kalahari meerkat project · • gauge the meerkats’ response and respond accordingly if the...

Kalahari Meerkat Project

Earthwatch Field GuideVersion 1

2007

Copyright: Kalahari Meerkat Project

This guide or parts of it may not be reprinted or published without written permission

© Kalahari Meerkat Project, www.kalahari-meerkats.com 2

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. GENERAL CONVENTIONS AND TECHNIQUES ....................................................................3

1.1. SCHEDULE ...................................................................................................................................... 3

1.2. MEERKAT IDENTIFICATION: The ‘Group Mark’ sheet ...................................................................... 41.2.1. Codes ........................................................................................................................................................................... 41.2.2. Naming meerkats and groups..................................................................................................................................... 41.2.3. Identification of meerkats and dye marks................................................................................................................... 51.2.4. Litter codes................................................................................................................................................................... 61.2.5. Age Categories ............................................................................................................................................................ 61.2.6. Other information on the Group Mark sheet............................................................................................................... 6

1.3. HABITUATION MAINTENANCE PROCEDURES .............................................................................. 61.3.1. Approaching the group ................................................................................................................................................ 61.3.2. Walking with meerkats................................................................................................................................................. 7

2. WALKING WITH MEERKATS ................................................................................................10

3. GPS TRACKING ....................................................................................................................11

3.1. TRACKING SESSIONS USING GPS (Global Positioning System)....................................................11

3.2. TRACKING PROTOCOL..................................................................................................................12

4. FORAGING FOCALS.............................................................................................................14

4.1. OVERVIEW......................................................................................................................................14

4.2. FORAGING FOCAL PROTOCOL.....................................................................................................14

5. DRONGO SCANS..................................................................................................................20

5.1. DRONGO SCAN PROTOCOL..........................................................................................................20

5.2. ADDITIONAL INFORMATION: LOOK FOR RINGS...........................................................................21

6. BIODIVERSITY SURVEYS ....................................................................................................22

6.1. INVERTEBRATE SURVEY ....................................................................................................22

6.2. ECOLOGICAL BIODIVERSITY SURVEY...............................................................................226.2.1. Maintenance of species lists .....................................................................................................................................226.2.2. Transect surveys .......................................................................................................................................................23

7. VANZYLSRUS SCHOOL .......................................................................................................25

APPENDIX I – Meerkat behaviours ...............................................................................................26


1. GENERAL CONVENTIONS AND TECHNIQUESPlease read through the following information in preparation for your stay at the project. It will be

very beneficial if you are comfortable with Meerkat Identification Dye Marks and Habituation.

1.1. SCHEDULE

DAY 1 DAY 2 DAY 3 DAY 4

Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday

AMArrive in Upington; shop;

brunchMeerkats (photos, ID) Meerkats Meerkats

MiddayDrive to Kuruman River

ReserveTalk: Safety briefing Process data & FF intro

Process data &Drongo

PMTalk: Welcome & intro,Walking with Meerkats

Workshop: Behavioural guidelines& GPS

Meerkats Meerkats

Dinner Gannavlakte Rus-en-Vrede Gannavlakte Gannavlakte

Evening OPENTalk: Project history, research

aimsNight drive

Talk & Dinnerguest

DAY 5 DAY 6 DAY 7

Saturday Sunday Monday

AM Meerkats FREEInsect survey - traps

out

Midday Process data Picnic lunch Biodiversity survey

PM Meerkats Game SurveyInsect Survey - check

traps

Dinner Gannavlakte GannavlakteDune sundowners +Gannavlakte dinner

Evening Light traps for insects 2 Dinner guests 2 Dinner guests

DAY 8 DAY 9 DAY 10 DAY 11

Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday

AM MeerkatsBiodiversity survey: Veld

assessmentSchool visit to VZR Meerkats

Midday Process data Process data Process data

PM Meerkats Meerkats Meerkats Meerkats

Dinner Gannavlakte Gannavlakte Gannavlakte Gannavlakte

Evening 2 Dinner guests Talk & Dinner guest 2 Dinner guests 2 Dinner guests

DAY 12 DAY 13 DAY 14

Saturday Sunday Monday

AM Meerkats (GPS & FF) MeerkatsDepart Kuruman River

Reserve 6am!

Midday Process data FREE Arrive Upington

PM Meerkats (GPS, Drongo) FREE

DinnerDune sundowners + Gannavlakte

dinner

EveningBraai @ Gannavlakte

OPEN


1.2. MEERKAT IDENTIFICATION: The ‘Group Mark’ sheet

YOUNG ONES

LITTER D.O.B. Motha!

Who’sthe

daddy? CODE NAME ACTUAL DESCRIPTION TELONICS TRANSPONDER

VY0109 15-23.11.01 VAF005 WILD VYF084 A ASTERIX (D) RC RADIOCOLLAR34 (L)(16g) 2034354B2C

VV9902 25.02.99 VVF001 VYM005 VVM037 BALEXANDER(D) LT 41105D650F

VY0502 02-04.03.05 VYM122 C AURINKOH + RT +

T 45753F5409

VY0502 02-04.03.05 VYF128 D LOTTE RR 455423435AS

VY0504 15.08.2005 VYF084 VYM129 E PHILIPPESH + TB

+ 2T 45545E385A

VY0504 15.08.2005 VYF084 VYM130 FHOMESTARRUNNER

SH + RT+2T 445D0A590C

P

VY0505 16.12.05 VYF084 VYF132 G FOXYMORON TB + MB 457A10590C

VY0505 16.12.05 VYF084 VYF133 HSCRUTNYGIPPO RT + MB 456C685A58

VY0602 01.04.06 VYF112 VYM135 I WEENA RT 457053107F

VY0602 01.04.06 VYF112 VYM136 J BUNGLE LT 45550A4544

D DENOTES DOMINANCE TOTAL MEMBERS: 10 WHEN ALL PRESENT

1.2.1. Codes

Each meerkat is given a unique identity code (e.g. VLF021) at birth, or when it is first identified. It

then retains this code throughout its life.

• the first letter of the code (“V”) stands for “Vanzylsrus”, to differentiate the animals at this

study site from those at the Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park.

• the second (and sometimes third) letter of the code is the initial of the group in which the

animal was born (or where it was first identified) (e.g. L for Lazuli or GG for Gattaca).

