joan johnson-freese naval war college [email protected] johnson-freese naval war college...
TRANSCRIPT
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WomenintheNon-TraditionalWorkforce:BeyondConfidence,Competency&Connections1
Theincreasingpushforadiversifiedworkforcewithinbothprivateandpublic
institutionsisrecognizedasafunctionofbothneedandbenefit.Ina2013interviewon
NationalPublicRadio,thenChairmanoftheJointChiefsofStaff,GeneralMartinDempsey
statedthatheforesees“amilitarythathastoadapttoachangingworld,[and]notjusta
sociallychangingworldbutliterallyademographicallychangingworld.”Hewentontoconsider
howthosechangeswouldaffectmilitaryrecruitment,saying,“we’regoingtoneedtoattractas
muchdiversityandasmuchtalentaswecanpossiblyattract.”2Justbeforeleavinghisposition
asChairman,hereiteratedinaspeechatFortHoodthat,“diversityisourgreateststrength.”3
Diversity,itmustbeemphasized,isnotsomethingdoneforequitypurposes;itisdoneto
strengthenanorganization.
Attracting,hiring,retainingandadvancingwomeninnon-traditionalfieldssuchasthe
military,herefocusingonofficers,willrequireconcertedactiononthepartoftheorganization,
especiallyinhelpingwomentobuildinternalsupportsystems.Butwomenmustalsodotheir
parttoprepareforthechallengestheywillinherentlyface.Competence,longconsideredby
womenasthekeytobreakingintonon-traditionalfields,isnotenough.Confidence,beingable
toacceptcriticism,tenacity,learningtobuildinternalnetworks,andmentoringcomeintoplay
inhiring,retentionandadvancementaswell.
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Consequently,womeninterestedinnon-traditionalcareerfieldsmustunderstandthe
natureoftheissuestheywillencountersotheymaybetterbepreparedtodealwithand
effectivelyaddressthoseissues.Therefore,thepurposeofthisarticleistoraiseawareness
amongmenandwomenregardingtheobstacleswomenfaceinbreakingintonon-traditional
fields,bysynthesizingwhatstudieshaveshownregardingtheapplicabilityoffactorsmen
traditionallyrelyonforhiring,retentionandadvancement–confidence,competencyand
connections--towomen.Issuesregardinghiring,retentionandadvancementforwomenin
non-traditionalfieldssuchasbutnotlimitedtothemilitary,appearstronglyrelatedtoSocial
DominanceOrientation(SDO)theory,includingthe“blindfish”phenomenonofindividualsnot
recognizingsexismortheirinvolvementinperpetuatingsexism.Whilethispaperisnotan
empiricalstudy,relevantempiricalstudiesarecitedinsupportofassertionspresented.
Additionally,suggestionsareofferedregardingfurtheringthediversityGeneral
Dempseyclearlyindicatesasaninstitutionalgoalofthemilitary.Inthatregard,itappears
womenhavingabackgroundthatdirectlypreparesthemforcompetitiveenvironmentsmay
haveanadvantageinretentionandadvancement.Further,aninstitutionallysupported
approachtomentoringcouldhelpcreateinternalsupportsystemswhich,whenlacking,have
beenshownasstronglyrelatedtolowretentionissues.
Consideringthebroadergroupofwomeninnon-traditionalfields(thosewherewomen
makeuplessthan25%oftheworkforce)4ratherthanonlywomenmilitaryofficerswastaken
duetothecommonalityofgender-relatedcareerobstacleswhencareerfieldsarenumerically
dominatedbyonegender,andtherearefarmoreempiricalstudiesthatspannon-traditional
fields.Theorganizationalculturesoforganizationsemployingwomeninnon-traditionalroles
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arethefocus,ratherthanspecificprocessissuesrelatedtothemilitarypersonnelsystems.
Further,womenmilitaryofficersin,forexample,thenursingprofessionwouldlikelynot
encounterthesamegender-competitiveretentionandpromotionissuesastheirfemalepilot
counterparts.ThefirstwomenpromotedtoflagrankinboththeArmyandtheNavy
commandedtheNurseCorps.
Clearly,thereare“goodnews”storiesofwomenwhohave“madeit”throughthehiring,
retentionandadvancementgauntlet.MichelleHoward,forexample,wasnamedtheNavy’s
firstwomanfour-staradmiralin2014.Infact,shewasthefirstAfrican-Americanwomanto
achieveboththree-andfour-starrankintheU.S.ArmedForcesaswellasbeingthefirst
womanandAfrican-AmericanwomantoachievetherankofadmiralintheNavy,throughan
exemplaryoperationalrecordasasurfacewarfareofficer.Whileherpromotionwasa
significanteventfortheNavy,themilitary,andforwomen,Howardherselfsaidin2012,
"Therewereindividualswhodidn'twantmethereorwantedtounderminewhatIwastryingto
do."5ANavyTimesarticlechronicledtheprejudice,resistanceandresentmentshe
encountered“fromherInductionDayin1978,”andcontinuedasaflagofficer.Thiskindof
resistancecanhinderwomen’sabilitytodotheirjobsasitconnectstotheNavyandthenation,
andthereforerequiresitberecognizedandaddressed.
TheresentmentsufferedbyAdmiralHowardcametolightin2013afteraNavyreport
citedoneofherpeers,Rear.Adm.ChuckGaouette,fortellingothersthatHoward“maynot
havehadtocrossasmanyhurdlesinthesamefashiontogetwhereshewasat,”andherrace
andgendermayhavespedupherselectionforviceadmiral,accordingtoaNavyinvestigation.6
Gaouette,whowasfiredfromcommandoftheJohnC.StennisCarrierStrikeGroupmid-
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deploymentin2012,admittedhiscommentswere“petty”andsaidhe’dapologizetoHoward.7
Gaouette’scomments,however,demonstratesthatchallengestoinclusivediversityremainsa
problemforwomeninnon-traditionalfields,suchasmanyofthoseinthemilitary.
INCLUSIVEDIVERSITY
Organizations,includingthemilitary,aremakingeffortstosupportdiversification.The
DefenseAdvisoryCommitteeonWomenintheServices(DACOWITS)wasestablishedin1951to
advisethePentagononlawsandpoliciesasrelatedtowomeninthemilitary.Althoughitwas
significantlyreducedinsize,activityandconsequentlyeffectin2000,8therehavebeenrecent
effortstorevitalizeit,includingthenamingofretiredLt.GeneralFrancisWilson,USMCasthe
newChairin2014.9TheDefenseEqualOpportunityManagementInstitute(DEOMI)was
establishedin1971,initiallytodealwithissuesrelatedtoracerelations,andnowexpandedto
generallyinstitutionalizeequalopportunityinthemilitary.10DEOMIconductscoursesonequal
opportunity,diversityandpositivehumanrelations,andhasgraduatedover43,000students
fromallservices,frombasesallovertheworld.Theyreturntotheirunitsasadvisorsand
trainers.11Inmanyinstances,however,DEOMIfocusesonprocesses,ratherthanorganizational
cultureissues.Anewprocesstoreporthostileworkenvironmentissueswillnotbeused
though,ifminoritiesdonottrustorganizationalleadershiptosupportthem.
TheformerWomenOfficersProfessionalAssociation(WOPA)isnowtheSeaServices
LeadershipAssociation(SSLA)andholdsannualconferencesthatbringwomentogethertoward
promotingcamaraderieandmentorshipatboththenationalandregionallevels,12hopefullyto
spill-overintosupportforthosemoreisolatedatlocallevels.TheNavysupportsSSLAby
announcingeventsinallNavymessagesaswellasallowingtravelfundingbyindividual
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commands.Theseorganizationsandeffortsexemplifypositivestepsforward,butnotenough.
Thebenefitsofdiversity,includinginnovation,expandedproblem-solvingtechniques
andcapabilities,andstrategicperspectivesaredocumented.13Researchhasalsoshown,
however,thatvisiblesignsofdiversity,suchasrace,genderandage,caninitiallyhavenegative
effectsonteamworkbecauseitcuesanincreasedlikelihoodfordifferencesofopinionwithin
theteam.Withtime,however,eventhatcueingcanenhancetheteam'sabilitytohandle
conflict,becausemembersexpectitandthereforehandleitbetterwhenitsurfaces.14Sowhat
initially“feelsgood”forthegroupmaynotbewhatisbestforthegroupinthelongterm,and
what“feelsbad”canactuallyincreasegroupeffectiveness.Consequently,current
organizationalresearchfocuseson“how”ratherthan“if”diversityshouldbeanorganizational
goal.Akeypointrepeatedlyraisedregardingeffectivediversificationoftheworkforceisthat
diversityisuselesswithoutinclusivity.15HarvardUniversitysimplydefinesaninclusiveculture
asone“thataccepts,valuesandviewsasstrengththedifferenceweallbringtothetable.”16In
otherwords,inclusivediversityismorethanstatistics,andmorethantoleration.17Inclusive
diversitymeansthatanindividualcanvoiceanopinionwithoutfearingdamagetotheircareer
andthattheirinputisvaluedratherthandismissed.Thattruthhasbeenthesubjectofa
numberofearlierworks.18
“Bodycounting”aloneasanindicatorofdiversityfailstoconsiderthecontextofsocial
relations,subjectivities,experiencesandprocessesbywhichinclusivityoccurs.Focusingon
numbersfailstoconsiderthatanestablished,sometimeshostilecultureremainsinplaceafter
womenarehired;largelyinvisible,subjectiveandunchallengedduetoitsembeddednature.
