siege of Vienna, liberate Hungary

IndiaIndia Rise of Marhattas, Rajputs in India Rise of Marhattas, Rajputs in India Mughals refused to build a navy, let Europeans rule seasMughals refused to build a navy, let Europeans rule seas Led to loss of Mughal provincesLed to loss of Mughal provinces Local princes, rulers assumed control, defied MughalsLocal princes, rulers assumed control, defied Mughals

Rise of Banditry, PiracyRise of Banditry, Piracy In countryside, many poor peasants took to banditryIn countryside, many poor peasants took to banditry On seas, many ports and merchants too to piracyOn seas, many ports and merchants too to piracy Trade disrupted, made Europeans mad who often retaliatedTrade disrupted, made Europeans mad who often retaliated

CULTURAL INSULARITYCULTURAL INSULARITY Cultural conservatism Cultural conservatism

Ottoman cartographer, Piri Reis, gathered together European maps Ottoman cartographer, Piri Reis, gathered together European maps Muslims seldom traveled to the West, confident of their superiority Muslims seldom traveled to the West, confident of their superiority Science, technology ignored as it is western, threatScience, technology ignored as it is western, threat Ignorant of European technological developmentsIgnorant of European technological developments Hostile to European, Christian inventions, institutionsHostile to European, Christian inventions, institutions

Social conservatismSocial conservatism Middle classes failed to develop in Muslim statesMiddle classes failed to develop in Muslim states Growing gap between ruling elite, peasants/slavesGrowing gap between ruling elite, peasants/slaves Growing antagonism between religious elites, ruling elites Growing antagonism between religious elites, ruling elites

Resistance to printing press Resistance to printing press Introduced by Jewish, late fifteenth century Introduced by Jewish, late fifteenth century At first, Ottomans banned printing in Turkish, Arabic At first, Ottomans banned printing in Turkish, Arabic Ban lifted in 1729; conservatives closed Turkish press in 1742 Ban lifted in 1729; conservatives closed Turkish press in 1742 In India, Mughals showed little interest in printing technologyIn India, Mughals showed little interest in printing technology

Xenophobia becomes a cultural trait of IslamXenophobia becomes a cultural trait of Islam Foreign cultural innovations seen as a threat to political stabilityForeign cultural innovations seen as a threat to political stability Inability to grasp aspects of modern politics, state structuresInability to grasp aspects of modern politics, state structures Muslims cannot believe what is happening to themMuslims cannot believe what is happening to them More irritating that it is the Christian Europeans who are rulingMore irritating that it is the Christian Europeans who are ruling