• the next letter in the code denotes the animal’s sex (F or M). Pups are given the letter P

until their sex is identifiable.

• the code ends with a three digit number which is simply allocated consecutively (i.e.

VLF021 is the 21st animal to be named in Lazuli group).

1.2.2. Naming meerkats and groups

As well as an identity code, each meerkat is given a personal name (e.g. Dante, Risca, Cazanna,

etc). These names are for day to day use only, and should never be entered into the data


1.2.3. Identification of meerkats and dye marks

All meerkats born into the project’s focal groups are permanently marked with uniquely numbered

transponders (rice-grain sized microchips detectable with a hand scanner), implanted under the

skin at the scruff of the neck. This ensures that the animal’s identity can be ascertained

throughout its life.

For day-to-day visual identification, dabs of black hair dye are applied on a particular part of each

animal’s body (see Figure 1). New litters of pups have their fur cut on particular areas using a set

sequence of marks. The first pup (i.e. the one with the lowest ID number) has the fur on its rump

(or tail-base) cut or dyed, the second pup is marked on its right thigh, the third, its left thigh, and

so on. The standard sequence for pup marks is: TB (tail base), RT (right thigh), LT (left thigh),

RS (right shoulder), LS (left shoulder), MB (mid back), SH (shoulders), RR (right rib), LR

(left rib), T (tail), TBL (tail base long), MBL (mid back line), H (head). When pups get older we

add extra marks to all the littermates such as T (tail), MB (mid-back) or SH (shoulders) to

differentiate between the litters.

Figure 1. Identification dye marks for meerkats

* Please be very familiar with the identification of meerkats, it is the most important skill to develop.


1.2.4. Litter codes

Each litter of pups born into the study population is allocated a standard litter code (e.g.

VMM0401). The first “V” stands for Vanzylsrus, the next letter/s are the group’s initial/s, the

following two digits indicate the year, and the final two-digit number is allocated consecutively as

each litter is born. Hence, VMM0401 was the first litter born into Moomins in 2004.

1.2.5. Age Categories

The Project recognises four age classes for the meerkats

• pups – birth to 3 months

• juveniles – 3 to 6 months

• sub-adults – 6 to 12 months

• adults – over 12 months

1.2.6. Other information on the Group Mark sheet

• Maternity/paternity – established by genetic paternity testing

• Telonics – this is the collar frequency for tracking the group and shows which animal has

the collar on.

• D.O.B. – the date of birth

• Description – any oddities about a specific meerkat are noted down here.

• ‘Please dye’ – a request to put dye mark/s on the meerkat

1.3. HABITUATION MAINTENANCE PROCEDURESThe success of the Meerkat Project results primarily from our ability to collect large quantities of

very detailed and unbiased long-term data on individually recognised individuals. Without

habituation, this is not possible, therefore the maintenance of habituated meerkat groups is one of

the most important things that we (and you) do on a daily basis. Remember that you have the

opportunity to improve the habituation of groups and individuals and that your efforts will ensure

that we remain in the privileged position of being able to collect unbiased data from all individuals

in a group.

1.3.1. Approaching the group

Getting close to the meerkats is crucial. There are a number of steps you must follow on

approaching so that they will allow you to walk with them.


• Always accompany an experienced observer

They will introduce you to habituation techniques and the methods used to ensure that the group

remains calm.

• Approach slowly and calmly

The smoother the better

• Don’t walk directly towards meerkats

Always angle yourself so that you are not walking straight into the group.

• Stay together

When approaching form one group of people in a line, i.e. not fanned out around the meerkats.

Stay in a group when you arrive until the group relaxes to your presence.

• Make your presence known, give recognised “reassurance” calls

Do not try to be stealthy. Predators approach with stealth and we obviously do not want to be

associated or confused with predators. So always make the recognised calls when approaching

and when leaving all meerkat groups, to ensure that the meerkats are aware of you.

• Gauge the meerkats’ response and respond accordingly

If the meerkats are all standing up and watching you approach, stand still. Only approach very

slowly when this is the case.

• Consider context

The meerkats may be alarming at a predator (other than you!); it could be very windy or the group

may have had recently had a significant event, e.g. moving very young pups or fighting with

another group. Always respond to them and remember that groups and individuals vary

greatly in the level of habituation.

1.3.2. Walking with meerkats

1. Regularly give the recognised “reassurance” calls

Regularly make the recognised calls when walking with meerkat groups. This is critical in the long

grassy conditions common on much of the reserve. Everyone must use the calls when working

with groups.

2. Never reinforce a call when the group is unsettled

Do not give them the “relax” call when they are nervous about anything other than a researcher

(e.g. a predator scare).

3. Watch your step!

Meerkats are small and are easily squashed! More commonly, you will scare meerkats that are

foraging or standing if you walk to close. They will happily approach you of their own accord if they


are tolerant of people. Take particular care in the event of a predator alarm. Meerkats will run to

cover, and this may involve running between (or under!) your feet. Stand still until they have

passed.

4. Move slowly

All movement should be controlled - move slowly when you sit down or stand up, or when you pick

up an object such as a bag or scales, etc.

5. Don’t make loud snapping, scraping and rustling noises

Be careful not to tread on twigs or stomp through vegetation. Sound is a major cue that meerkats

use to detect predators so this will frighten them and the more people the more careful we must

be.

6. Take note of where they are and what they are doing

All members in a group must accept you. It is important to know where group members are, and

the way they are responding to any stimuli you give. This ensures that you stop any action that

scares a member in the group immediately! Continuing such an activity will result in damage to the

trust that the habituated animals have in everyone working on the group afterwards, inevitably

damaging our data collection.

7. Cars and burrows

We attempt not to habituate the meerkats to cars and other vehicles. Do not ever park within 100

metres of a meerkat group.

8. Touching meerkats

It is recommended that tactile contact is kept to the minimal required for the maintenance of

habituation and to allow the collection of data. We expect no person to in any way touch or

interfere with anything a meerkat is doing except when you are weighing or a meerkat sitting on

you is causing you pain.

9. Meerkats are more nervous in:

• Long grass

Poor visibility sometimes leads to the meerkats becoming nervous. Allowing them to know where

you are is essential to prevent this from happening. The frequency of contact calling between

meerkats increases in long grass - we are simply adopting this too, and should call more often in

such circumstances.

