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Latest news Tenders for Russian submarine fuel removal Nuclear ship takes Olympic flame to North Pole Positive results from space battery work

Nuclear-Powered Ships(Updated January 2014)

Nuclear power is particularly suitable for vessels which need to be at sea for long periodswithout refuelling, or for powerful submarine propulsion.

Some 140 ships are powered by more than 180 small nuclear reactors and more than 12,000reactor years of marine operation has been accumulated.

Most are submarines, but they range from icebreakers to aircraft carriers.

In future, constraints on fossil fuel use in transport may bring marine nuclear propulsion intomore widespread use. So far, exaggerated fears about safety have caused political restrictionon port access.

Work on nuclear marine propulsion started in the 1940s, and the first test reactor started up in USA in 1953. The

first nuclear-powered submarine, USS Nautilus, put to sea in 1955.

This marked the transition of submarines from slow underwater vessels to warships capable of sustaining 20-25

knots submerged for weeks on end. The submarine had come into its own.

Nautilusled to the parallel development of further (Skate-class) submarines, powered by single pressurised water

reactors, and an aircraft carrier, USS Enterprise, powered by eight reactor units in 1960. A cruiser, USS Long

Beach, followed in 1961 and was powered by two of these early units. Remarkably, the Enterpriseremained in

service to the end of 2012.

By 1962 the US Navy had 26 nuclear submarines operational and 30 under construction. Nuclear power had

revolutionised the Navy.

The technology was shared with Britain, while French, Russian and Chinese developments proceeded separately.

After the Skate-class vessels, reactor development proceeded and in the USA a single series of standardised

designs was built by both Westinghouse and GE, one reactor powering each vessel. Rolls Royce built similar

units for Royal Navy submarines and then developed the design further to the PWR-2.

Russia developed both PWR and lead-bismuth cooled reactor designs, the latter not persisting. Eventually four

generations* of submarine PWRs were utilised, the last entering service in 1995 in the Severodvinskclass.

* 1955-66, 1963-92, 1976-2003, 1995 on, according to Bellona.

The largest submarines are the 26,500 tonne (34,000 t submerged) Russian Typhoon-class, powered by twin 190

MWt PWR reactors, though these were superseded by the 24,000 t Oscar-IIclass (eg Kursk) with the same

power plant.

The safety record of the US nuclear navy is excellent, this being attributed to a high level of standardisation in

naval power plants and their maintenance, and the high quality of the Navy's training program. However, early
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Soviet endeavours resulted in a number of serious accidentsfive where the reactor was irreparably damaged,

and more resulting in radiation leaks. There were more than 20 radiation fatalities.* However, by Russias third

generation of marine PWRs in the late 1970s safety and reliability had become a high priority. (Apart from reactor

accidents, fires and accidents have resulted in the loss of two US and about 4 Soviet submarines, another four of

which had fires resulting in loss of life.)

* The K-19 accident at sea in 1961 due to cooling failure in an early PWR resulted in 8 deaths from acute radiation syndrome

(ARS) in repairing it (doses 7.5 to 54 Sv) and possibly more later as well as many high doses. The K-27 accident at sea in 1968

also involved coolant failure, this time in an experimental lead-bismuth cooled reactor, and 9 deaths from ARS as well as high

exposure by other crew. In 1985 the K-431 was being refuelled in Vladivostok when a criticality occurred causing a major steam

explosion which killed 10 workers. Over 200 PBq of fission products was released causing high radiation exposure of about 50

others, including ten with ARS.

Lloyd's Register shows about 200 nuclear reactors at sea, and that some 700 have been used at sea since the

1950s.

Nuclear Naval Fleets

Russia built 248 nuclear submarines and five naval surface vessels (plus 9 icebreakers) powered by 468 reactors

between 1950 and 2003, and was then operating about 60 nuclear naval vessels. (Bellona gives 247 subs with

456 reactors 1958-95.) For operational vessels in 1997, Bellona lists 109 Russian submarines (plus 4 naval

surface ships) and 108 attack submarines (SSN) and 25 ballistic missile ones apart from Russia.

At the end of the Cold War, in 1989, there were over 400 nuclear-powered submarines operational or being built.

At least 300 of these submarines have now been scrapped and some on order cancelled, due to weapons

reduction programs*. Russia and USA had over one hundred each in service, with UK and France less than

twenty each and China six. The total today is understood to be about 120, including new ones commissioned.

Most or all are fuelled by high-enriched uranium (HEU).

* In 2007 Russia had about 40 retired subs from its Pacific fleet alone awaiting scrapping. In November 2008 it was reported that

Russia intended to scrap all decommissioned nuclear submarines by 2012, the total being more than 200 of the 250 built to date. Most

Northern Fleet submarines had been dismantled at Severodvinsk, and most remaining to be scrapped were with the Pacific Fleet.

India launched its first submarine in 2009, the 6000 dwtArihantSSBN, with a single 85 MW PWR fuelled by HEU

driving a 70 MW steam turbine. It is reported to have cost US$ 2.9 billion. The INS Aridaman is under

construction, and several more are planned. India is also leasing an almost-new 7900 dwt (12,770 tonne

submerged) RussianAkula-II class nuclear attack submarine for ten years from 2010, at a cost of US$ 650

million: the INS Chakra, formerly Nerpa. It has a single 190 MWt VM-5/ OK-659B PWR driving a 32 MW steam

turbine and two 2 MWe turbogenerators.

The USA has the main navy with nuclear-powered aircraft carriers, while both it and Russia have had nuclear-

powered cruisers (USA: 9, Russia 4). The USA had built 219 nuclear-powered vessels to mid 2010, and then had

five submarines and an aircraft carrier under construction. All US aircraft carriers and submarines are nuclear-

powered.

The US Navy has accumulated over 6200 reactor-years of accident-free experience involving 526 nuclear reactor

cores over the course of 240 million kilometres, without a single radiological incident, over a period of more than

50 years. It operated 82 nuclear-powered ships (11 aircraft carriers, 71 submarines18 SSBN/SSGN, 53 SSN)

with 103 reactors as of March 2010. In 2013 it had 10 Nimitz-class carriers in service (CVN 68-77), each designed


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for 50-year service life with one mid-life refuelling and complex overhaul of their two A4W Westinghouse reactors.

The forthcoming Gerald Ford-class (CVN 78 on) will have some 800 fewer crew and two more powerful Bechtel

A1B reactors driving four shafts.