Thepresenceofwomen,evenintheupperlayersofinstitutions,thoughencouraging,cannot
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notbetakenasaclearindicatorthatorganizationalculturesandstructuresaresignificantly
changing,aschangestoorganizationalcultureareamongthehardestchangestomake.
TheNavalWarCollegeseniorleadershipcourseincludesacasestudyonformerIBM
CEOLouGerstnerthatspecificallyfocusesontheimportanceofandchallengestochanging
organizationculture.19Culturechangedoesnotoccurwithoutmanagementmakingitaclear
andobservablepriority.Itisnotsomethingthatwillchangeafteranorganizationallymandated
meetingfeaturingaPowerPointpresentationdefiningsexismandsayingitisbad,anominal
methodforanorganizationtodemonstrateresponsivenesstoanissue.20Whileprocesscanbe
animportantpartofculturechangeitisnotenough,especiallyinahierarchicalorganization.
ArmyColonelDianeRyanwroteher2008doctoraldissertationonmeasuringgender
attitudesandegalitarianismamongU.S.Armypersonnel.21TheeffectofSocialDominance
Orientation,referringtothegeneraltendencyofpeopletoformandmaintaingroup
hierarchiesintheinterestofupholdingthestatusquo,wasakeyconsideration.Further,the
effectofSDOwasconsideredinthatempiricalstudy,drawingfromthe2004workofDambrun,
DuarteandGuimond,22suggestingthatthereasonmenimposesocialdominanceisbecause
theybelongtoahigherstatusgroup.Ryanexplains.23
[SocialDominanceOrientation]isdefinedasageneralindividual-difference
variableexpressinganti-egalitarianism,aviewofhumanexistenceaszero-sum
andrelentlesscompetitionbetweengroups,thedesireforgeneralized
hierarchicalrelationshipsbetweensocialgroupsandin-groupdominanceover
out-groups.24SDOisthoughttogenerateandsustainlegitimizingmythsthat
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providethejustificationformaintainingin-groupdominance(e.g.womenare
notasintelligentasmen).25
SDOprovidestherationalenecessarytolegitimizeotherwiseunacceptablepersonal
behavior,specificallysexism.
Whiletherearemanydifferentdefinitionsofsexism,hereitreferstoprejudice
ordiscrimination(oftensmall,calledmicroaggressions26)basedonsex,andbehavior,
conditionsandattitudesthatfosterstereotypesofsocialrolesand,assuch,prejudice
anddiscrimination.Onanaccumulated,and(eventacitly)toleratedbasis,these
attitudesandbehaviorcanconstitutetheinvisible,unspokeninstitutionalsexism
referencedprior,supplementingrule-andstructurally-basedinstitutionalsexism.Rule-
andstructurally-basedinstitutionalsexismincludespoliciesto“protect”womenfrom
jobsandactivitiesdeemedappropriateonlyformen,andarebrokendownthrough
step-by-stepprocessesofintegrationwherewomen“prove”thattheycan“do”
particularjobs,suchaswomenasfirefightersandwomenincombatroles.27
AsBrigadierGeneral(ret)WilmaVaughtstatedinherKeynoteaddressatthe
2016InternationalSocietyforMilitaryEthics(ISME)conferenceinAnnapolis,Maryland,
changesforwomeninthemilitaryhaveoccurredthroughlegislation,whichshe
chronicledinheraddress,andlawsuits.Inotherwords,changehasnotcomeeasily.
Lawsuits,however,canbedifficultandintimidatingforminoritiestopursuesincethey
aremostoftenresponsibleforpayingtheirownlegalfees,againstabatteryof
governmentlawyersthatareonconstantstand-by,paidforbytaxpayers.28The
governmentcanoftenprevailsimplybyoutlastingtheindividual’savailablefunds.
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Dambrun,DuarteandGuimond’sresearchfurthersuggestedthatmaintainingthestatus
quoallowedmentomaintaintheirgroupstatusaswellasapositivesocialidentity.29Ryanwent
ontoconsider,therefore,whethercertainorganizations,suchasthemilitary,“mayfoster
hierarchyenhancingorattenuatingideologies.”30Ryan’sresultssupportedpreviousworkthat
suggestedmeninmale-dominatedcareerenvironmentsmayfeelcompelledto‘hunkerdown’
intheinterestofpreservingtheirprivilegeinthelastbastionofmalesuperiority,andthatmen
generallyagreedgendershouldbeanassettotheircareers.31
Issuesingatheringanddrawingconclusionsfromattitudinalstatisticswithinagender-
dominatedorganizationshouldbenotedaswell.Inanorganizationof400individuals,for
example,only25mightbewomen.Ifasurveyquestionisaskedregardingwhetherthe
organizationcondonessexism,andall25womenanswered“yes,”howthestatisticsare
interpretedmakesabigdifference.Ifwhatpercentageofwomenseesexismasaproblemis
considered,theansweris100%.If,however,whatpercentageoftheoverallpopulation
considerssexismisaproblem,theansweris6.25%andthatfiguremightnotbeconsidered
statisticallysignificant.Consequently,inCommandClimateSurveystakeninmilitarycommands
orEqualEmploymentOpportunitysurveys,forexample,itcanbestatisticallyconcludedthere
isnoorganizationalproblemwithsexism,evenwhenallornearallthewomenfeelthereisa
problem.Inadditiontothisstatisticalinterpretationissue,womencanbereluctanttoeven
participateininstitutionalsurveyswheredemographicinformationthatcouldidentifythemis
required,forfearofbeingidentifiedandcategorizedas“aproblem”iftheyexpressnegative
views,evidencingthatissuesareoftenonesoftrust,notprocess.Thesestatisticscan
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perpetuatemisperceptionsofsexismasaninstitutionalissue.Inherdissertation,DianeRyan
considersdifferencesinperceptionsregardingwhetherornotsexismexistsaswell.
Regardingegalitarianismasanindicatorofinclusivity,RyancitesGordonAllport’s1979
bookOntheNatureofPrejudice,whichfailedtoconsidersexismasaformofprejudice,andthe
laterworkofLaurieRudmanthatlikensAllportto“theproverbialfish–blindtothewaterhe
swimsin.”32Inotherwords,Allportfailedtorecognizeallofthekeyfeaturesofhisown
environment.Thisnon-recognitionperpetuatessexism,ifonlythroughbenignneglect.Ryan
suggestssexismisaformofprejudicethatmaybeconsideredmoreacceptablethanothers,
attributabletoSocialDominanceOrientation.IndianPrimeMinisterNarendraModi’sJune2015
commenttoBangladeshiPrimeMinisterSheikhHasinacomplimentingheronherstrongstance
againstterrorism,“despitebeingawoman,”33andBritishNobellaureateTimHunt’scomments
aboutwomenscientistsbeingadistractingpresenceinlaboratoriesandtheirtendencytocry34
areexamplesoflikelyunintended“blindfish”sexistremarks.Hencetheimportanceofraising
awareness,especiallyamongmen,ofthechallengesfacedbywomeninnon-traditionalcareers.
BREAKINGTHEGLASS(ORBRASS)CEILING
Womenhaveenterednon-traditionalcareerfields,includingfirefighters,surgeons,
businessexecutives,militaryofficers35andSupremeCourtjustices.In2013thePentagon
openedcertaincombatpositionsinaviationandsurfacewarfareoccupationstofemaleservice
members.TheninDecember2015,DefenseSecretaryAshCarterannouncedthatallU.S.
militarypositionswouldbeopentowomen,thoughovertheobjectionsofChairmanofthe
JointChiefsofStaff,MarineGeneralJosephDunford.36TheAirForceThunderbirdsprecision
flyingteamhasincludingfemaleF-16pilotssince2005.Theseareallgoodnewsstories.