• Wind

The meerkats do not hear you as well in windy conditions, and are usually more nervous – there

are more raptors flying about, vegetation moving suddenly, etc. Be much more aware of what you

are doing at these times, and try to make sure that they know where you are so that you do not

surprise them when walking around.


10. Improving habituation

While collecting data on an individual, as in a focal: use this opportunity to habituate the individual

to your proximity and calls. This simply involves carefully following the meerkat without disturbing

it in any way. If it looks at you, stops what it is doing or even runs away, then it is not relaxed in

your presence and you will need to be more cautious. Try following from further away and make

sure you and your partner stand together, and move very slowly.


2. WALKING WITH MEERKATS

AIM: The aim of your first day with the meerkats is to get used to being in their company, giving

the habituation call when appropriate, and to get some good photos. However, there are a few

basic things that will be included in your first morning session to prepare you for data collection

later on.

1) Habituation:

• Make the habituation calls regularly

• Watch your step

• Watch your movements

• Watch the meerkats’ response to you

2) Habitat types: Take note of the different habitats you pass through, referring to your guide

when necessary.

3) ID marks: it is VITAL that you are able to identify the meerkats, so spend time using the

Group Mark sheet to identify the various individuals by their dye marks and collars.

4) Distances: you will need to be able to judge small distances in metres along the ground.

Practice this, if necessary, by using your tape measure to check how accurate you are.

5) Foraging: You will be following a specific meerkat observing the type and size of food it

finds. Try to keep your eyes on one meerkat for a short while, observing how it digs for food

and what types of food it finds.

6) Drongos: you will be involved in some data collection dealing with drongos. Ask your

meerkat volunteer to point out when these birds are near the group, and try to observe their

activities.

The meerkat volunteer assigned to that particular meerkat group will try their best to answer any

questions you might have regarding the group and the activities taking place around you. Always

be aware that they also have important data to collect, and therefore might sometimes be

preoccupied with these activities (e.g. weighing, recordings). Please do not be offended if they do

not always respond immediately or if they continue to look at the meerkats rather than you whilst

speaking, or they even run off mid way through the conversation. When in doubt, follow the lead of

your volunteer. Above all, enjoy your first session with the meerkats.


3. GPS TRACKING

3.1. TRACKING SESSIONS USING GPS (Global Positioning System)

AIM: Track meerkat movements to investigate whether they follow foraging routes and what

factors influence group movement

Using your GPS

The short and easy way to take a GPS point, save or access tracks and conquer the world…

1. Taking a GPS point

a. Switch on the GPS unit and wait for a <10m accuracy.

b. Press the ‘PAGE’ button (top right) three times to go to the Menu screen

c. The “Mark” option should be highlighted, if not – highlight it by using the up and

down ‘ARROW’s (top left 2)

d. Press the ‘ENTER’ button once (bottom left)

e. Press the up ‘ARROW’ once to highlight the number in the flag.

f. Press the ‘ENTER’ button once. You can now rename the GPS point by entering the

time in 24h clock (e.g. 0730, 1620 or 1940SB).

g. The first digit of the flag number should be highlighted. Press ‘ENTER’ once to

reveal a dropdown menu.

h. Use the ‘ARROW’ buttons to select the number or letter you need. Press ‘ENTER’

once.

i. Follow steps g & h for all the other letters of the flag number – leaving the ‘-‘ for

empty spaces.

j. Once the last digit has been changed make sure the ‘OK’ sign at the bottom of the

screen is highlighted. Use the ‘ARROW’ keys to highlight the ‘OK’ if it is not. Press

‘ENTER’ once.

k. Press the down ‘ARROW’ key once to highlight the ‘OK’ in the speechbox. Press

‘ENTER’ once. You have now saved a GPS point.

2. Saving tracks and calculating distance travelled:

a. Switch the GPS on if it is off. Wait for <10m accuracy. Go to the Menu screen and

use the down ‘ARROW’ to highlight the ‘tracks’ option. Press the ‘ENTER’ button

once.


b. The ‘save’ option should be highlighted. Press ‘ENTER’ once to reveal a dropdown

menu.

c. Use the ‘ARROW’ keys to select the ‘midnight’ option if this is the end of your

morning session, or the ‘noon’ option if it is the end of the afternoon session. Press

‘ENTER’ once.

d. The ‘OK’ option of the screen should be highlighted. Press ‘ENTER’ once.

e. Use the down ‘ARROW’ to highlight the track named with today’s date. Press the

‘ENTER’ button once. Use the down ‘ARROW’ to highlight the traceback option.

Press the ‘ENTER’ button once.

f. The ‘to begin’ option should be highlighted. Press ‘ENTER’ once. The distance to go

should appear at the top of the screen above the compass.

3. Distance and direction from nearest SB

a. Switch on the GPS and wait for <10m accuracy. Go to the menu screen and use the

down ‘ARROW’ to highlight the ‘Waypoints’ option. Press ‘ENTER’ once.

b. Use the down ‘ARROW’ to highlight the ‘nearest’ option at the bottom of the screen.

‘ENTER’ once. Select the nearest sleeping burrow (SB) by looking for the first option

with a G or an R infront of the number (G = Gannavlakte side of the river, R = Rus

en Vrede side of the river). Highlight this point with the down ‘ARROW’. ‘ENTER’

once.

c. Highlight the ‘Goto’ option and ‘ENTER’ once. The distance to the SB you selected

will appear at the top of the screen above the compass. Take the direction reading

from the compass – e.g. NW and reverse it e.g. SE to obtain the direction that you

are currently from the SB.

3.2. TRACKING PROTOCOL1. Mark the sleeping burrow (AM) or position where you find the group (PM)

Stand near the burrow marker (AM) or in the middle of the group (PM), switch on your GPS, and

wait for accuracy level > 10m. Now store your position as a waypoint in the GPS’s memory. The

point should be named with a four-digit time, using the 24-hour clock (e.g. “0620” for 06:20 or

“1712” for 17:12). In addition, if you are starting the session at the morning sleeping burrow, add

“SB” to the waypoint time (i.e. “0620SB”).