The Russian Navy has logged over 6000 nautical reactor-years. It appears to have eight strategic submarines

(SSBN/SSGN) in operation and 13 nuclear-powered attack submarines (SSN), plus some diesel subs. Russia has

announced that it will build eight new nuclear SSBN submarines in its plan to 2015. Its only nuclear-powered

carrier project was cancelled in 1992. It has one nuclear-powered cruiser in operation and three others being

overhauled. In 2012 it announced that its third-generation strategic subs would have extended service lives, from

25 to 35 years.

In 2012 construction of a nuclear-powered deep-sea submersible was announced. This is based on the Oscar-

class naval submarine and is apparently designed for research and rescue missions. It will be built by the

Sevmash shipyard at Severodvinsk, which builds Russian naval submarines.

China has about 12 nuclear-powered submarines (7 SSN, 4-5 SSBN), and in February 2013 China Shipbuilding

Industry Corp received state approval and funding to begin research on core technologies and safety for nuclear-

powered ships, with polar vessels being mentioned but aircraft carriers being considered a more likely purpose for

the new development. Its first nuclear powered submarine was decommissioned in 2013 after almost 40 years

service.

France has a nuclear-powered aircraft carrier and ten nuclear submarines (4 SSBN, 6 Rubis class SSN). The UK

has 12 submarines, all nuclear powered (4 SSBN, 8 SSN).

Civil Vessels

Nuclear propulsion has proven technically and economically essential in the Russian Arctic where operating

conditions are beyond the capability of conventional icebreakers. The power levels required for breaking ice up to

3 metres thick, coupled with refuelling difficulties for other types of vessels, are significant factors. The nuclear

fleet, with six nuclear icebreakers and a nuclear freighter, has increased Arctic navigation from 2 to 10 months per

year, and in the Western Arctic, to year-round.

The icebreaker Leninwas the world's first nuclear-powered surface vessel (20,000 dwt), commissioned in 1959.

It remained in service for 30 years to 1989, being retired due to the hull being worn thin from ice abrasion. It

initially had three 90 MWt OK-150 reactors, but these were badly damaged during refueling in 1965 and 1967. In

1970 they were replaced by two 171 MWt OK-900 reactors providing steam for turbines which generated

electricity to deliver 34 MW at the propellers.

It led to a series of larger icebreakers, the six 23,500 dwtArktika-class, launched from 1975. These powerful

vessels have two 171 MWt OK-900 reactors delivering 54 MW at the propellers and are used in deep Arctic

waters. TheArktikawas the first surface vessel to reach the North Pole, in 1977. Rossija, Sovetskiy

Soyuzand Yamalare in service (launched 1985, 1990, 1992 respectively),

with SibirandArktikadecommissioned in 1992 and 2008. Nominal service life is 25 years, but Atomflot

commissioned a study on Yamal, and confirmed 30-year life for it.

The seventh and largestArktikaclass icebreaker50 Years of Victory (50 Let Pobedy)was built by the Baltic

shipyard at St Petersburg and after delays during construction it entered service in 2007 (twelve years later than

the 50-year anniversary of 1945 it was to commemorate). It is 25,800 dwt, 160 m long and 20m wide, and is


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designed to break through ice up to 2.8 metres thick. Its power is about 53 MW. Its performance in service has

been impressive.

For use in shallow waters such as estuaries and rivers, two shallow-draft Taymyr-class icebreakers of 18,260 dwt

with one reactor delivering 35 MW were built in Finland and then fitted with their nuclear steam supply system in

Russia. TheyTaymyr and Vaygachare built to conform with international safety standards for nuclear vessels

and were launched in 1989 and 1990 respectively. They are expected to operate for at least 30 years.

Tenders were called for building the first of a newLK-60 seriesseries of Russian icebreakers in mid 2012, and

the contract was awarded to Baltijskyi Zavod in St Petersburg. The keel was laid in November 2013. This is to be

dual-draught (10.5m with full ballast tanks, minimum 8.55m at 25,540 t), displacing up to 33,530 t, 173 m long, 34

m wide, and designed to break through 3 m thick ice at up to 2 knots. The wider 33 m beam at waterline is to

match the 70,000 tonne ships it is designed to clear a path for, though a few of these with reinforced hulls are

already using the Northern Sea Route. There is scope for more use: in 2011, 19,000 ships used the Suez Canal

and only about 40 traversed the northern route.

The LK-60 will be powered by two RITM-200 reactors of 175 MWt each using low-enriched fuel (


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The Russian, US, and British navies rely on steam turbine propulsion, the French and Chinese in submarines use

the turbine to generate electricity for propulsion.

Russian ballistic missile submarines as well as all surface ships since the Enterpriseare powered by two reactors.

Other submarines (except some Russian attack subs) are powered by one. A new Russian test-bed submarine is

diesel-powered but has a very small nuclear reactor for auxiliary power.

The RussianAlfa-class submarines had a single liquid metal cooled reactor (LMR) of 155 MWt and using very

highly enriched uranium90% enriched U-Be fuel. These were very fast, but had operational problems in

ensuring that the lead-bismuth coolant did not freeze when the reactor was shut down. The design was

unsuccessful and used in only eight trouble-plagued vessels.

The US Navy's second nuclear submarine had a sodium-cooled power plant (S2G). The USS Seawolf, SSN-575,

operated for nearly two years 1957-58 with this. The intermediate-spectrum reactor raised its incoming coolant

temperature over ten times as much as the Nautilus' water-cooled plant, providing superheated steam, and it

offered an outlet temperature of 454C, compared with the Nautilus 305C. It was highly efficient, but offsetting

this, the plant had serious operational disadvantages. Large electric heaters were required to keep the plant warm

when the reactor was down to avoid the sodium freezing. The biggest problem was that the sodium became

highly radioactive, with a half-life of 15 hours, so that the whole reactor system had to be more heavily shielded

than a water-cooled plant, and the reactor compartment couldnt be entered for many days after shutdown. The

reactor was replaced with a PWR type (S2Wa) similar to Nautilus.

For many years the Los Angeles class submarines formed the backbone of the US SSN (attack) fleet, and 62

were built. They are 6900 dwt submerged, and have a 165 MW GE S6G reactor driving two 26 MW steam

turbines. Refueling interval is 30 years. The US Virginia class SSN submarine has pump-jet propulsion built by

BAE Systems and is powered by a PWR reactor (GE S9G) which does not need refueling for 33 years. They are

about 7900 dwt, and ten were in operation as of late 2013, with more on order.