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TheNavyincludedafemalememberonitsBlueAngelsteamforthefirsttimein2015,
MarineCapt.KatieHiggins,pilotingtheteam’sC-130“FatAlbert”transportplane.Her
appointmentcametheyearaftertheBlueAngelsgotaninstitutionalblackeyewhenaformer
commanderwasfoundguiltyofallowing“obviousandrepeatedinstancesofsexual
harassment”and“condoningwidespreadlewdpractices.”37BlueAngelscommanderCapt.Tom
Frosch,however,saysHigginsappointmenthadnothingtodowiththe2014incident,andthat
he“doesn’tbelieve”thereareinstitutionalchallengestoacceptingafemaletotheirranks.To
skepticswhosuggestthatherinclusionwasrelatedtolastyear’sBlueAngelsdebaclerather
thanmerit,Capt.Higginssays:“Well,honestly,Iwouldtell’emtowatchthedemo.Theycan’t
tellthedifferencebetweenmineandtheothertwopilotsonherebecauseIflyitaswellasthey
do.”38Withover1000hoursflyingtime,includingover400combathours,39Capt.Higgins
shouldn’thavetodefendherflyingskills.Studieshaveshown,however,thatifskepticscould
identifyCapt.Higginsonthedemotapes,theymighthaveapredispositiontofavoringmales.
Whilewomenhavetheirfoot-in-thedoorinnon-traditionalfields,biasstillexists.40A
double-blind2012studyevidencedthatamongapplicantsrandomlyassignedamaleorfemale
nameforanacademiclaboratorymanager’sposition,theresumesofthosewithmalenames
wereconsideredmorehighlyqualifiedandhirablebyfacultyreviewers.41Similarly,a2014
studyfoundbothmenandwomenweremorelikelytohireamanforajobthatrequired
math.42Thefindingsofthatstudywerechallenged,andthosechallengeswerechallenged,43
perhapsevidencingthesensitivityofsubject.In2015,apeer-reviewersuggestedarejected
studyonpost-doctoraljobopportunitiesbyevolutionarybiologistFionaInglebyatthe
UniversityofSussexcouldbeimprovedbyaddingamaleco-author.Doingso,thereviewer
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stated,would“serveasapossiblecheckagainstinterpretationsthatmaysometimesbedrifting
toofarawayfromempiricalevidenceintoideologicallybiasedassumptions.”44Patronizing
commentsarethemselvesasubtle(ornotsosubtle)expressionofbias.Andbiasisnotlimited
toscience,technology,engineeringandmath(STEM)fields,whichdemonstratesthe
commonalityofchallengesfacedinnon-traditionalfields.
WhileEllenPaorecentlylostherhigh-profilecaseagainstherformerventurecapital
firm,TheEconomistreported45thatalthoughSiliconValleylikestothinkofitselfasperhapsthe
ultimatemeritocracy-morethanhalfofitsfirmsarefoundedbyimmigrants-thespiritof
meritocracydiminisheswhenitcomestogender.AlthoughSiliconValleyboostsitsshareof
high-profilewomen,abouthalfofAmerica’spubliclytradedtechnologycompanieshaveall-
maleboards.Intheareaofsoftwareandcomputing,women’sshareofjobsactuallyfellfrom
34%in1990to27%in2011.46TheproportionoffemalepartnersinAmericanventurecapital
firmsalsodeclinedfrom10%in1999to6%in2014.A2010studyfoundthatonly9.4%of
corporateboarddirectorswerewomen.47A2014surveybyFortunemagazine48foundonly
4.2%ofthepartnersofthe92mostsuccessfulventurecapitalfirmsarefemale.
A2014articleinJointForcesQuarterly49(JFQ)pointedoutthevalueofdiverse
perspectivesinteaching,oftenstimulatedbydemographicdiversity,andthelackofgender
diversityprevalentinsenior-levelProfessionalMilitaryEducation(PME).Self-imposed
structuralrequirementsbiashirestowardthesamekindofolder,whitemalefacultymembers
alreadydominatingPMEfaculty.
PMEfacultypositionsarearguedtorequireacademic“generalists”ratherthan
“specialists,”withwomenpurportedlytendingtowardspecializations.
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Consequently,itisreasoned,fewqualifiedwomenappliedfororwereassigned
teachingpositions.Inrealityfewmaleapplicantsaregeneralistseither,butthey
expandtheirexpertiseonthejob.However,itcertainlyisthecasethatthe
numberoffemaleteachingfacultyapplicantshasbeenlowerthanmen.And
evenwhenqualifiedwomendoapply,therearestillmultiplehurdlesto
overcome.
The“bestathlete”approachtohiringisoftenusedinboththepublicandprivate
sectors.InPME,bestathletecandidatesareconsideredtobethosepossessinga
broadrangeofeducationalattributesandprofessionalexperienceinthemilitary
orthesecurityfield.Farfewerminoritycandidatesarestatisticallylikelyto
possessthiscombinationofattributes,therebypotentiallydisadvantagingor
eliminatingmanyotherwisehighlyqualifiedindividuals.50
Infieldslikeeducation,wherediversityofperspectivesisimportanttoteachingcriticalthinking,
theeffectivenessoftheorganizationbecomesunderminedwheninclusivediversityisnotan
organizationalpriority.
ADVANCEMENTANDRETENTION
Attheveryleast,studiesthereforeshowthatequalconsiderationofqualifiedwomen
cannotbeassumed.Further,oncehired,advancementandretentioninnon-traditionalfields
arechallenges.Whilecompetencyremainsanentranceprerequisite,andwomenoftenassume
asthekeytosuccess,itsvalueinadvancementisnowquestioned.Networkingandmentoring,
triedandtrueadvancementapproachesformen,oftenfailwomenaswell.
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Womenmustthenaskthemselveswhatittakestobeacceptedintotraditionallymale-
dominatedcareerfieldsandtoriseintheleadershipranks,giventhesometimestacitresistance
tohiringandanatbest“blindfish”andattimesopenlyhostileworkenvironmentthat
continues.Assumedanswers,largelybasedonacceptedapproachesregardingwhatithas
takenmentosucceed,groupintothreegeneralcategories:confidence,competenceand
networking.Yettheroleofeachoftheseforwomeninnon-traditionalfieldshasrecentlycome
intoquestion,whichthenleaveswomenwonderingwhattheyaretodobothtogetinthedoor
andbeaccepted?AsonefemaleNavalofficer,apilot,lamented(afterbeingassuredof
anonymity)totheauthor,“Ifinditbesttojustshowyoucangetalongwiththeboys.”
BeConfident,ButNotTooConfident.Women,includingwomenintopleadership
positions,oftensufferfromatypeofimpostersyndrome,onestemmingfromlackof
confidence.JournalistsKattyKayandClaireShipmenwriteaboutitintheir2014bookThe
ConfidenceCode:TheScienceandArtofSelf-Assurance–WhatWomenShouldKnow,asdoes
FacebookCOOSherylSandberginher2013bestseller,LeanIn.Sandberg’slargelyself-
reflectingbooktalksabouthermanyfears–andovercomingthem-whenshetookonherjob
atFacebook.SheadmittedtoKayandShipman,“TherearestilldaysIwakeupfeelinglikea
fraud,notsureIshouldbewhereIam.”51Thisimpostersyndromeisbackedbynumerous
studies.A2011UKInstituteofLeadershipandManagementsurveyofmanagersfound,for
example,thathalfoffemalerespondentshadself-doubtabouttheirjobperformanceand
careerswhilelessthanathirdofmalerespondentsreportedsimilarfeelings.52Thisself-doubt
canleadtowomengivinguponataskbeforeevenstarting,fearingfailureordemonstrating
incompetence.
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Thereis,however,alinkbetweencompetenceandconfidencethatisimportantand
deservesconsiderationaswell.Womenhavelongassumedthatdemonstratingcompetence
willleadtoacceptance.TheInternationalSpaceUniversityhosteda2014panelinMontrealof
fourhighlytrained,highlycompetent,womenastronauts,fromtheUnitedStates,China,South
KoreaandCanada.Askedbyanaudiencememberwhattheirbiggestchallengewasinbeingor
becominganastronaut,CanadianastronautJuliePayetteansweredwithouthesitation.