2. Mark 15-min waypoints

Further waypoints should be taken at 15 minute intervals after the initial point of the session.

Position yourself in the centre of the group, and wait for > 10m accuracy. Points should be named

as per the system described above, e.g. “0630”, “0640, “0650” etc.

3. Mark encounters with other meerkat groups (IGI)

If your meerkat group encounters another group during the tracking session, mark a waypoint to

indicate the approximate position of the encounter. As with other waypoints, name this point as a

time-stamp, but this time flag it with “I” (e.g. “1052I”). Your Meerkat volunteer partner will give you

further details of the encounter (e.g. the name of the foreign group encountered), and this

information should be noted down for later incorporation into the trackfile when it is uploaded and

edited back at Gannavlakte.

4. Mark latrines (if seen ) (L)

If more than three meerkats defecate or urinate on the same spot, name this point as a time-

stamp on your GPS and flag it with a L (e.g.” 0938L”). Your meerkat volunteer will need collect the

faeces or urine, the time, number of meerkats using the latrine and the meerkat ID’s.

5. Mark your final position (AM) or sleeping burrow (PM sessions only)

For AM sessions, take your final waypoint just before the commencement of lunch-weights, since

during this final period, the appearance of the scales and boiled egg may artificially affect the

group’s movements! For evening sessions, take your last point as the group arrives at their

evening sleeping burrow, and flag this last point with an “SB” (e.g. “1812SB”).

6. Back at Gannavlakte: Data Entry

a. Connect the GPS and switch on

b. Open ‘Map source’

c. Download saved tracks and waypoints

d. Delete superfluous waypoints and tracks from file

e. Rename any incorrectly labelled waypoints

f. Save the file in the relevant group folder, naming it according to group code, date, am/pm,

observer initials (e.g. CD60301amHB)

g. Clear all tracks and delete waypoints from GPS

h. Reload default waypoints to GPS from ‘EW Farmmap’, then switch off GPS


4. FORAGING FOCALS

4.1. OVERVIEW

Note: a ‘focal’ means observing a specific animal for a specified time.

AIM:

1. Undertake foraging focals to answer a range of questions:

a. Which meerkats are the most efficient foragers?b. How do meerkats develop their ability to find food, and how does this change with

hole depth?c. How does good foraging ability influence individual reproductive strategy?d. How do individuals alter their foraging strategies in response to ability and food

availability?

2. Collect tracking data

3. Observe behaviours

4. Learn Identification marks by doing group compositions

Foraging focals are conducted only on foraging meerkats and cannot be started until at least 50%

of the group is actively foraging. You will need to focal as many as possible of the priority

meerkats from the specified group, so move promptly between your focal meerkats to get a full

sample!

4.2. FORAGING FOCAL PROTOCOL

1. Assign yourself as either ‘Digging Recorder’ or ‘Scribe’

The focal needs two people and you take different roles. You should stay in the same role for

the whole day, but can swap around on other days. This is important for the quality and

comparability of the data.

a. Digging Recorder: Responsible for timing all the digs that the focal animal starts (those

greater than 2 seconds). This will provide the total time spent digging. The recorder will

also need to identify the size of holes, number, size and type of prey items found and

when the meerkat stands up, i.e. is vigilant.

b. Scribe: Responsible for timing the total focal time (15 min) while identifying and writing

down the size of each hole dug in (for greater than 2 seconds) and the size and type of

prey items found. They will also need to tally the number of times the meerkat stands up

on its hind legs


2. Get your equipment ready. (Before you go out to the field check you have everything.)

Both Digging Recorder and Scribe should have a stopwatch. The Scribe should also have a

clipboard with the Foraging Focal Data Sheet.

3. Fill in focal details on datasheet

At the start of a session, please remember to fill in the fields ‘Date’, ‘Observer’, ‘Group’,

‘number of foraging meerkats’, ‘Pup litter code’ and ‘number of helpers’. Then, for each animal

focalled, record its ‘Individual ID’, ‘date of birth’ and ‘sex’ in the boxes provided. This

information is available on your marksheet.

4. Locate your focal animal

You will have specified individual(s) to focal. Remember to double-check the ID of your focal

animal throughout the focal, especially if you temporarily lose sight of it (i.e. by checking the

identification marks). This is extremely important!

Starting and timing the focal

5. Definitions of ‘Digging’ and ‘Foraging’ and how to observe the focal meerkat without

affecting its behaviour

FORAGING: This is defined as ‘searching for food’. The meerkat will be wandering

about scratching and digging at the surface sand. Digging at a bolthole is not

considered foraging. Anything other than searching for food is considered to be non-

foraging behaviour. Meerkats most commonly stop foraging when they are alarming

at a predator, reacting to the sight of another meerkat group, or resting in the shade.

DIGGING: This is defined as when the focal animal starts a dig at a single location

lasting greater than 2 seconds. Usually this involves digging rapidly with both front paws

and chucking sand between its back legs. A dig is complete when the focal meerkat

stops digging and moves > 20cm from the hole. They sometimes dig in the same hole

(for the same food item) from different angles so it is better to lump together multiple

small holes dug very close to each other using the definition described above.

DOING A FOCAL:

From the point you start a focal you must concentrate entirely on the focal animal until

15 minutes have passed. Start both stopwatches for ‘Digging Recorder’ and ‘Scribe’

simultaneously. If the meerkat stops foraging wait until it has begun foraging again


before beginning or continuing a focal. Abort the focal completely if the meerkat stops

foraging for longer than 15 minutes, your recorded data is still good, the focal is just a

little shorter.