Unlike PWRs, boiling water reactors (BWRs) circulate water which is radioactive* outside the reactor

compartment, and are also considered too noisy for submarine use.

*Radioactivity in the cooling water flowing through the core is mainly the activation product nitrogen-16, formed by neutron

capture from oxygen. N-16 has a half-life on only 7 seconds but produces high-energy gamma radiation during decay.

Reactor power ranges from 10 MWt (in a prototype) up to 200 MWt in the larger submarines and 300 MWt in

surface ships such as the Kirov-class battle cruisers. The two A4W units in US Nimitz class aircraft carriers are

unofficially quoted at 104 shaft MW each (USS Enterprisehad eight A2W units of 26 shaft MW and was refuelled

three times). The Gerald Ford-class carriers have A1B reactors reported to be 240-300 MW each, but running a

ship which is entirely electrical, including an electromagnetic aircraft launch system. The reactors are two to three

times as powerful as the A4W units in Nimitz-class.

The smallest nuclear submarines are the French Rubis-class attack subs (2600 dwt) in service since 1983, and

these have a 48 MW integrated PWR reactor from Technicatome which is variously reported as needing no

refuelling for 30 years, or requiring refuelling every seven years. The French aircraft carrier Charles de

Gaulle(38,000 dwt), commissioned in 2000, has two K15 integrated PWR units driving 61 MW Alstom turbines

and the system can provide 5 years running at 25 knots before refuelling. The Le Triomphantclass of ballistic

missile submarines (14,335 dwt submergedthe last launched in 2008) uses these K15 naval PWRs of 150 MWt

and 32 shaft MW with pump-jet propulsion. The Barracudaclass (4765 dwt) attack submarines, will have hybrid

propulsion: electric for normal use and pump-jet for higher speeds. Areva TA (formerly Technicatome) will provide


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six reactors apparently of only 50 MWt and based on the K15 for the Barracudasubmarines, the first to be

commissioned in 2017. As noted above, they will use low-enriched fuel.

French integrated PWR system for submarine

(steam generator within reactor pressure vessel)British Vanguardclass ballistic missile submarines (SSBN) of 15,900 dwt submerged have a single PWR2 reactor

with two steam turbines driving a single pump jet of 20.5 MW. New versions of this with "Core H" will require no

refuelling over the life of the vessel*. UK Astuteclass attack subs of 7400 dwt submerged have a modified

(smaller) PWR2 reactor driving two steam turbines and a single pump jet reported as 11.5 MW, and are being

commissioned from 2010. In March 2011 a safety assessment of the PWR2 design was released showing the

need for safety improvement, though they have capacity for passive cooling to effect decay heat removal. The

PWR3 for the Vanguard replacement will be largely a US design.

* Rolls Royce claims that the Core H PWR2 has six times the (undisclosed) power of its original PWR1 and runs four times as long. The

Core H is Rolls Royce's sixth-generation submarine reactor core.

Russia's main submarine power plant is the OK-650 PWR. It uses 20-45% enriched fuel to produce 190 MW. The

19,400 tonne Oscar II-class and 34,000 tonne Typhoon-class (NATO name, Akula-class in Russia) ballistic

missile subs (SSBN) have two of these reactors with steam turbines together delivering 74 MW, and its new

24,000 t Borei-class ballistic missile sub along with Akula-(Russia: Shchuka-class), Mike- and Sierra-class attack

subs (SSN) have a single OK-650 unit powering a 32 MW steam turbine. The Borei-class is the first Russian

design to use pump-jet propulsion. (displacements: submerged). A 5th generation naval reactor is reported to be

a super-critical type (SCWR) with single steam circuit and expected to run 30 years without refuelling. A full -scale

prototype was being tested early in 2013.

Russia's largeArktikaclass icebreakers use two OK-900A (essentially KLT-40) nuclear reactors of 171 MW each

with 241 or 274 fuel assemblies of 45-75% enriched fuel and 3-4 year refuelling interval. They drive steam

turbines and each produces up to 33 MW at the propellers, though overall power is about 54 MW. The

two Tamyrclass icebreakers have a single 171 MW KLT-40 reactor giving 35 MW propulsive

power. Sevmorputuses one 135 MW KLT-40 unit producing 32.5 MW propulsive, and all those use 90% enriched

fuel. (The now-retired Lenin's first OK-150 reactors used 5% enriched fuel but were replaced by OK-900 units with

45-75% enriched fuel.) Most of the Arktika-class vessels have had operating life extensions based on engineering

knowledge built up from experience with Arktika itself. It was originally designed for 100,000 hours of reactor life,

but this was extended first to 150,000 hours, then to 175,000 hours. In practice this equated to a lifespan of eight

extra years of operation on top of the design period of 25. In that time, Arkitka covered more than 1 million

nautical miles.


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For the next LK-60 generation of Russian icebreakers, OKBM Afrikantov is developing a new reactor RITM-200

to replace the current KLT design. Under Project 22220 this is an integral 175 MWt PWR with inherent safety

features and using low-enriched uranium fuel. Refueling is every seven years, over a 40-year li fespan. Two

reactors drive two turbine generators and then three electric motors powering the propellers, producing 60 MW

propulsive power. The first icebreaker to be equipped with these is due to start construction in 2013. For floating

nuclear power plants (FNPP, see below) a single RITM-200 would replace twin KLT-40S (but yield less power).

The KLT-40S is a 4-loop version of the icebreaker reactor for floating nuclear power plants which runs on low-

enriched uranium (


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Between 1967 and 1976 an ex-army US Liberty ship of about 12,000 tonnes built in 1945, the Sturgis(but

renamed SS Green Port) functioned as a Floating Nuclear Power Plant, designation MH-1A, moored on Gatun

Lake, Panama Canal Zone. It had a 45 MWt/ 10 MWe (net) PWR which provided power to the Canal Zone. The

propulsion unit of the original ship was removed and the entire midsection replaced with a 350 t steel containment

vessel and concrete collision barriers. The containment vessel contained not only the reactor unit itself but the

primary and secondary coolant circuits and electrical systems for the reactor.

In the 1970s Westinghouse in alliance with Newport News shipyard developed an Offshore Power Systems

(OPS) concept, with series production envisaged at Jacksonville, Florida. In 1972 two 1210 MWe units were

ordered by utility PSEG for offshore Atlantic City or Brigantine, New Jersey, but the order was cancelled in 1978.