“Gettingmalecolleaguestotakemeseriouslyandhavingtoprovemycompetenceoverand
overagain.”53Herastronautcolleaguesnoddedvigorouslyinagreement.Confidencecanbe
hardtosustainifyourcolleaguesdonottakeyouseriously.ResearchledbyHastingsLaw
SchoolProfessorJoanWilliamsin2014citeshavingtorepeatedlyprovethemselvesasoneof
fivereasonswomen,particularlywomenofcolor,leaveSTEMfields.54
Inthelate1990’s,CornellpsychologistsDavidDunningandJustinKrugerextensively
studiedthelinkbetweencompetenceandconfidence.55NowdubbedtheDunning-Kruger
effect,theyfoundsomepeople(largelyunskilled)substantiallyoverestimatetheirownabilities,
basedonerroneousreadingsofboththeirownabilitiesandthoseofothers.Basically,theless
competentsomeoneis,themoretheytendtooverestimatetheirownabilities.In2003,
DunningandWashingtonStateUniversitypsychologistJoyceEhrlinger56wentastepfurtherin
thisresearchconsideringtherelationshipbetweenfemalecompetenceandconfidence.Ona
quizofscientificskillsdesignedtotestbothcompetenceandconfidence,womenrated
themselvesmorenegativelythanmenonskills,yetontheaverageperformedataboutthe
samelevel.Betweenhavingtoovercomedoubtingthemselves,doubtsometimesreinforcedby
malecolleagues,womenareleftinaprecariousposition.YetaccordingtoForbescontributor
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BruceKasanoff,“…seniorleadersperceivethattheyperpetuallyconfrontthesameproblem…
theycan’tfindwomenwhoarebothconfidentandcompetent.”57
Theflipsideofself-doubtmustbeconsideredaswell.HarvardprofessorRosabethMoss
Kanter’sseminal1977bookMenandWomenintheCorporation,58examinedhowstructural
issues,thehigh-visibilityofwomenwheninaminority,andstereotypicalperceptionswithin
organizationsaffectworkplaceperformance.Gender-basedstereotypicalperceptionsremaina
keyissueforwomeninnon-traditionalcareerfields.A2011studybyStanfordGraduateSchool
ofBusiness,59documentedwhatmanywomenalreadyknow:ifwomenbehaveintoofeminine
amanner,theywillbeseenasweakandnotasleaders,butiftheyaretoomasculine,theywill
beseenasaggressive--andostracized.60Consequently,thestudyconcludedthatwomen
neededtoknowhowtoswitchonandoffmasculinebehaviorsofbeingaggressive,assertive
andconfident.Speakingupfirstcouldgetawomanviewedas“bitchy,”whilepiggybackingona
malecommentwasacceptable.Thestudysuggestedthatdisagreeingwithmalecolleaguesby
firststatingthemeritoftheirpremise,beforegentlysuggestinganotheroption,wouldbeless
threateningtothesecolleagues.Whileadmittedlygoodpractice,itneverthelessputswomenin
apositionofhavingto“manage”--orasafemalecolleagueofmineputit,“mommy”--their
malecolleagues.
ArmyGeneralAnneDunwoody(ret),thefirstfemalefour-starofficerinthe
military,wroteabouthoweasyitisforwomentobedismissedwhenintheminority,
evenaflagofficer.
Anewideacouldeasilybedismissedbyafewheadsshakingorsimplybydeft
silenceintheroom.IfIfeltstronglyaboutsomething,Iwouldrepeatit,andifI
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reallyfeltstronglyaboutsomething,Iwouldhavetoraisemyvoiceorthrowout
afour-letterwordtogettheirattention:“Youguysarecomingupwiththesame
oldshitsolutionsthathaven’tworkedinthepast!”61
Unfortunately,fewwomenareinapositionwheretheycouldtakesuchactions,andget
awaywithit.Moreoften,theirviewsaresimplyshutdown,ortheywouldbechastised
forbeingtooaggressive.
Thesefindingshavebeenextendedbeyondbusinessfieldsaswell.Analysisconducted
in2015byNortheasternUniversityAssistantProfessorBenjaminSchmidtondatagathered
throughthewebsiteRateMyProfessor–14millionstudentreviews--foundstudentsevaluate
womenprofessorsdifferentlythanmen.Menprofessorsaremoreoftenconsideredbrilliant
andfunny,whilewomenareeithernice,orrudeandbossy.62Thisreinforcesthetendencyfor
peopletothinkmorehighlyofmenthanwomeninprofessionalsettings,praisemenforthe
samethingstheycriticizewomenfor,andaremorelikelytofocusonawoman’sappearanceor
personalityandonaman’sskillsandintelligence.
A2014studyconductedbylinguistandtechentrepreneurKieranSnyder63documents
thisgeneraltendency.Snyderlookedat248-workplaceperformancereviewsgiventomenand
womenacross28companies.Snyderfoundthatmanagers,regardlessofgender,gavefemale
employeesmorenegativefeedbackthantheygavemaleemployees.Further,76%ofthe
negativefeedbackgivenwomenincludedpersonalitycriticismofsomesort,suchas“abrasive,”
“judgmental”or“strident,”whereasonly2%ofmen’sreviewsincludedsimilarnegative
personalitycomments.Womenarejudgedbydifferentstandardsthantheirmalecounterparts,
andinpersonalizedwaysthatcanmarconfidence.
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CompetenceCanHurtYou?Competencehasbeenanassumedprerequisitefor
acceptanceandsuccess,andmanywomenhaveproventheircompetence,butthathasnot
eliminatedsexism.In2010,EmilioCastilla,aprofessoratMIT’sSloanSchoolofManagement,
andIndianaUniversitysociologyprofessorStephenBernardexaminedhowmeritocraticideals
andperformanceawardsplayoutinorganizations,includingthoseseeingthemselvesas
committedtodiversity.64CastillaandBernarddubbedtheirfindings“theparadoxof
meritocracy”inthatevenwhenanorganizationscorevaluesemphasizedmeritocraticvalues,
managersawardedhighermonetaryawardstomaleemployeesthantoanequallyperforming
femaleemployee.Itseemsthatindividualswhothinktheyareobjectiveandunbiased–blind
fish–don’tmonitorandscrutinizetheirownbehavior.Rather,theyjustassumethattheyare
rightandtheirassessmentsaccurate.65
Withinnon-traditionalcareerfieldswomenwinawardsandcommendationsfor
outstandingperformance.However,whethercompetenceisinfactabenefittowomenoncein
theworkforcehasbeenputintoquestion.LondonBusinessSchoolresearchersM.EnaInesi
andDanielM.Cableconducteda2014studyof200U.S.militarycommandersresponsiblefor
performanceevaluations.Theyfoundahighcorrelationbetweengenderbiasandperformance
evaluations“whentheevaluatorwasmaleandhighsocial-dominanceorientedandwhenthe
femalesubordinate'sobjectiveon-the-jobperformancewashigh.”66SocialDominanceagain
appearedtobeafactor.InesiandCableconcludedthatinhierarchicalorganizationspast
accomplishmentscanactuallybedetrimentaltowomeninevaluationsfrommenwhowantto
maintainthetraditionalgenderbalancebecausewomen’saccomplishmentscanbeviewedas
threatening.
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Complaintsaboutincompetentwomeninthemilitarybeingadvancedthroughtheranks
tomeet“diversitymetrics”(quotas),receivingplumassignmentsbasedon“affirmativeaction,”
especiallypilots,datebacktothe1994deathofLt.KaraHultgreenwhileattemptingtolandher
F-14onboardanaircraftcarrier.Whiledifferingphysicalstandardshavebeenalong-standing
sourcesofdiscourse–complaints-aboutwomenbeingacceptedintocertainmilitarybillets,
studieshaveshownaculturalissuescomeintoplayaswell,issuesrelatedtoSocialDominance
Orientation.67Certainlynotallwomenaremore,orevenequallyqualifiedforallorparticular
positionsthanallmen.Thepoint,however,isaboutassumptionsmadeaboutwomen’s
competency,dismissalofcompetencyoncedemonstrated,andthatSocialDominance
Orientationmeanswhentheyarecompetent,thatveryfactcanworkagainstthem.
Themainstreammediadoesnothelpeither.InaSeptember2014FoxNewssegment
abouttheUnitedArabEmirates’firstwomanpilot,MajorMariamalMansouri,launching
bombsagainsttheIslamicStateofIraqandSyria,panelistGregGutfieldquipped“Problemis,
aftershebombeditshecouldn'tparkit.”Anotherpanelist,EricBolling,thenasked,“Would
thatbeconsideredboobsontheground,orno?”68Suchsexistattitudesbroadcastthroughthe
media,evenwithanapologyofferedbyGutfieldandBollinglater,perpetuatesingrainedSocial
DominanceOrientationattitudes.
HelpingEachOtherUptheLadder?Women’snetworkinggroupsaredescribedby
ForbeswriterMeghanCasserlyas“groupsintendedtohelpwomentosucceedbybuildinga
solidcommunityofwomentohelplifteachotherup.”69Sheexpressedskepticism,however,
aboutthevalueofthosegroupsandoffersadviceontellingwhetheragroupisworththetime
commitmenttoattend.Whatkindofwomenattend?Aretheywellconnectedwithinthe
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businessworld?Istherefunctionalcommunicationwithinthegroup?Herbottomline:Isthisa
groupthatcouldhelpherland“aplumpositionhigherupthefoodchain.”
DarleneIskraconsideredmentorshipinher2007dissertationBreakingThroughthe
GlassCeiling:EliteMilitaryWomen’sStrategiesforSuccess.Mentorshipwasconsideredan
importantfactorinsuccess,yetshefound“therehasbeenalackoffemalerolemodelsand
mentorsinthehighestechelonofthemilitarybranches.”70Whileinsomeinstancesmenare
willingtomentorwomen,anddoanoutstandingjob,thatisnotalwaysthecase.