HABITUATION AND IDEAL FORAGING DISTANCE:

While following your focal animal, position yourself as close as possible to ensure you

can clearly see what is going on (about 2 metres away), but be careful not to disturb the

animal, thus affecting its behaviour. If the meerkat looks directly at you back off slowly,

you should avoid standing on either side of a meerkat

6. Undertake the focal: ‘Digging Recorder’ and ‘Scribe’ have the following roles

DIGGING RECORDER:

a. To start the focal follow the target individual. When he digs in a hole for greater than

2 seconds start your stopwatch simultaneously with the ‘Scribe’. When the meerkat

stops digging in the hole, stop the stopwatch.

i. New holes are when the meerkat stops digging at one place and moves

>20cm (sometimes they try new angles for the same food items).

b. Keep following the meerkat, whenever it digs in a single location for > 2 seconds re-

start the stopwatch. If it stops digging and moves >20cm then stop the stopwatch.

c. Repeat this until 15 minutes of ‘foraging’ time has passed.

d. While recording the above you should also help the ‘Scribe’ by noting:

i. Hole Size - Size (Small <10cm depth, Medium 10-20cm, Large 20-30cm,

X.large >30cm)

ii. If food is found in a hole:

1. Size (see recording prey item types)

2. Type (see recording prey item types)

3. Number (total number of food items eaten from the same hole. Look

out for quick chews when meerkats eat Ant Larvae (AL)

iii. Any time the focal meerkat stands up on its hind legs (i.e. displaying

vigilance).

SCRIBE:

a. To start focal follow the focal individual. When he digs in a hole for greater than 2

seconds start your stopwatch simultaneously with the ‘Digging recorder’. Record

the start time on the data sheet. Do not stop your stopwatch unless the focal


meerkat stops ‘foraging’ (any food searching behaviour). When the focal meerkat

resumes foraging then you can resume the focal (start the stopwatch again).

b. Whenever the focal meerkat digs in a single location for > 2 seconds you will need to

note the following information on the data sheet, ask for assistance in observing this

from the ‘Digging Recorder’.

iv. Hole Size - Size (Small <10cm depth, Medium 10-20cm, Large 20-30cm,

X.large >30cm). If the dig is unsuccessful, make a line to indicate that nothing

was found in the appropriate box on your sheet. However, if food is found

note the following information in the box for the appropriate hole size:

1. Size (see recording prey item types)

2. Type (see recording prey item types)

3. Number of food items (total number of food items eaten from the same

hole. Look out for quick chews when meerkats eat Ant Larvae (AL)

c. Throughout the focal you will also need to note down any time the focal meerkat

stands up on its hind legs (i.e. displaying vigilance). Tally these in the vigilance box.

d. End the focal when you have observed and recorded meerkat ‘foraging’ for 15

minutes. If the meerkat is engaged in digging a hole then wait until it has finished

before ending the focal. Always record the exact total time the focal lasted, even if

greater or less than 15 minutes.

e. Write down the total time the meerkat was engaged in digging during the focal, this

is obtained from the ‘Digging Recorder’.

f. When you complete your focal of a meerkat, move on to the next meerkat you have

been asked to observe. Your Field Team Leader will specify which individuals have

priority and the order of meerkats which you need to focal may vary.

7. Additional information

At the end of your session remember to obtain the morning and lunch weights, the time the

meerkats left the burrow in the mornings and the time the meerkat was weighed at lunch for all

your focal meerkats.

Term Notes

Individual ID Use your group mark ID sheet to identify the individual based on dye marking, sex and size, andrecord the full identification number. (e.g. “VVM037”), never the name (e.g. “Alexander”),

Group Write down the name of the meerkat group (Elveera, Moomins).

No ofmeerkatsforaging

Count the number of meerkats in the group actively foraging at the start of your focal.


No. ofhelpers

This is all the meerkats in the group excluding those under 6 months (pups and juveniles)

Morning andlunchweights

Enter the morning and lunch weight of the focal animal. Ask your meerkat volunteer or look it up in theweights book.

Timemeerkats leftthe burrow

Note the time that at least half of the group leaves the morning sleeping burrow to start foraging.

Timemeerkatweighed atlunch

The time each meerkat is weighed is very important when taking lunch weight, to enable us tocalculate time specific rate of weight gain. The time your focal animal was weighed at lunch will benoted next to the weight in the weights book.

Focal starttimeTotal focaltime

Recording the time when the focal starts (hh:mm:ss) and the time it ends (hh:mm:ss) gives the totalfocal time. You do not have to record the seconds but try to get as close as you can to a total time of15 min.

Total diggingtime

A foraging hole is classified as follows: the animal uses both its paws, flings sand between its hindlegs, and works at the same hole for more than 2 seconds (you can count the seconds off in yourhead). Consider it as one hole as long as it has not moved more than 20cm from the original diggingpoint. Use a stopwatch to measure the total amount of time spent digging, by starting and pausing thestopwatch at the start and end of each hole. At the end of the 15 min, enter the total time spentdigging from the stopwatch.

If successful,prey code

Prey codes are standardised three-letter codes that indicate the size and type of a prey item (e.g. LLI– large lizard). Size codes and prey type codes are listed below. When the prey item itself isunknown, try to at least record prey size.

8. Recording Prey Item Types

T tiny item: swallowed down immediately, e.g. ants, termites and ant larvae.S small item: item not protruding from mouth at all (1 to 5 chews)M medium item: less than half the item protruding from mouth (5 to 15 chews)L large item: over half the item protruding from mouth (more than 15 chews)X Very large item: 80% of the item protrudes from mouth (e.g. very large lizard or mouse. This is used

rarely for invertebrates with the exception of millipedes.

The last two letters of the food item code refer to the kind of food. See below for a complete list ofthese two-letter codes.

Al Ant Larva/Pupa (Always Tiny)An Ant (Never Larger Than Small)Ai Ant LionBg Barking GeckoBe BeetleVg Bulbs/BerriesBs Burrowing SkinkCa CaterpillarCe CentipedeCo CockroachCr CricketEg Egg (Medium Or Large)Fr FrogLa LarvaLi LizardLo Locust (Can Be Extra Large)Mi MillipedeMo MothPu PupaeRo Rodent


Sc ScorpionSf SilverfishSn SnakeSo SolifugeSp SpiderSt Stick InsectsTe Termite (Always Tiny)To TortoiseGe Unidentified GeckoUnk (or U) Unidentified

The original document contains examples and references of prey items in this place.


5. DRONGO SCANS

AIM: Collect data on meerkat-drongo interactions in order to answer the following questions:

How often do drongos associate with meerkats?

Do they kleptoparasitise meerkats (i.e. behave in a way to deliberately steal a food item from a

meerkat)?

5.1. DRONGO SCAN PROTOCOL1. Please familiarise yourself with the exact difference between a drongo and a glossy

starling before doing any drongo work.