By the time NRC approval was granted in 1982 for building up to 8 plants, there were no customers and

Westinghouse closed down its OPS division. Two blogshereandhereon the NRC web site describe the saga.

Westinghouse and Babcock & Wilcox are reported to be revisiting the concept.

Russia has under construction at St Petersburg the first of a series of floating power plants for their northern and

far eastern territories. Two OKBM KLT-40S reactors derived from those in icebreakers, but with low-enriched fuel

(less than 20% U-235), are mounted on a 21,500 tonne, 144 m long barge. Refuelling interval is 3-4 years on

site, and at the end of a 12-year operating cycle the whole plant is returned to a shipyard for a 2-year overhaul

and storage of used fuel, before being returned to service. See alsoRussia NP paper.

China has a project with SNERDI in Shanghai designing a CAP-FNPP reactor. This is to be 200 MWt and

relatively low-temperature (250C), so only about 40 MWe with two external steam generators and 5-year

refueling

Future prospects

With increasing attention being given to greenhouse gas emissions arising from burning fossil fuels for

international air and marine transport and the excellent safety record of nuclear powered ships, it is quite

conceivable that renewed attention will be given to marine nuclear powered ships, it is likely that there will be

renewed interest in marine nuclear propulsion. The world's merchant shipping is reported to have a total power

capacity of 410 GWt, about one third that of world nuclear power plants.

The head of the large Chinese shipping company Cosco suggested in December 2009 that container ships

should be powered by nuclear reactors in order to reduce greenhouse gas emissions from shipping. He said that

Cosco was in talks with China's nuclear authority to develop nuclear powered freight vessels. However, in 2011

Cosco aborted the study after three years, following the Fukushima accident.

In 2010 Babcock International's marine division completed a study on developing a nuclear-powered LNG tanker

(which requires considerable auxiliary power as well as propulsion). The study indicated that particular routes and

cargoes lent themselves well to the nuclear propulsion option, and that technological advances in reactor design

and manufacture had made the option more appealing.

In November 2010 the British Maritime classification society Lloyd's Register embarked upon a two-year study

with US-based Hyperion Power Generation, British vessel designer BMT Group, and Greek ship operator

Enterprises Shipping and Trading SA "to investigate the practical maritime applications for small modular

reactors. The research is intended to produce a concept tanker-ship design," based on a 70 MWt reactor such as

Hyperion's. Hyperion has a three-year contract with the other parties in the consortium, which plans to have the

tanker design certified in as many countries as possible. The project includes research on a comprehensive
http://public-blog.nrc-gateway.gov/2013/09/26/waves-of-uncertainty-the-demise-of-the-floating-reactor-concept-part-i-2/http://public-blog.nrc-gateway.gov/2013/09/26/waves-of-uncertainty-the-demise-of-the-floating-reactor-concept-part-i-2/http://public-blog.nrc-gateway.gov/2013/09/26/waves-of-uncertainty-the-demise-of-the-floating-reactor-concept-part-ii/http://public-blog.nrc-gateway.gov/2013/09/26/waves-of-uncertainty-the-demise-of-the-floating-reactor-concept-part-ii/http://public-blog.nrc-gateway.gov/2013/09/26/waves-of-uncertainty-the-demise-of-the-floating-reactor-concept-part-ii/http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/Country-Profiles/Countries-O-S/Russia--Nuclear-Power/#.Ugs12VM6RG5http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/Country-Profiles/Countries-O-S/Russia--Nuclear-Power/#.Ugs12VM6RG5http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/Country-Profiles/Countries-O-S/Russia--Nuclear-Power/#.Ugs12VM6RG5http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/Country-Profiles/Countries-O-S/Russia--Nuclear-Power/#.Ugs12VM6RG5http://public-blog.nrc-gateway.gov/2013/09/26/waves-of-uncertainty-the-demise-of-the-floating-reactor-concept-part-ii/http://public-blog.nrc-gateway.gov/2013/09/26/waves-of-uncertainty-the-demise-of-the-floating-reactor-concept-part-i-2/


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regulatory framework led by the International Maritime Organisation (IMO), and supported by the International

Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) and regulators in countries involved. In response to its members' interest in nuclear

propulsion Lloyd's Register has recently rewritten its 'rules' for nuclear ships, which concern the integration of a

reactor certified by a land-based regulator with the rest of the ship. Nuclear ships are currently the responsibility of

their own countries, but none are involved in international trade. Lloyds expects to "see nuclear ships on specific

trade routes sooner than many people currently anticipate."

The UN's IMO adopted a code of safety for nuclear merchant ships, Resolution A.491(XII), in 1981, which is still

extant and could be updated. Also Lloyd's Register has maintained a set of provisional rules for nuclear-propelled

merchant ships, which it has recently revised.

Apart from naval use, where frequency of refueling is a major consideration, nuclear power seems most

immediately promising for the following:

Large bulk carriers that go back and forth constantly on few routes between dedicated ports egChina to South America and NW Australia. They could be powered by a reactor delivering 100 MWthrust.

Cruise liners, which have demand curves like a small town. A 70 MWe unit could give base-load andcharge batteries, with a smaller diesel unit supplying the peaks.

Nuclear tugs, to take conventional ships across oceans

Some kinds of bulk shipping, where speed is essential.

Sources:

Jane's Fighting Ships,1999-2000 edition;

J Simpson 1995, Nuclear Power from Underseas to Outer Space, American Nuclear Society

The Safety of Nuclear Powered Ships, 1992 Report of NZ Special Committee on Nuclear Propulsion

Bellona 1996, The Russian Northern Fleetand Civil Nuclear Powered Vessels(on web)

Bellona: http://www.bellona.org/subjects/Russian_nuclear_naval_vessels

http://spb.org.ru/bellona/ehome/russia/nfl/nfl2-1.htm

http://spb.org.ru/bellona/ehome/russia/nfl/nfla.htm

Rawool-Sullivan et al 2002, Technical and proliferation-related aspects of the dismantlement of Russian Alfa-

class submarines, Nonproliferation Review, Spring 2002.

Thompson, C 2003, Recovering the Kursk, Nuclear Engineering Int'l, Dec 2003.

Mitenkov F.M. et al 2003, Prospects for using nuclear power systems in commercial ships in Northern

Russia,Atomic Energy94, 4.