HarvardExtensionSchoolstudentAllysonReneaudidaninternshipattheNavalWar
Collegein2013.Aspartofthatinternshipsheinterviewedmembersofallmilitaryservices,but
mostlyNavy,andwroteapaperonmentoringlaterpublishedbytheUnitedStatesNaval
Instituteasablogpost.71Reneau’smentorshippostmadeCHINFOClips,adailynewsupdate
compiledbytheChiefofInformationofficeoftheUSNavy,andwidelydistributed.Titled
“MentoringintheMilitary:Who’sYourSeaDaddy?”ittalkedabouttheformalmentoring
systemsinstitutedwithinsomeservicesand,accordingtothoseinterviewed,thefarmore
effectiveorganicmentoringthattakesplacebetweenindividualswithinallservice
communities.Genderwasconsideredaswell.
Severalwomenmilitaryofficers,includingthoseatthelevelofNavycaptainand
Army/AirForcecolonel,declinedinterviewsforReneau’sprojects,andmostwhoagreedtobe
intervieweddidsoonlyonconditionsofanonymityandthatmeetingswouldbeconducted
privatelysoasnottodrawattentiontothemselves.Notwantingtodrawattentionto
themselveswasaprevalentreasonstatedamongwomenfordecliningReneau’sinterview
requestsasdrawingattention,shewastold,cangetafemaleofficerdubbedweakora
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problem.Reneauquotesafemaleofficerwhohadserved25yearsassaying,“Activedutyin
theNavy–asawoman–isaskingtobelongtoaclubwheretheydon’twantyou.”Fromthose
shespokewith,Reneaufoundthatculturalbias,fearofreprisalsandintra-gendercompetition
allinhibitedwomeninthemilitaryfrombeingaffordedthesamekindofeffectivementoring
opportunitiesastheirmalecounterparts.
Withorganicmentoringclearlythemostsuccessful,personalconnectionsarea
prerequisiteformentoring.ButmaleofficersadmittedtoReneauareluctanceto
mentorwomenforfearofaccusationofsexualharassment.Evenanaccusationcould
putablackeyeontheircareerandtheywereconcernedthat“sometimescompliments
canbetakenwrongbyanoverlysensitivefemale.”Women,however,canalsobe
reluctanttomentorwomen.Calledthe“queenbeesyndrome”,researcherssincethe
1970haveshownthatwomenwhoachievesuccessinmale-dominatedcareers“wereat
timesreluctanttoopposetheriseofotherwomen.”72Further,andclearlymost
disingenuously,“whereasmenhelpingmenisconsideredmentorship,womenhelping
womenisoftenconsideredfavoritism,favoritismthatcangetthementorshunnedby
malecolleaguesinthefuture.”73Experiencedwomenwhomentoryoungerwomenfear
accusationsoffavoritism,whichoftenleavesyoungerwomenwithoutamentor.Both
womensuffer,asdoestheirworkorganization.
FIGHTORFLIGHT
Womenmightbeallowedintoallcareerfields,buttheirriseandtenureisstill
determinedonfactorsverydifferentfromtheirmalecounterparts.Obviously,rather
than“climbtheladder”somewomenoptouttoraisefamiliesorattendtoother
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personalissues.Somebasetheirdecisiononwhathasbeencalledthe“fight-or-flight”
moment,about10yearsintotheircareer.
In2008researchersattheHarvardBusinessSchoolconductedastudyofwomen
inprivatesector,male-dominated,Science,TechnologyandEngineering(SET)fields.74
TheywereconcernedwiththebraindrainofwomeninSET,withresultsthatcanbe
morebroadlyappliedtomanynon-traditionalcareersgenerally.DubbedtheAthena
Factor,researchersfoundthatfivefactorsplayedintohighlyqualified,talentedwomen
optingoutataboutthe10-yearmark,manygender-centered.
“1.Hostilemachocultures.WomeninSETaremarginalizedbylabcoat,hard
hat,andgeekworkplaceculturesthatareoftenexclusionaryandpredatory(fully
63%experiencedsexualharassment).
2.Isolation.AwomaninSETcanbethelonewomanonateamoratasite.This
makesitdifficulttofindsupportorsponsorship(45%lackmentors;83%lack
sponsors).
3.Mysteriouscareerpaths.Asaresultofmachoculturesandisolation,women
inSETfindithardtogainanunderstandingofthewayforward–fully40%feel
“stalled”or“stuck”intheircareers.
4.Systemofriskandreward.The“divingcatch”cultureofSETcompanies
disadvantageswomen,whotendtoberiskaverse(35%havedifficultywithrisk).
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Withoutbuddiestosupportthemtheyfeelthatcangofrom“herotozero”ina
heartbeat.
5.Extremeworkpressures.SETjobsareunusuallytimeintensiveand,becauseof
theirglobalscope,involveworkinginmultipletimezones(54%workacrosstime
zones).”75
Manywomeninnon-traditionalcareerfieldsfindhostileenvironments,workingin
isolationornear-isolation,andmysteriouscareerpathsarecommonalitiesfoundtiedto
nothavinganinternalsupportnetwork.
Asaresultofthe2008study,sometechcompaniesinstitutedprograms
specificallydesignedtochangethepatternsofwomenleavingtheSETfield,focusingon
alleviatingtheperceivedhostileandisolatedenvironment.76However,a2014studyby
theCenterforTalentInnovation,foundedbySylviaAnnHewlett,theleadresearcheron
the2008study,stillfoundthatwomenare45%morelikelytoleavetheirSETjobsthan
theirmalecounterparts,andincreasinglyearlier.Manyleavethefirstyear,citing
generallythesamereasonsascitedinthe2008study,andhaving“towalkthefamously
trickylinebetweenaggressivenessandassertivenessthatcanoftenderailwomen’s
careers.”77Thegoodnewswasbeingthelonewomanonateamwaslesspervasive
thanin2008.78
Consideringtheevidencepresented,quiteclearly,womencannotrelyonmale-
dominatedinstitutionsto“fix”thingsontheirown.SocialDominanceOrientation,
especiallyinhierarchicalorganizationsincludingthemilitary,theblindfish
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phenomenon,andthemilitarytendencytoseefixesasrootedin“processes”,combine
inapowerfulwaytodiminishthelikelihoodofthatoutcome.Further,relyingonothers
tomakechangescarrieswithitanunhealthyvictimmentality.Realistically,atleastpart
oftheresponsibilityforsuccessfallstowomentofindwaystoeffectivelybuildtheir
owninternalsupportsystems.
REALITIESANDROADSFORWARD
AstheSchmidtandSnyderstudiesevidenced,powerfulwomenarecriticizedinanoften
verypersonalwaythatrarelyhappenswithmen.Ithappensandshowslittlesignofabating.
Thepublicandhigh-levelnatureatwhichtheyoccurperpetuatesculturalstereotypes.New
York’sjuniorSenatorKirstenGillibrandtalksaboutherpeerscommentingonherweight,
includingcallingher“porky,”inher2014bookOffTheSidelines.AsbothaPresidential
candidateandSecretaryofState,HillaryClinton’spantsuitsandhairstyleswereoftenfodderfor
watercoolertalkandTwitterchains.Men,however,arenotsimilarlycriticizedfortheirhairor
clothesbecauseitisimplicitlyunderstoodthosehavenobearingontheirabilities.Generally,
menarevaluedandevaluatedbasedontheirknowledgeandskills;womenfortheirlooksand
manner.
Womenarefightingagainstculturalandhistoricalnorms.Culturally,manyworld
religionshavetraditionallyconsideredwomenas“subservient.”79Historically,womenhavehad
torelyonmenfortheirphysical,social,andeconomicwell-being,making“beingliked”a
practicalimperative.Inher1994bookRevivingOphelia:SavingtheSelvesofAdolescentGirls,
therapistMaryPipherdiscussedthesocietalpressuresonyoungwomenthattoooftenresultin
transformingconfident,athleticchildrenintoself-consciousadolescents.80Centuriesof
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acceptedgenderrolesandculturalnormsaredifficulttoovercome.Strivingtobelikedturns
outnottobegoodtrainingfordealingwithandacceptingcriticism.Sohowdoesone“toughen
up”?
A2014studybyEYWomenAthletesBusinessNetworkandsponsoredbyespnW
surveyedmorethan400femaleexecutivesinfivecountries(20%wereU.S.women)andfound
ajobapplicant’sinvolvementinsportswasconsideredapositivefactorbywomenexecutivesin
hiringdecisions.Surveyparticipantsbelievedthatpeoplewhohaveplayedsportsmakegood
professionalsbecausetheybringqualitieslikecompetitiveness,teamwork,theabilityto
motivateothersandacommitmenttobringingprojectstocompletiontotheirjobs.Amongthe
groupsurveyed,overhalfhadplayedsportsatthecollege/universitylevel,andonly3%had
neverplayedsportsatall.81Theoverallresultsshowedanemphasisonintangibleskillsgained
orhonedthroughparticipationinsports.
OlympicChampionDonnadeVaronasummarizedtheoverallbenefitsofsports
participationindevelopingteamworkandleadershipskills.