Fork-tailed Drongo Glossy Starling

2. Fill in focal details on datasheet

For each session, fill in ‘Date’, ‘Meerkat Group’, ‘Group Size’, ‘Number of Pups’, ‘Habitat’

and ‘Observer initials’. Habitat type is defined by a three-letter code; the first letter is the

general topography:

a. Flat – between dunes and bottom third of a dune

b. Dune – top two-thirds of a dune

c. Riverbed – any part of the Kuruman river including the banks

The second and third letters are two letter codes describing the type of vegetation in which

the majority of the group is foraging:


• GRass – single-stemmed green/yellow grasses

• SHrub – perennial plant or bush with several woody stems

• TRee - single bark-covered trunk

• FOrbes – small flowering plants, usually annuals, common after rains

• OPen – little or no vegetation

3. Begin scans at 10 or 15-minute intervals (as requested by the Field team leader)

Note the time of the first scan and if any drongos are present. If so, how many? By ‘present’

we mean that the drongo is close enough to the foraging meerkats to have them under

close observation. As a rough guide, this is a maximum of 20 metres from a meerkat.

4. Drongo scans

Continue drongo scans until end of session, recording drongo presence or absence every

10 minutes.

5.2. ADDITIONAL INFORMATION: LOOK FOR RINGSObserve drongo and try to establish if it has rings on its legs. Very few drongos have been

ringed so consider this a pleasant surprise. Record this at the end of the scan sheet.

Ringed drongos to look out for during data collection:

Ring combination Meerkat territoryMXWW Commandos/BalrogYYXM BalrogBBXM BalrogGGXM Commandos/BalrogRXMX BalrogMXRG Commandos/BalrogWWXM WhiskersYRXM WhiskersMXYY WhiskersNote that rings are read from left to right if the bird is facing you, right to left if facing awayfrom you

B = Blue M = MetalW = White Y = Yellow

G = Green R = RedX = Missing ring

e.g. YYXM has 2 yellows on the left and a metal on the right. There is a maximum of two rings oneach leg


6. BIODIVERSITY SURVEYS

6.1. INVERTEBRATE SURVEY

AIM: The purpose of the invertebrate survey on KRR is to set up a comprehensive database of

the invertebrate life on the reserve. This not only forms an important part in the effective

management of any reserve but also yields important information about available food resources

for the meerkats, and how this abundance fluctuates from season to season, and how it differs

between different habitat types.

The aim is to set up a baseline invertebrate dataset by trapping insects with

• Pitfall traps baited with dung, rotting vegetables/fruit and mushrooms

• Sweeping with insect nets

• Light traps et out at night

• Sifting soil for burrowing invertebrates

Collected specimens will be pinned or preserved for subsequent classification. Initially, all

specimens will be roughly grouped into orders with the aid of field guides, after which the data will

be entered into the relevant files for long-term analysis.

6.2. ECOLOGICAL BIODIVERSITY SURVEY

AIM: To take a detailed inventory of what organisms are present in the reserve, and to try to

establish the distribution patterns and relative densities at which they occur. We will approach this

in the following manner:

6.2.1. Maintenance of species listsProvisional species lists for mammals, birds, and plants have been drafted for the KRR. These

incorporate both organisms whose presence here has been verified by reliable observers and

those that we anticipate to find here, based on published distribution data for the species in

question (marked with an asterisk (*) next to the species name.

As an ongoing activity throughout the expedition, Earthwatch volunteers will be encouraged to

contribute to the updating and maintenance of these lists. A range of field guides are available to

assist with species level identification, and project staff will be more than willing to help where

necessary.


6.2.2. Transect surveysOne day of the expedition will be spent conducting a walking survey along set transect routes.

Volunteers will spread themselves out such that each person is 50m from their nearest neighbour.

Then, up to six abreast, the formation will advance at a steady, uniform pace, holding true to the

specified bearing with the aid of GPS / compass.

While these surveys provide good opportunity to spot new species for the species lists, our

principle aim is to record the presence and position of the following features:

• All ungulates

The KRR has reintroduced a number of ungulate species into the reserve. Monitoring of

these species, in terms of both number and group composition, forms an integral part of

reserve management. Any ungulates seen during game drives will be recorded, as well as

age and sex of the animals when possible. This information will supplement data collected

during the biannual age and sex surveys, and will allow management to monitor trends in

ungulate populations.

• All medium to large size burrows (entrance diameter >7cm)

Very many animals in the Kalahari are at least semi-fossorial, i.e. burrowing into the dunes

to escape extremes of temperature. Unfortunately, burrows excavated by different animals

often look alike. Furthermore, burrows excavated by one animal may subsequently be

shared with other animals, or taken over by different species altogether. For these reasons

it is often difficult to know exactly which animals are using which burrows. We will note the

position of any burrows or burrow complexes encountered on the transect, and record any

signs that may shed light on the identification of the burrow builder, its present inhabitants,

and their activity patterns. Damaraland mole rat burrows are of particular interest to the

project and should be recorded according to the guidelines provided on the data sheets.

• Sociable Weaver and White Browed Sparrow Weaver Nests

Sociable weavers are co-operative breeders and therefore of special interest to the project.

Any sociable weaver nests encountered along the transect will be noted. The tree species,

size of nest and presence of pygmy falcons are amongst the points we will be recording.

The white browed sparrow weaver nests will also be recorded along the transect. Not only

will we record species of tree, we will try to distinguish between breeding and sleeping

nests, as well as sexing the individual birds when possible.

• Termite mounds

Ants and termites play a fundamental role in the cycling of nutrients in the veld, but also

provide a critical food source for specialist feeders such as aardvark, aardwolf, pangolin


and a range of other generalist birds, mammals and reptiles. Knowing the distribution of

termite mounds may not only provide information on veld health and functioning, but may

also help to predict distribution patterns, and extent of available habitat, for termite-feeding

species. Of course, while termite mounds are highly conspicuous, ant nests are usually far

more difficult to detect. We will thus only record the position and status of termite mounds

encountered.

• Invasive species

Mesquite or Suidwesdoring (Prosopis glandulosa), and Mexican poppy (Argemone

ochroleuca) are highly invasive alien plants that can have serious negative consequences

on the ecosystems they invade. Mesquite, for instance, easily out-competes most native

trees for what little water the ground holds – and can profoundly alter the vegetative profile

especially in water courses. We will note the position of any Mesquite or Mexican poppy

infestations encountered on the transect, to facilitate their later removal.