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The Cost-Effectiveness of Nuclear Power for Navy Surface ShipsIn recent years, the Congress has shown interest in powering some of the Navy's future destroyers andamphibious warfare ships with nuclear rather than conventional (petroleum-based) fuel. In this study, CBOestimated the difference in life-cycle costs (the total costs incurred for a ship, from acquisition throughoperations to disposal) between powering those new surface ships with nuclear reactors and equipping themwith conventional engines.

The U.S. Navy plans to build a number of new surface ships in the coming decades, according to its mostrecent 30-year shipbuilding plan. All of the Navy's aircraft carriers (and submarines) are powered by nuclearreactors; its other surface combatants are powered by engines that use conventional petroleum-based fuels.The Navy could save money on fuel in the future by purchasing additional nuclear-powered ships rather thanconventionally powered ships. Those savings in fuel costs, however, would be offset by the additional up -frontcosts required for the procurement of nuclear-powered ships.

To assess the relative costs of using nuclear versus conventional propulsion for ships other than carriers andsubmarines, CBO developed a hypothetical future fleet, based on the Navy's shipbuilding plan, of newdestroyers and amphibious warfare ships that are candidates for nuclear propulsion systems. Specifically, CBOchose for its analysis the Navy's planned new version of the DDG-51 destroyer and its replacement, theDDG(X); the LH(X) amphibious assault ship; and the LSD(X) amphibious dock landing ship. CBO thenestimated the life-cycle costs for each ship in that fleetthat is, the costs over the ship's entire 40-year servicelife, beginning with its acquisition and progressing through the annual expenditures over 40 years for its fuel,personnel, and other operations and support and, finally, i ts disposal. CBO compared lifecycle costs under twoalternative versions of the fleet: Each version comprised the same number of ships of each class but differed inwhether the ships were powered by conventional systems that used petroleum-based fuels or by nuclearreactors.

Estimates of the relative costs of using nuclear power versus conventional fuels for ships depend in large parton the projected path of oil prices, which determine how much the Navy must pay for fuel in the future. Theinitial costs for building and fueling a nuclear-powered ship are greater than those for building a conventionallypowered ship. However, once the Navy has acquired a nuclear ship, it incurs no further costs for fuel. If oilprices rose substantially in the future, the estimated savings in fuel costs from using nuclear power over aship's lifetime could offset the higher initial costs to procure the ship. In recent years, oil prices have shownconsiderable volatility; for example, the average price of all crude oil delivered to U.S. refiners peaked at about$130 per barrel in June and July 2008, then declined substantially, and has risen significantly again, to morethan $100 per barrel in March of this year.

CBO regularly projects oil prices for 10-year periods as part of the macroeconomic forecast that underlies thebaseline budget projections that the agency publishes each year. In its January 2011 macroeconomicprojections, CBO estimated that oil prices would average $86 per barrel in 2011 and over the next decadewould grow at an average rate of about 1 percentage point per year above the rate of general inflation, reaching$95 per barrel (in 2011 dollars) by 2021. After 2021, CBO assumes, the price will continue to grow at a rate of 1percentage point above inflation, reaching $114 per barrel (in 2011 dollars) by 2040. If oil prices followed thattrajectory, total life-cycle costs for a nuclear fleet would be 19 percent higher than those for a conventional fleet,in CBO's estimation. Specifically, total life-cycle costs would be 19 percent higher for a fleet of nucleardestroyers, 4 percent higher for a fleet of nuclear LH(X) amphibious assault ships, and 33 percent higher for afleet of nuclear LSD(X) amphibious dock landing ships.

To determine how sensitive those findings are to the trajectory of oil prices, CBO also examined a case inwhich oil prices start from a value of $86 per barrel in 2011 and then rise at a rate higher than the real (inflation-adjusted) growth of 1 percent in CBO's baseline trajectory. That analysis suggested that a fleet of nuclear-powered destroyers would become cost-effective if the real annual rate of growth of oil prices exceeded 3.4percentwhich implies oil prices of $223 or more per barrel (in 2011 dollars) in 2040. Similarly, a fleet ofnuclear LH(X) amphibious assault ships would become cost-effective if oil prices grew at a real annual rate of1.7 percent, implying a price of $140 per barrel of oil in 2040about the same price that was reached in 2008but not sustained for any length of time. A fleet of nuclear LSD(X) amphibious dock landing ships wouldbecome cost-effective at a real annual growth rate of 4.7 percent, or a price in 2040 of $323 per barrel.

The amount of energy used by new surface shipsparticularly those, such as destroyers, that require largeamounts of energy for purposes other than propulsioncould also be substantially higher or lower thanprojected. Employing an approach similar to that used to assess sensitivity to oil prices, CBO estimated thatproviding destroyers with nuclear reactors would become cost-effective only if energy use more than doubled

for the entire fleet of destroyers.


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The use of nuclear power has potential advantages besides savings on the cost of fuel. For example, the Navywould be less vulnerable to disruptions in the supply of oil: The alternative nuclear fleet would use about 5million barrels of oil less per year, reducing the Navy's current annual consumption of petroleum-based fuels foraircraft and ships by about 15 percent. The use of nuclear power also has some potential disadvantages,including the concerns about proliferating nuclear material that would arise if the Navy had more ships withhighly enriched uranium deployed overseas. CBO, however, did not attempt to quantify those other advantagesand disadvantages.

Nuclear Propulsion System for Ships using Small Nuclear Power Plants

written by: Zaid Aysen edited by: Lamar Stonecypher updated: 7/10/2011

Have you ever wondered how a nuclear powered ship works? How is this nuclear energy created? What happens internally?

Read further as I attempt to explain the process of nuclear propulsion within a ship

Nuclear Powered Ships Explained

Nuclear powered ships are becoming increasingly popular in advancing ship technology. Previous drawbacks for using

nuclear power centered mainly around the inherent safety concerns for the crew; installation, maintenance and disposal costs

and the exceptionally high standards required for component manufacturing and quality assurance. These hurdles are slowly

being overcome as more funds are being allocated to social security and defense worldwide and as a greater demand is being

placed on sustained performance efficiency in naval ships.

Another important factor that has spurred on the continuous research of nuclear power generation within ships is the erratic

cost of combustible fuels. A ship, being a fairly large means of transportation, requires adequate means of forward

propulsion. In many ships throughout the world, combustible fuel is the primary means of thrust. Finding ways to combat the

reliance on combustible fuel is where the importance of nuclear propulsion comes in. The adverse effects of burnt fuel being

dispelled into the ocean are also a concerning factor for green and maritime-life rights activists.