Ifyoutryoutforabasketballteambutquitinthemiddleofthefirstgame,orifyou
choosenottopasstheballtoyourtalentedteammatebecauseyoudon’tlikeher,orif
youareunwillingtospendextrahourstoworkonaweakness,youaren’tgoingtoget
veryfar.Sportsteachesfundamentalsforsuccessandthatiswhybothmenandwomen
executivesliketohireathletes.C-suiteexecutives[CEO,CFO,COOorBoardofDirectors]
hirethesewomenbecausetheyshareacommonbondandknowwhenthepressureis
ontheywillnotbeletdown.82
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Buildingcommonbondsisimportantinovercomingthesituationthattoooftenresultsinmid-
career“flight”;anindividualfeelingthatshedoesnothaveaninternalsupportnetwork.
Womenmustproactivelybuildtheskillsandseektheopportunitiestobettergettoknowher
femalecolleaguestowardbuildingtheall-importantinternalsupportsystems.
Thereisalsopreliminaryevidencethatparticipationinsportscorrelateswithhigher
retentionratesforwomeninthemilitary,andsomayhavebeenconditioningforworkplace
challenges.A2004thesispapercompletedattheNavalPostgraduateSchoolconsidered
whetherparticipationinvarsitysportsattheNavalAcademyyieldedhigherofficerretention
ratesthanforthosewhohadnot.83Thesmallsamplesizeofwomen,however,madefirm
gender-specificconclusionsdifficult.However,seventy-eightpercentofthefemaleflagofficer
interviewedbyDarleneIskraaspartofher2007dissertationindicatedtheyhadparticipatedin
individualsports,and81%wereactiveinteamsports.84Whetherparticipationinsportsbuilds
enduringorganicnetworks,“acceptable”leadershipskills,somehowequatestocombat
experienceintermsofbeinga“bonding”experience,justtoughenscompetitorsuptocriticism
--oralloftheabove--remainsuntested.Itappearsworthexploringthoughaspartof
continuingresearchonfemaleofficerretentioninthemilitary,researchthatmayyieldresults
transferrabletoothernon-traditionalfields.
Obviously,womenalreadyintheworkforcewhodidnotplaysportsintheirformative
yearscannotgobackandchangehistory.Butbeingawareoftheadvantagesthosewomenwho
didparticipationinsportsfeeltheygainedfromtheexperiencemaybeuseful.Awarenessalso
allowsyoungwomenwhomightnothaveotherwiseconsideredsportsaspartoftheircareer
trainingtodoso.
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Towardtakingresponsibilityfortheirowndestinies,womenmustalsochangetheir
attitudestowardandmethodsofmentoring.Whydon'twomeneffectivelymentorother
women?Unquestionably,organizationalstructurescurrentlycreatecompetitionbetween
women.Butwomenaregoingtohavetopullotherwomenalongthroughmentoring,which
theyhavesofarfailedatmiserably.Perhapsthatisbecausewomenhavesofewpositive
mentoringrolemodels.Hollywooddoesn’thelp.Womenwentfromgrowingupinthe1960’s
seeingwomeninmoviesandtelevisiongettingmarriedandlivinghappilyeverafterwithtwo
children,wearingpearlsandanapron,toSEALwanna-beDemiMoorebeingbetrayedbyAnn
BancroftinGIJaneinthelate1990’s,andAnneHathawaybeingtormentedbyMerylStreep’s
characterinTheDevilWearsPradain2006.
Mentoringcanmakeallthedifference.Ina2013interview,AirForcefighterpilotLt.
ClancyMorrical–whofinishedherF-16initialpilottrainingasaDistinguishedGraduate-told
oftheimportanceofmentoringinhercareer."Iwascrazyluckytobeinasquadronwithtwo
womeninleadership,"shesaidenthusiastically."Itwasreallyneattowatchthemleadandto
havetheopportunitytolearnaboutbeingafemalepilot,suchasthedifferencesandlogisticsof
flyingasawoman.Theyareamazingpilots.”85Butnotallwomeninnon-traditionalcareerfields
are“crazylucky,”norshouldtheyhavetobe.
Iforganizationsareseriousaboutinclusivediversity,womenshouldbeincentivized–
lendingitselftoaprocess--tomentorotherwomen.Organizationsmusttakeresponsibilityfor
removingthe“favoritism”stigmathathasinhibitedwomenfrommentoringotherwomen.
Ratherthanostracizingwomenfororganicallyselectingandmentoringaprotégée,women
shouldbeorganizationallyencouragedandrewardedfordoingso.Realisticallyaswell,inmany
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instanceswomenwillhavetobetaughttobementorsbecausetheyhavehadsofewrole
modelsorexperiencementoring.
Organizationallyendorsedmentoringwillhaveanotherbenefitaswell.Competent
womenareoffendedbyhiringorpromotionschemesthatarenotmeritbased.Mentorswould
carefullyselectprotégéesbecausetheprotégée’sperformancewouldprofessionallyreflecton
thementor.Otherwomenwouldidentifywomenwhocannotprovethemselvescompetent.
Womenshouldhelpthemselvesandothers,butalsoweedouttheoneswhohurttheirefforts.
Energizingwomenasmentorsisnottosaysinceremaleleadersshouldbeleftoutofmentoring
womenaswell,butwomenneedtostepupinfargreaternumbers.
Asthenumberofwomeninnon-traditionalfieldsgrows,thepotentialforchange
increasesaswell.A2011studyatRensselaerPolytechnicInstitutefoundthatthe“tipping
point”foraminorityopiniontoeventuallygrowtoamajorityopinion(herethatopinionbeing
theimportanceofinclusivediversity)isacommitted10%ofapopulation.86Thekeywordin
thatpropositionis“committed,”whichrequiresaperceivedabilitytovoiceopinionswithoutit
beingpotentiallycareerdamagingorending.Themoreanorganizationbecomesdiversified
numerically,includingbutnotlimitedtogender,thelessthepotentialeffectsofSocial
DominanceOrientationontheorganizationbecausedominanceofasinglegroupdecreases.
Womeninnon-traditionalworkforcecareerswillnotbeamatterofchoiceinthefuture
butrather,asGeneralDempseysaid,amatterofchangingdemographics.Aslongassexism
existsintheworkplacethough,eventacitlyorasafunctionofblindfish,competencywillbea
necessarybutnotnecessarilysufficientqualificationforwomen’sentryintonon-traditional
careers,andcannotbeassumedasanequalizeroradvantageinconsiderationsfor
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advancement.Tenacityseemsatleastequallyrequired.Whetherthroughexperienceplaying
competitivesportsorsomeothermethod,womenenteringnon-traditionalfieldsmustenter
armedwithtenacitytoendureandadvance.Andwomenmustmentoreachotherinthesame
waythatmendo,includinghelpingprotégée’slandplumpositions,withinstitutionalsupport.
ChangingSocialDominanceOrientationmeanschangingorganizationalculture,andthat
isaleadershipissuethattakestimeandconcertedeffortthatgoesbeyondrhetoric,and
processsolutions.Butitisintheinterestofthenationtohire,retainandadvancethebestand
thebrightest.Itistheresponsibilityoftherelevantorganizationstoprovidethebestandthe
brightesttheopportunitytoreachtheirfullpotentialandanenvironmentconducivetodoing
so.Itistheresponsibilityofwomeninthesecareerstopreparethemselvesforthechallenges
theywillface.Everyonewillbenefitfromtakinghisorherresponsibilitiesseriously.
1IwouldliketothankCommanderDarleneIskra(USN,ret)Ph.D;Col.EllenHaring(USA,ret)Ph.D;MaryRaum,Ph.D.USNWC;CommanderKevinKelley(USN,ret)Professor,USNWC;Lt.Col.MaryBethUlrich(USAF,Reserve)Ph.D.;NegeenPegahi,Ph.D.USNWC;MichaelMiner,KingsCollege,London;Lt.Col.CynthiaSexton(USAF,ret)Professor,USNWC;ZonaDouthit,Attorney;andYvetteRogersfortheircommentsandveryusefulinsightsondraftsofthisarticle.Responsibilityforthecontent,however,isminealone.TheviewsexpressedarealsominealoneanddonotreflecttheviewsoftheNavalWarCollege,theU.S.NavyortheDepartmentofDefense2“‘TimeandCasualties’:Gen.DempseyonCostofSequester,”NationalPublicRadio,February17,2013,availableatwww.npr.org/2013/02/17/172227744/obamas-top-military-adviser-says-cuts-would-cost-time-and-casualties3HeatherGraham-Ashley,“Chairmandiscussesthreats,budget,diversityatFortHood,”June23,2015.http://www.jcs.mil/Media/News/NewsDisplay/tabid/6800/Article/601651/chairman-discusses-threats-budget-diversity-at-ft-hood.aspx4AsdefinedbytheU.S.DepartmentofLabor.http://www.dol.gov/wb/factsheets/nontra2009.htm5“ViceAdmiralMichelleHowardFirstAfrican-AmericanWomantoReachtheRankofThreeStar,”October12,2012.WJLA-TVWashington,http://www.wjla.com/articles/2012/10/vice-admiral-michelle-howard-first-african-american-woman-to-reach-rank-of-three-star-officer-80588.html6TheinvestigationconcernedashiphandlingincidentduringatransitthroughtheStraitofMalacca.SamFellman,“Report:Fired1-starsentraciallyoffensiveemails,”MilitaryTimes,April12,2013.http://www.militarytimes.com/article/20130412/NEWS/304120015/Report-Fired-1-star-sent-racially-offensive-emails7“Howard’sPathtoNavyHistory,”NavyTimes,January4,2014.