6.3. VEGETATION SURVEY

AIM: To take a detailed inventory of what plants are present in the reserve, and to try to establish

the distribution patterns and relative densities at which they occur.

In order to determine stocking rates of mammals on a reserve, it is necessary to know not only

what plant species the area supports, but also the relative frequency of these species and the

overall condition of the veld. Baseline vegetation surveys are therefore essential in providing this

information to management. Monitoring of vegetation is also extremely important. It allows for the

detection of changes in the state of vegetation in response to utilization by mammals. It is

therefore critical to conduct reliable and repeatable vegetation surveys to allow for the monitoring

of vegetation changes on a reserve.

Since the KRR stocks a variety of ungulate species, these surveys are necessary for effective

management. Volunteers will assist management by conducting vegetation surveys in a number

of selected plots on the reserve. Plots measuring 10m x 20m will be marked out, and within these

plots the volunteers will record 200 points, noting amongst other things, plant species encountered

and growth form. KRR staff will be on hand to supervise the sampling and provide interesting

information about the traditional use of some of the plants.


7. VANZYLSRUS SCHOOL

AIM: Aid in environmental education of the children at Vanzylsrus by giving exposure to: foreign

countries and wildlife and the different animals in their own country. Additionally supply the school

with teaching aids such as posters, books and magazines.

1. Morning visit to Vanzylsrus Primary School

VZR school structure

• Foundation phase

Ages 6 – 10

Grades 1-3

• Intermediate phase

Ages 11 - 16

Grades 4 - 6

• Senior phase

Ages 16 – 19

Grades 7 - 8

30-40 children per class

Our task:

• Each EW volunteer introduce themselves and their country of origin – 5 -10min

• Questions

• Competitions, games or other practical interaction or lessons are welcome and

designed as needed.


APPENDIX I – Meerkat behaviours

For your interest and to assist with our data collection we have listed the primary meerkat

behaviours we observe and record. Your meerkat volunteer will point some of these out to you,

but you may need to be patient as they are often rare and happen very quickly.

With all meerkats behaviours it is vital to correctly identify each meerkat or group of meerkats

involved. Please make sure of the ID codes first and foremost, then who was doing what. Double

check the markings with your partner. Remember, inaccurate data damages good data.

To make sure you are as accurate as possible, jot down on paper the markings of animals

involved in a behaviour and which was initiator or recipient (alter as necessary for each question).

1. Grooming

Meerkats all seem to groom each other irrespective of who is who but we hope to investigate these

patterns further. For instance, to see if meerkats prefer to initiate grooming on older partners, and if they

prefer the same sex or the opposite sex as a grooming partner.

Grooming is when one meerkat uses its teeth to groom another meerkat. Sometimes meerkats use this

behaviour when submitting to another meerkat. Look out for which meerkat groomed the other first, and

whether the other meerkat groomed back (even if only for a second).

2. Dominance Assertion

Meerkats have a despotic dominance structure, a single dominant male and female reproduce and

suppress the subordinate males and females in the group. This usually only happens when a subordinate

could breed in the group. The dominant male shows little aggression towards sons (related to all the

females) but lots of aggression towards brothers. The dominant female is primarily aggressive towards

older and bigger females who mate with ‘visiting’ males from other groups.

There are various ways meerkats assert dominance, including:

• Chinning: one meerkat rubs the underside of its chin over the head of another.

• Hip-slams: one meerkat slams its hip against another meerkat.

• Approach/ Attack: one meerkat decisively moves towards another meerkat, or attacks it. The

approached individual can submit or ignore the approach/attack.

Look out for who started the interaction and what they did to the other meerkat. Also see how the other

meerkat responded, i.e. submitted.


3. Submission

Subordinate meerkats often submit to the dominant male and female, usually at times when they are

receiving a great deal of aggression. Submissions to the dominant female are most common by

subordinate females to the dominant female just before she evicts them from the group in the late stages of

her pregnancy.

Submissions are initiated by subordinates in the presence of dominant individuals; they can be very long or

extremely brief and very subtle. Meerkats submit by:

• Drooping head and relaxing body - This is a posture offering no offensive threat. They often

approach by crawling up to the dominant.

• Making submission calls - repeated high-pitched ‘mi-mi-mi-mi-mi-mi-mi’ calls.

• Grooming - they approach making submission calls and begin grooming.

Look out for what the subordinate did and how the dominant responded. The dominant usually ignores it

but sometimes asserts dominance over the subordinate.

4. Dominance Competition

Subordinate or dominant meerkats of the same sex occasionally compete for dominance. It is unclear

whether this resolves any conflict but the behaviour is common between adult competing brothers or

sisters. These are the individuals who typically compete for dominant positions in later life. Another entirely

more aggressive form of dominance competition is when a subordinate male or female competes with the

dominant male or female for the dominant position, or after an old dominant dies. This is extremely rare

and usually results in a bloody fight as seen by the scars on a number of adult meerkats. Look out for the

scars over the left eyes on Yossarian and Zorilla, inflicted by Zaphod and Klientjie respectively.

The most common behaviours displayed when competing for dominance includes:

• Nasal to nasal: two meerkats move towards each other and rub their noses side to side.

• Hip Slamming: two meerkats push and rub their sides against each other.

This behaviour is hard to spot but watch adult brothers or sisters next to each other at bolt holes and try to

identify both protagonists.

5. Scent marking

Information regarding territory ownership, location, sexual state, group size and much more can be left by

scent marking. The primary advantage of this form of communication is that it does not alert predators to

your immediate location and remains in a specific location for long periods enabling information transfer

without risk of contact. The idea that marking your territory scares others away has been rejected in the

vast majority of species.

Marking is used to pass on or collect information regarding territory, dominance and group location. Types

of marking include:


• Anal marking: Rubbing of the anal gland against objects or other meerkats. This is usually

the ground or vegetation, but when on another individual, it is considered assertion of

dominance.

• Rubbing: Rubbing the length of the body alongside or over vegetation, objects or other

meerkats (dominance).

• Chewing: Biting vegetation and shaking of the head whilst biting the vegetation.