Of course this does not mean to say that nuclear ships were not around in the earlier days. Shown below is the picture of a

nuclear ship which was taken nearly four decades ago that shows a ship named "Otto Hahn," which was a German nuclear

powered ship.

Thorium Replaces Uranium

energyandcapital.com/Uranium

Nuclear Meltdowns Will Be History Smart Investors Will Get In Now

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How does a Nuclear Power Plant on Ship Work?

A large motivating factor in nuclear power generation is the concept of re-usable energy prompting an almost self-sustainingsystem.
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The energy generating house or propulsion plant of a nuclear powered ship utilizes a nuclear reactor to generate heat. The

heat is generated within the nuclear reactor as a result of the fissioning of the nuclear fuel. Lead shields are placed around the

reactor as a preventive measure against the radiation produced from the fissioning process.

The nuclear propulsion plant operates as a pressurized water reactor design containing both a primary and secondary system.

Primary system:This is where water is circulated through the reactor, piping loops, pumps and steam generators. As the heattransferred from the reactor to the water is done at such a high pressure, it does not boil. Instead, the water is pumped from

the steam generator back to the reactor for re-heating.

Secondar y system:Steam which is produced at the steam generators supply the energy required to drive the turbine

generators. The turbine generators then cause the propeller to rotate thereby causing thrust and a forward motion to the ship.

Turbine generators are also utilized in supplying the ship with electricity. Once the steam has passed through the turbines, it

is cooled and condensed into water and then fed back to the steam generators by the feed pumps.

As can be noted, both the primary and secondary systems involve the recirculation and renewal of water.

It should also be noted that these processes take place in a completely closed system. This ensures the safety of the onboard

workers as well as any potential expulsion of radiated nuclear energy to nearby components and parts of the ship.

A Typical Nuclear Ship Arrangement

The above mentioned theory is generic in nature and good enough to give you a broad idea what a nuclear powered ship

consists of. In this section we will take a look at a specific arrangement of a nuclear ship with the help of a diagram. As you

can see in the picture below the diagram is fairly self explanatory and the nuclear components are shown on the left hand side

of the diagram and the steam generation system which ultimately drives the propeller shaft on the right hand side.

The nuclear reactor produces heat which is used to generate steam and that steam in turn in used to provide motive power for

turbines. Of course this arrangement might vary in different kinds of ships but is good enough to explain the overall idea.

Independence

The functionality of the propulsion plant does not require oxygen, thereby allowing the ship to operate independently from

any external atmospheric requirements. Ship maneuvering and continuously changing operating performance requirements

dictate highly irregular power demands. As can be imagined, the quality, strength, and reliability of component parts are of

crucial importance to ensure sustained durability under such harsh conditions. One should bear in mind that the internals of a

nuclear reactor remain inaccessible for inspection or replacement for an extensive period of time. One therefore understands

the rigorous engineering safety checks and stress situations that need to take place before a nuclear power generation plant on

a ship is approved for maritime use.

Reference

Image of Nuclear Ship Arrangement- Federation of American Scientist
http://img.bhs4.com/ED/B/EDBC5B0A13BD26542B9A659B5E4C4FD9DE6E0823_large.jpg


14/20

Solar Energy on shipsinShare

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The world faces a challenge on energy. Energy resources are getting scarcer; fossil fuels pollute local and global

environments and the public demands environmentally friendly shipping of their goods. Imtech Marine understands

these issues and is making technology available to overcome these problems. Three simple principles can be used tobecome more environmentally friendly. Firstly, dont use energy if you dont need it. Slow steaming is a good example of

this, arriving Just-in-Time in harbors. Secondly, increase the efficiency of energy conversions. You can have classical

light bulbs, CFLs or even with LEDs. And thirdly, reduce the use of fossil fuels. The sun is an inexhaustible energy

source, so why not use it.

The earth receives an abundant amount of energy from the sun. All life on the planet is possible because of this clean

energy source. Ships also can benefit from the sun. The deck of a ship is always outside in the sun. With a deck area of

more than 9000 square meters for a Panamax sized ship, a lot of energy can be harvested for free. With increasing PV-

panel efficiency and decreasing cost due to mass production, solar energy can be beneficial next to existing ways to

produce electrical energy. There are of course some challenges to overcome before integrating solar energy on a ship,

but the maritime industry is driven by innovation to come with clever solution.

To introduce solar energy to the ship we need to convert the solar energy to electrical energy. Electrical energy we can

use and transport throughout the ship. Photo-voltaic cells convert solar into electrical energy. An inverter is needed to

convert the Direct Current (DC) to an Alternating Current (AC), so the 50 or 60 Hz electric grid can transport the

electrical energy through the ship. These energy conversions reduce the efficiency of the whole chain. Imtech Marine is

developing a new way to transport electrical energy through the ship, a Plug-and-play DC grid. With a DC grid in a

diesel-electric propulsion system less energy conversions are needed, there is no need for bulky transformers. It is plug-

and-play, if you decide PV-panels are still too expensive today, you can decide to buy them later and with no extra effort

connect them to the DC grid at any time.

A ship already sailing solely on solar energy is the Planet Solar. With its 500 square meters of solar panels and large Li-

ion battery, it is accomplishing a journey around the world. Started in 2010 from Monaco and visiting Miami, Cancun,

Brisbane, Hong Kong, Shanghai, Singapore, they now arrived in Abu Dhabi. The project is promoting renewable energyand solar energy around the world. Imtech Marine has contributed as technology partner for this one of a kind pioneering

ship.

To face the challenges of today world, small steps need to be made. Using solar energy to contribute to the total energy

supply on a ship is a smart beginning of an environmentally friendly ship. With the proven technology of plug-and-play

DC grids on ships the option to delay the purchase of PV-panels is available. The use of solar energy to propel a ship

around the world is proven, when are you going to make use of this free and abundant energy source?

Competence Center Green ShipsinShareShare0

Stephan Claussen, Head of Competence Centre Green Ship at Imtech Marine, goes into detail explaining the new

Competence Centre and its customer benefits.

Sustainable and green solutions are a major focus of Imtech Marine and addressing these issues is a key part of the

Imtech Groups strategy. Recently, Imtech Marine has established the Competence Centre Green Ships.