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8NationalWomen’sLawCenter,”DACOWITSshouldberevitalized,”December2008.http://www.nwlc.org/sites/default/files/pdfs/DACOWITS.pdf9DODPressRelease,September18,2014.http://www.defense.gov/Releases/Release.aspx?ReleaseID=1694810https://www.deomi.org/DiversityMgmt/index.cfm11R.NormanMoody,“Newcommander‘proud’toleadDEOMI,”FloridaToday.June28,2014.http://www.floridatoday.com/story/news/local/2014/06/28/new-commander-proud-lead-deomi/11579891/.12http://www.sealeader.org13DavidFeitler,“TheCaseforDiversityGetsEvenBetter,”HarvardBusinessReview,March27,2014.https://hbr.org/2014/03/the-case-for-team-diversity-gets-even-better/14MargueriteRigoglioso,“DiverseBackgroundsandPersonalitiesCanStrengthenGroups,”StanfordBusiness,August1,2006.https://www.gsb.stanford.edu/insights/diverse-backgrounds-personalities-cn-strengthen-groups15ChristineM.Riordan,“DiversityisUselessWithoutInclusivity,”HarvardBusinessReview,June5,2014.https://hbr.org/2014/06/diversity-is-useless-without-inclusivity16http://hr.fas.harvard.edu/inclusive-culture;Seealso,T.HudsonJordan,“Movingfromdiversitytoinclusion,”DiversityJournal,http://www.diversityjournal.com/1471-moving-from-diversity-to-inclusion/17Foranexampleofresistancetoinclusivediversitysee:JoanJohnson-FreeseandEllenHaring,“IsPatriarchalSexismAliveandWellintheMilitary?”BestDefense,December18,2014.18MatsAlvesson&YvonneDueBilling,UnderstandingGenderandOrganizations2ndEdition,SAGE,2009;IngridM.Nembhard&AmyEdmondson,“Makingitsafe:theeffectsofleaderinclusivenessandprofessionalstatusonpsychologicalsafetyandimprovementeffortsinhealthcareteams,”JournaloforganizationalBehavior,”Vol.27,Issue7,November2006,pp.941-966;BorisGroysberg&KatherineConnolly,“GreatleadersWhoMaketheMixWork,”HarvardBusinessReview,September2013,https://hbr.org/2014/03/the-case-for-team-diversity-gets-even-better/19LouGerstner,WhoSaysElephantsCan’tDance,HarperBusiness,2003.20See,forexample,FredP.Stone,“WhytheMilitary’sSolutiontoBadLeadershipIsn’tGoingtoFixAnything,”Task&Purpose,April9,2015.http://taskandpurpose.com/why-the-militarys-solution-to-bad-leadership-isnt-going-to-fix-anything/?utm_source=facebook&utm_medium=social&utm_campaign=share21InTheirPlace:MeasuringGenderAttitudesandEgalitarianismAmongU.S.ArmyPersonnel,UniversityofNorthCarolinaStateUniversity,2008.http://repository.lib.ncsu.edu/ir/bitstream/1840.16/5085/1/etd.pdf22MichaelDambrun,SandraDuarteandSergeGuimond,“Whyaremenmorelikelytosupportgroup-baseddominancethanwomen?Themediatingroleofgenderidentification,”BritishJournalofSocialPsychology,Vol43,Issue2,June2004,pp.287-297and23Ryan,pp.19-20,referencingtheearlierworkofDambrun,Duarte&Brief,andSidanius,Pratto&Bobo.24JamesSidanius,F.Pratto&D.Brief,“GroupDominanceandthePoliticalPsychologyofGender:ACross-CulturalComparison,”PoliticalPsychology,Vol.16,1995,pp.381-396.25JamesSidanius,FeliciaPratto,&LawrenceBobo,“Racism,Conservatism,AffirmativeActionandIntellectualSophistication:AMatterofPrincipledConservatismorGroupDominance?”JournalofPersonalityandSocialPsychology,Vol.70,1994,pp.476-490.26DeraldWingSu,“Microaggressions:MoreThanJustRace,”PsychologyToday,November1,2010.https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/microaggressions-in-everyday-life/201011/microaggressions-more-just-race27MaryLouKendrigan,GenderMatters,Praeger,1991;LorryM.Fenner,WomeninCombat,GeorgetownUniversityPress,2001.28WallyZimolong,“5waystorecoveryourattorney’sfeeswhenlitigatingwiththegovernment,”July7,2014.http://www.supplementalconditions.com/2014/07/5-ways-to-recover-your-attorneys-fees-when-litigating-with-the-government/29MichaelDambrun,SandraDuarteandSergeGuimond,“Whyaremenmorelikelytosupportgroup-baseddominancethanwomen?Themediatingroleofgenderidentification,”BritishJournalofSocialPsychology,Vol43,Issue2,June2004,pp.287-297.30Ryan,p.32.
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31M.S.WilsonandJ.H.Liu,“Socialdominanceorientationandgender:themoderatingroleofgenderidentity,”BritishJournalofSocialPsychology,”Vol42,2003,pp.187-198.32LaurieRudman,inJohnDovidio,PeterGlickandLaurieRudmaneds.,OntheNatureofPrejudice:FiftyyearsAfterAllport,Wiley-Blackwell,2005,p.107.33RamaLakshmi,“India’sModiJustDeliveredtheWorld’sWorstCompliment,”WashingtonPost,June8,2015.http://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/worldviews/wp/2015/06/08/indias-narendra-modi-meant-to-praise-bangladeshs-female-prime-minister-but-it-was-viewed-as-an-insult-to-all-women/34JulieBeck,“TroubleWithGirls:“WhatTimHunt’sResignationShouldTellUsAboutSexisminScience,”TheAtlantic,June11,2015.http://www.theatlantic.com/health/archive/2015/06/tim-hunt-resignation-science-sexism/395642/35Accordingto2012DODDemographicinformation,16.1%ofactivedutymilitaryofficersarefemale.2012Demographics:ProfileoftheMilitaryCommunity.http://www.militaryonesource.mil/12038/MOS/Reports/2012_Demographics_Report.pdf36MatthewRosenbergandDavePhillips,“AllCombatRolesNowOpentoWomen,”NewYorkTimes,December3,2015.http://www.nytimes.com/2015/12/04/us/politics/combat-military-women-ash-carter.html?_r=037“BlueAngelspilotbreakssound,genderbarriers,”CBSNews,April10,2015.http://www.cbsnews.com/news/blue-angels-first-female-pilot-takes-to-sky/38Ibid.39RonStallcup,“KatieHiggins,firstfemaleBlueAngelspilot,takestotheskyinC-130‘FatAlbert’,”PensacolaToday,April12,2015.http://pensacolatoday.com/2015/04/katie-higgins-first-female-blue-angels-pilot-takes-to-the-sky-in-c-130-fat-albert/40ArecentcasestudyatHarvardBusinessSchoolconsideredthatgenderbiascanstartearly,includingintheclassroom.JodiKanter,“HarvardBusinessSchoolCaseStudy–GenderEquity,”TheNewYorkTimes,September7,2013.http://www.nytimes.com/2013/09/08/education/harvard-case-study-gender-equity.html?hp&_r=041CorinneA.Moss-Racusin,etal,“Sciencefaculty’ssubtlegenderbiasfavormalestudents,”ProceedingsoftheNationalAcademyofSciences,Vol.109,Number141,2112.http://www.pnas.org/content/109/41/16474.full;42ErnestoReuben,etal,“Howstereotypesimpairwomen’scareersinscience,”ProceedingsoftheNationalAcademyofSciences,Vol.111,Number12,2014.http://www.pnas.org/content/111/12/4403.full43A2015studybyWendyM.Williams&StephenCecichallengesthebiasagainstwomeninacademicSTEMpositions.