• Urination/defecation: When the same place is defecated/urinated on by 3 or more

individuals it is defined as a latrine. It is also useful to note whether the mark is sniffed or

marked over another individual’s mark.

• Frenzy: When an animal undertakes lots of different marks in a very short space of time and

‘scuffs’ at the surface.

6. Raised guard

Raised guarding is one of the main helping behaviours meerkats engage in. The better foragers usually

guard more as the cost of doing so is lower. Listen carefully for the ‘Pip Pip’ sentinel call they emit causing

those in the near vicinity to look for predators less and spend more time foraging.

A meerkat is considered to be on raised guard when it is raised off the ground for more than 10 seconds or

makes the sentinel call.

It is very helpful to point out who is up on guard, especially when they go up and when they go down, as

the meerkat volunteer will need to record all guards!

7. Predator Alarm

Meerkats emit many different alarm calls but they can be categorised into aerial (high pitched ‘Mrrup’,

when they have seen something in the air), terrestrial (rolling mu’ru’ru’ru’ru’ru’ru, seen on land), panic

(hard to describe but it sounds as if someone trod on a meerkat, or maybe that’s how I remember it?) and

mobbing calls (including growling and spitting). These have different levels of urgency depending on how

near a threat is and how dangerous it is. Sometimes they are generally scared and make panic calls at

most things! This is a fascinating form of communication in any species, especially a non-primate.

It is considered a predator alarm when over 50% of the group reacts to the alarm by moving away, going

down into a burrow, looking briefly or watching continuously. This alarm can be given in response to any

threat, including birds, terrestrial animals, researchers, plastic bags etc.

Look out for meerkats dashing to boltholes or standing up suddenly. Check if half the group has done so

and look for the most common response.


8. Digging

Digging is another helping behaviour enabling the maintenance of escape boltholes and sleeping burrows.

The meerkats do not dig them initially but invade those used by other species and maintain them in the

territory. Their sleeping burrows are usually made by ground squirrels.

Meerkat will dig at sleeping burrows or boltholes. This type of digging is defined by a meerkat using both its

paws to move soil between its hind legs. It is commonly seen, especially after alarms or in the morning or

evening.

9. Chattering

Typically meerkats chatter to reject or fend off other meerkats. This is usually seen when males approach

the dominant female and sniff her. It is difficult to ascertain a precise function for the behaviour but it is

apparently fairly rude as the animal chattered at typically moves away.

This is a repetitive, high-pitched ke’ ke’ ke’ ke ‘ke sound, made in relation to various interactions including

play, submission, sex and food competition.

Listen out for it and see what context it is given in, who gave it and who approached who.

10. Pup feeds

One of the most fascinating helping behaviours; group members, typically older than 9 months though

some times younger, find food items and give them to a young pup in the group. This is the primary

helping behaviour and enables meerkats to support numerous entirely dependent mobile young. This has

been the focus of a great deal of research investigating who gives food and which pup do they feed.

A meerkat brings a food item to a pup and drops it in front of the pup who then eats the food item letting off

a high-pitched squeal. There are variations on this theme:

• Feeder eats the food itself rather than giving away the food item (false feed). This

may be because another adult or pup is trying to steal the food.

• The pup loses the food. Sometimes the adult finds it and brings it back.

• The pup rejects the food item.

• The food is manipulated in some way by the helper to make it easier to eat.

Try to note the individuals involved, then the size and type of food item. Sometimes the food does not get

successfully fed as outlined above, so make a note of this.

11. Foraging competition

Meerkats apparently compete for food in poor conditions, but the dominant male and female quite

frequently steal food from other group members. The dominant female does this most often when she is

pregnant or lactating.

Foraging competition occurs over food items or foraging holes. Usually just two competitors are involved,

but sometimes many get involved. The most common forms of competition include:


• Blocking: meerkat places its body between the food item/hole and competitor, or growls at

the competitor.

• Pushing: Similar to blocking but with sustained physical contact between the competing

individuals.

• Fighting: Meerkat bites the other in an attempt to win the food item.

It is important to note what they are competing for and who the winner was, if this was clear (i.e. the one

who succeeded in getting the food item).

12. Pup competition

Pups actively compete for helpers whom they are foraging with. The high levels of aggression are

probably caused by the enormous benefit of early nutrition for the development of subsequent foraging

ability and thus reproductive success.

This is similar to foraging competition, but occurs between two pups and can be for a food item, an adult

helper or space.

Ensure you get the identity of the pups and the ultimate winner. If the fight is over an adult try to record who

this was.

13. Lead calls

It is important that groups have some form of cohesion and/or mechanism of coordination. It is likely that

lead calls enable individuals (typically the dominants) to draw the group together and move.

This can be difficult to see and hear, but occurs when one individual (usually a dominant or elder individual)

tries to lead the group in a specific direction by giving high-pitched rolling calls. Try to get the identity of any

meerkat making lead calls to the group and note whether the group/pups follow.

14. Leave/return

Adult male meerkats (excluding the dominant) often come and go from their own group as they try to mate

with unrelated females in other groups, possibly even a dominant female! In addition, subordinate females

may be evicted from the group by the dominant female and consequently spend their time trying to get

back into the group.

Males typically come and go as they please but note what happens, particularly when they return. Females

are usually chased from the group, and it is obvious when this happens, but keep a close eye out for them

hanging around on the edge of the group.

When evicted or roving meerkats return, pay attention to the group’s reaction. For example, when a

meerkat was evicted: did the group give chase? If so, who lead the group? If a meerkat was returning, was

the meerkat accepted back or chased away again?


15. ‘IGI’ Inter group interactions

Inter group interactions occur wherever two groups encounter each other, typically near territory borders,

as maintaining control of foraging grounds as a safe home range for reproduction is very important for

meerkats. Failure to do so can result in babysitting burrows being attacked by other groups and pups

being killed.

The groups may react in the following fashion

• Flee

• Do a ‘war dance’ (bounce up and down with tail pointing upwards)

• Chase

• Fight (inevitable if neither group backs down or they have been taken by

surprise)

Make sure you are ready! The meerkats sometimes run for as far as a kilometre. We have to stay with

them as much as possible.

kalahari meerkat project · • gauge the meerkats’ response and respond accordingly if the...

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