Stephan Claussen, who is heading up the new Competence Centre, comments: We opened the new facility to meet the

rising demand for green solutions. We want to support our customers in enabling them to become more energy-efficient,

so they can reduce costs and emissions. But uniquely in the market Imtech Marine is taking a holistic approach

considering the complete green ship, including automation, electrical systems, communication and navigation, HVAC,shore connections, lightingthe vessel in its entirety.
mailto:?body=Hello%2c%0aI%20found%20this%20page%20on%20the%20Imtech%20website%20that%20I%20think%20you%20might%20find%20interesting%3a%0ahttp%3a%2f%2fimtech.com%2fEN%2fMarine%2fImtech-Marine-Campaign%2fGreen-Solutions%2fGreen-Shipping-Solar-Energy-on-ships.html&subject=Solar%20Energy%20on%20ships%20at%20the%20Imtech%20sitemailto:?body=Hello%2c%0aI%20found%20this%20page%20on%20the%20Imtech%20website%20that%20I%20think%20you%20might%20find%20interesting%3a%0ahttp%3a%2f%2fimtech.com%2fEN%2fMarine%2fImtech-Marine-Campaign%2fGreen-Solutions%2fGreen-Shipping-Solar-Energy-on-ships.html&subject=Solar%20Energy%20on%20ships%20at%20the%20Imtech%20sitemailto:?body=Hello%2c%0aI%20found%20this%20page%20on%20the%20Imtech%20website%20that%20I%20think%20you%20might%20find%20interesting%3a%0ahttp%3a%2f%2fimtech.com%2fEN%2fMarine%2fImtech-Marine-Campaign%2fGreen-Solutions%2fGreen-Shipping-Solar-Energy-on-ships.html&subject=Solar%20Energy%20on%20ships%20at%20the%20Imtech%20sitemailto:?body=Hello%2c%0aI%20found%20this%20page%20on%20the%20Imtech%20website%20that%20I%20think%20you%20might%20find%20interesting%3a%0ahttp%3a%2f%2fimtech.com%2fEN%2fMarine%2fImtech-Marine-Campaign%2fGreen-Solutions%2fCompetence-Center-Green-Ships.html&subject=Competence%20Center%20Green%20Ships%20at%20the%20Imtech%20sitemailto:?body=Hello%2c%0aI%20found%20this%20page%20on%20the%20Imtech%20website%20that%20I%20think%20you%20might%20find%20interesting%3a%0ahttp%3a%2f%2fimtech.com%2fEN%2fMarine%2fImtech-Marine-Campaign%2fGreen-Solutions%2fCompetence-Center-Green-Ships.html&subject=Competence%20Center%20Green%20Ships%20at%20the%20Imtech%20sitemailto:?body=Hello%2c%0aI%20found%20this%20page%20on%20the%20Imtech%20website%20that%20I%20think%20you%20might%20find%20interesting%3a%0ahttp%3a%2f%2fimtech.com%2fEN%2fMarine%2fImtech-Marine-Campaign%2fGreen-Solutions%2fCompetence-Center-Green-Ships.html&subject=Competence%20Center%20Green%20Ships%20at%20the%20Imtech%20sitemailto:?body=Hello%2c%0aI%20found%20this%20page%20on%20the%20Imtech%20website%20that%20I%20think%20you%20might%20find%20interesting%3a%0ahttp%3a%2f%2fimtech.com%2fEN%2fMarine%2fImtech-Marine-Campaign%2fGreen-Solutions%2fCompetence-Center-Green-Ships.html&subject=Competence%20Center%20Green%20Ships%20at%20the%20Imtech%20sitemailto:?body=Hello%2c%0aI%20found%20this%20page%20on%20the%20Imtech%20website%20that%20I%20think%20you%20might%20find%20interesting%3a%0ahttp%3a%2f%2fimtech.com%2fEN%2fMarine%2fImtech-Marine-Campaign%2fGreen-Solutions%2fGreen-Shipping-Solar-Energy-on-ships.html&subject=Solar%20Energy%20on%20ships%20at%20the%20Imtech%20site


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Holistic Green approachTaking Imtech Marines holistic approach, the figures speak for themselves. Mr Claussen says Imtech Marine has

calculated that savings of up to 60% can be made in electrical energy, depending on the type of the ship, the size of the

ship and the applied energy saving solution. And using Imtech Marines Green Solutions, emissions can be cut by up to

50%.

Although there may be a slightly higher initial investment in the vessel due to the smart technology involved, he adds

that these systems are more efficient offering enhanced reliability, improved maintenance and will lead to lower lifecycle

costs overall.

Savings of up to E1 million a yearSome solutions mean that customers will get a return on their investment within two years and owners can save

anything from a few thousand Euro to a staggering E1 million a year, Stephan Claussen points out. Any cost reductions

in these challenging times are welcome news for shipowners and these are proven savings.

Imtech Marine has been involved in many sustainable projects over the years and many of its green initiatives will be

showcased at SMM 2012.

Rainbow Warrior IIIA few that are worth highlighting here include the Rainbow Warrior III, Greenpeaces new flagship, where Imtech Marine

supplied the green technology infrastructure. Imtech handled the engineering and the energy-efficient electrical

propulsion, which will only be used when there is not enough wind to sail. It also installed an intelligent energy

distribution system. The smart integration of all electrical and electronic systems on board generates significant energy

savings.

PlanetSolarImtech Marine was responsible for the engineering, integration and installation of the complete electrical distribution

system on board the pioneering solar energy vessel PlanetSolar. On board this ship 537m of photovoltaic panels

convert sunlight directly into electricity and this vessel is the biggest in the world to be entirely powered by solar energy.

Celebrity CruisesOn cruise ships HVAC systems are the second heaviest energy consumer on board. Imtech Marine has been busy

tackling this issue and successfully came up with a highly efficient solution for the HVAC technology on board Celebrity

Cruises Solstice. Even though the new luxury liner is 35% larger than its predecessors Celebrity Cruises had the strict

requirement that it should not consume any more energy. Eventually Imtech was able to reduce the energy consumed

by the air-conditioning system by 35%.

CMALworlds first diesel electric, hybrid seagoing ferriesImtech Marine has been awarded a contract to supply the hybrid propulsion systemconsisting of diesel electric in

combination with battery technologyto the worlds firstdiesel electric, hybrid seagoing ferries, which are owned byScottish company Caledonian Maritime Assets Limited (CMAL). The energy sources (generators and batteries) will be

managed in such a way that at the end of the day the batteries are empty. With a total capacity of 700 kWh, the batteries

will be charged overnight by wind energy, reducing fuel and CO2 emissions by at least 20%.