“NationalHiringExperimentsReveal2-to-1FacultypreferenceforWomenonSTEMTenureTrack,”ProceedingsoftheNationalAcademyofSciences,http://www.pnas.org/content/112/17/5360.abstract.Challengestothestudymethodologyhavebeenraised.MatthewR.Francis,“ASurprisinglyWelcomeAtmosphere,”Slate,April20,2015.http://www.slate.com/articles/double_x/doublex/2015/04/no_sexist_hiring_in_stem_fields_a_vaunted_new_study_makes_that_claim_unconvincingly.html44ChrisWoolston,“Sexistreviewcausestwitterstorm,”May1,2015.http://www.nature.com/news/sexist-review-causes-twitter-storm-1.17457?WT.mc_id=TWT_NatureNews45“ValleyoftheDudes,”TheEconomist,April4,2015.http://www.economist.com/news/business/21647611-tech-firms-can-banish-sexism-without-sacrificing-culture-made-them-successful-valley?fsrc=scn%2Ffb%2Fte%2Fpe%2Fed%2Fvalleyofthedudes46Fewerfemalegraduatesinnon-traditionalfieldscreatepartofthehiringissue.Thatraisesquestionsregardingeducationalopportunitiesandbiasesforwomeninthosefieldsbeyondthescopeofthisarticle.See,forexample:NationalScienceFoundation,Science&EngineeringIndicators,2014.http://www.ngcproject.org/statistics;HazelStive,“Howtoundostereotypesthathinderwomen,”December11,2012.http://bbs.yale.edu/molecularcell/people/jo_handelsman-2.profile47PaxWorldNews,“Investorsputgenderontheagenda,”October10,2010.http://www.paxworld.com/news-resources/pax-world-news/Pax-World-News/1348DanPrimack,“VentureCapital’sStunningLackofFemaleDecision-Makers,”Fortune,February6,2014.http://fortune.com/2014/02/06/venture-capitals-stunning-lack-of-female-decision-makers/
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49JoanJohnson-Freese,MarybethUlrichandEllenHaring,“TheCounterproductiveSeaofSamenessinPME,”JointForcesQuarterly,July2014.http://ndupress.ndu.edu/News/NewsArticleView/tabid/7849/Article/577529/jfq-74-the-counterproductive-sea-of-sameness-in-pme.aspx50Ibid.51KattyKayandClaireShipman,“TheConfidenceGap,”TheAtlantic,May2014,59.52InstituteforLeadershipandManagement,AmbitionandGenderatWork.https://www.i-l-m.com/~/media/ILM%20Website/Downloads/Insight/Reports_from_ILM_website/ILM_Ambition_and_Gender_report_0211%20pdf.ashx53TheauthorwasinattendanceatthatpresentationonJuly10,2014.Seealso:DanielOberhaus,“SexisminSpace,”Motherboard,April2,2015.http://motherboard.vice.com/read/sexism-in-spaceHastings54JoanC.Williams,KatherineW.Phillips,&ErikaV.Hall,DoubleJeopardy,UCHastingsCollegeofLaw,2015.http://www.uchastings.edu/news/articles/2015/01/double-jeopardy-report.pdf55JustinKrugerandDavidDunning,"UnskilledandUnawareofIt:HowDifficultiesinRecognizingOne'sOwnIncompetenceLeadtoInflatedSelf-Assessments,JournalofPersonalityandSocialPsychology,Vol.77,No.6(1999)1121-34.56JoyceEhrlingerandDavidDunning,“HowChronicSelfViewsInfluence(andPotentiallyMislead)EstimatesofPerformance,”JournalofPersonalityandSocialPsychology,Vol.84,No.1,5–17.(2003)57“Women:IfYou’reCompetent,It’sTimetobeConfident,”March23,2015.http://www.forbes.com/sites/brucekasanoff/2015/03/23/women-if-youre-competent-its-time-to-be-confident/58BasicBooks,1993.59OliviaO’ReillyandCharlesO’Reilly,“WomenWhoDisplayMasculineTraits–andKnowWhenNotTo–GetMorePromotionsThanMen,”March1,2011.http://www.gsb.stanford.edu/news/research/womencareerresearchbyoreilly.html60Foradiscussionofhowwomen“manage”femininityinthemilitarysee:MelissaHerbert,CamouflageIsn’tOnlyforCombat,NYUPress,2000.61“America’sFirstFemaleFour-StartonDiversityintheMilitary,”DefenseOne,July28,2015.http://www.defenseone.com/ideas/2015/07/americas-first-female-four-star-diversity-military/118671/62“GenderedLanguageinTeacherReviews,”http://benschmidt.org/profGender/#%7B%22database%22%3A%22RMP%22%2C%22plotType%22%3A%22pointchart%22%2C%22method%22%3A%22return_json%22%2C%22search_limits%22%3A%7B%22word%22%3A%5B%22funny%22%5D%2C%22department__id%22%3A%7B%22%24lte%22%3A25%7D%7D%2C%22aesthetic%22%3A%7B%22x%22%3A%22WordsPerMillion%22%2C%22y%22%3A%22department%22%2C%22color%22%3A%22gender%22%7D%2C%22counttype%22%3A%5B%22WordCount%22%2C%22TotalWords%22%5D%2C%22groups%22%3A%5B%22unigram%22%5D%7D63KieranSnyder,“PerformanceReviewGenderBias:High-Achievingwomenare“abrasive,”Fortune,August26,2014.http://www.fortune.com/2014/08/26/performance-review-gender-bias/64“TheParadoxofMeritocracyinOrganizations,”http://dspace.mit.edu/handle/1721.1/6588465MarianneCooper,“TheFalsePromiseofMeritocracy,”TheAtlantic,December1,2015.http://www.theatlantic.com/business/archive/2015/12/meritocracy/418074/66M.EnaInesiandDanielM.Cable,“WhenaccomplishmentsComeBacktoHauntYou:TheNegativeEffectsofCompetenceSignalsonWomen’sPerformanceEvaluations,”PersonnelPsychology,67:3(2014).67See:CarolCohn,“HowCanSheClaimEqualRightsWhenSheDoesn’tHavetoDoasManyPush-upsasIdo?”MenandMasculinity,Vol.3,No.2,131-151.68http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2014/09/24/fox-the-five-sexist-jokes_n_5879358.html69“WhyWomen’sNetworkingGroupsFail,”July21,2012.70DarleneIskra,BreakingThroughtheBrassCeiling:EliteMilitaryWomen’sStrategiesforSuccess,UniversityofMarylandCollegePark,p.16.71April14,201472PeggyDrexler,“TheTyrannyoftheQueenBee,”WallStreetJournal,March6,2015.http://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424127887323884304578328271526080496;GrahamStaines,CarolTavris,TodyEpsteinJayaratne,“Thequeenbeesyndrome,”PsychologyToday7(1),1974,pp55–60;
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73Reneau,April14,2014.http://blog.usni.org/author/areneau74Mathwasnotincluded.75SylviaAnnHewlett,etal,“TheAthenaFactor:ReversingtheBrainDraininScience,EngineeringandTechnology,”HarvardBusinessReview,ResearchReport#10094,June2008,pp.i-ii.76KathleenMelymuka,“WhyWomenQuitTechnology,”ComputerWorld,June112,2008.http://www.computerworld.com/article/2551969/it-careers/why-women-quit-technology.html77JenaMcGregor,“KeepingWomeninHigh-TechFieldsisBigChallenge,ReportFinds,”WashingtonPost,February12,2014.http://www.washingtonpost.com/business/economy/keeping-women-in-high-tech-fields-is-big-challenge-report-finds/2014/02/12/8a53c6ac-93fe-11e3-b46a-5a3d0d2130da_story.html78SylviaAnnHewlett,“What’sHoldingWomenBackinScienceandTechnologyIndustries,”HarvardBusinessReview,March13,2014.http://blogs.hbr.org/2014/03/whats-holding-women-back-in-science-and-technology-industries/79BarbaraCrandall,GenderandReligion:TheDarkSideofScripture,2ndedition,BloomsburyAcademic,2012.80BallantineBooks.81NanetteFondas,“Research:MoreThanHalfofTopFemaleExecsWereCollegeAthletes,”HBRBlogNetwork,October9,2014.http://blogs.hbr.org/2014/10/research-more-than-half-of-female-execs-were-college-athletes/82Ibid83RichardA.Robbins,Jr.,“RetentionofRecruitedAthletesfromtheUnitedStatesNavalAcademy,”NavalPostgraduateSchool,2004.http://www.usna.edu/IR/htmls/lead/database/cohort7/c07_robbins.pdf84DarleneIskra,BreakingThroughtheBrassCeiling:EliteMilitaryWomen’sStrategiesforSuccess,UniversityofMarylandCollegePark,p.142.85AlexisSeikert,“Feature–Femalefighterpilotstandsalone,”OsanAirBase,March28,2013.http://www.osan.af.mil/news/features/story.asp?id=12334198086J.Xie,S.Sreenivasan,G.Korniss,W.Zhang,C.Lim,andB.K.Szymanski,“SocialConsensusThroughTheInfluenceofCommittedMinorities,”Phys.Rev.E84,011130,July22,2011.http://journals.aps.org/pre/abstract/10.1103/PhysRevE.84.011130