Solid oxide fuel cells projectIn addition, Imtech Marine is involved in a truly futuristic joint industry project SchIBZ aiming to operate solid oxide fuel

cells on board of ships to provide electrical energy. Solid oxide fuel cells offer high efficiency of 50% to 60%.

Lifecycle ManagementAlongside its holistic approach, a strategic pillar of Imtech Marine is its focus on Lifecycle Management.

Johan de Jong, Imtech Marine Manager Electrical Systems, says the company helps improve maintenance efficiency,which in turn reduces costs and leads to a more sustainable operation. A lithium battery is much more energy efficient

and a greener solution but if it is not treated right it wont last as long, he points out. We have energy management


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large ship, 1000 tonnes or more of bunker fuel could be saved a year by using the Aquarius MRE System. This meansthat using renewable energy on ships is not only good for the environment but also good for business.

The power of the wind & sun is harnessed via EMP's own rigid sail technology called theEnergySail.This unique unitcan incorporate a number of renewable energy technologies and can be installed on wide variety of ships.TheEnergySail can be used alone or as part of an array and positioned automatically by a computer control system.

The Aquarius MRE Systemwill offer ship owners and operators an attractive return on investment (ROI) which

combined with the environmentall benefits, will help this technology gain widespread acceptance across the maritime

industry.

Please note:Aquarius MRE System& EnergySailare trademarks of Eco Marine Power Co. Ltd.

See also:Aquarius Wind and Solar Marine Power System Solar Ferry Concept

Wind and Solar Marine Power

Renewable Energy Solutions for Low Emission Shipping

From small powered pleasure craft and ferries to large super-tankers, the limitless energy of the wind and sun can beused in order to help power ships thereby reducing fuel consumption, the emission of greenhouse gases (GHGs) andnoxious exhaust emissions.

Using a variety ofTechnologiesincluding theAquarius MRE System,Eco Marine Power is working with ship owners,boat operators, shipping lines, technology providers and naval architects on solutions for new or existing vessels that willhelp these ships take advantage of the latest technology from around the world to harness the power of renewableenergy.

Eco-friendly solutions can be developed that use mainlysolar power only or more advanced eco-marine power systems are available that use state-of-the-art hybrid marinepower technology and EMP'sEnergySailtechnology.

Some ideal applications for the use of wind and solar power include cruise boats, tourist catamarans, fishing vessels,

work boats, survey ships, oil tankers, cargo ships, patrol vessels and passenger ferries.

Not only do the renewable energy systems developed by EMP reduce fuel consumption but they can also effectivelyincrease the operating range of vessels - ideal for coatsguard, research and survey ships for example.

On a larger scale, the Aquarius MRE Systemwhich is currently being developed, will be suitable for use on coastalships and large vessels such as bulk ore carriers and oil tankers. However future variations of the system will be suitablefor smaller ships.

Eco Marine Power (EMP) aims to have this system ready for commercial service by 2015 and is working withdevelopment partners located in several countries to turn this vision into a reality.

The Aquarius MRE Systemand other technologies being developed by EMP will help drive shipping towards a greener

future and contribute to the global reduction of harmful gas emissions from the world's shipping fleets. Eco MarinePower's technologies will play an important role in assisting shipyards meet energy efficiency design index (EEDI)requirements and ship owners comply with MARPOL regulations.
http://www.ecomarinepower.com/en/energysailhttp://www.ecomarinepower.com/en/energysailhttp://www.ecomarinepower.com/en/energysailhttp://www.ecomarinepower.com/en/aquarius-systemhttp://www.ecomarinepower.com/en/aquarius-systemhttp://www.ecomarinepower.com/en/aquarius-systemhttp://www.ecomarinepower.com/en/component/content/38http://www.ecomarinepower.com/en/component/content/38http://www.ecomarinepower.com/en/technologieshttp://www.ecomarinepower.com/en/technologieshttp://www.ecomarinepower.com/en/technologieshttp://www.ecomarinepower.com/en/aquarius-systemhttp://www.ecomarinepower.com/en/aquarius-systemhttp://www.ecomarinepower.com/en/aquarius-systemhttp://www.ecomarinepower.com/en/energysailhttp://www.ecomarinepower.com/en/energysailhttp://www.ecomarinepower.com/en/energysailhttp://www.ecomarinepower.com/en/aquarius-systemhttp://www.ecomarinepower.com/en/energysailhttp://www.ecomarinepower.com/en/aquarius-systemhttp://www.ecomarinepower.com/en/technologieshttp://www.ecomarinepower.com/en/component/content/38http://www.ecomarinepower.com/en/aquarius-systemhttp://www.ecomarinepower.com/en/energysail


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Smaller solar - electric solutions can be installed on coastal ships, river boats and recreational vessels. For example theEMP Tonbo solar electric hybrid propulsion or hybrid power ferry will be suitable for use on lakes, bays and rivers. It willbe possible for this vessel to be powerd by the stored energy in

batteries alone in same cases thus it will be able to operate quietlyand emission free. EMP is also working on a urban eco-solar commuter ferry called the Medaka.

These types of vessels are ideal for urban waterways where noise pollution is an issue especially during the evenings.Both the Tonbo & Medaka will use advanced power management technology which allows onboard batteries to berapidly charged when the vessels are at the pier or wharf.

At this stage the Tonbo and Medaka designs use solar power as the main source of renewable energy, but thepossibility incorporating wind power into the designs is currently being studied.

The future of green shipping is here today and Eco Marine Power is at the forefront of this green marine revolution!

(Aquarius MRE System& EnergySailare trademarks of Eco Marine Power Co. Ltd.)

See also:Tonbo Hybrid Marine Power Vessel Green Shipping Aquarius Wind & Solar Power System

LONDON --Solar-powered catamaran PlanetSolar has crossed the Atlantic from Canada to

Belgium, a journey of 4598 km.

Leaving St Johns, Canada on 6 August and traveling at an average speed of 4.5 knots, the solar

ship arrived in Europe 23 days later. This is PlanetSolars second transatlantic crossing this year.

PlanetSolar in St John's, courtesy PlanetSolar
http://www.ecomarinepower.com/en/tonbo-hybrid-marine-power-vesselhttp://www.ecomarinepower.com/en/tonbo-hybrid-marine-power-vesselhttp://www.ecomarinepower.com/en/tonbo-hybrid-marine-power-vesselhttp://www.ecomarinepower.com/en/green-shippinghttp://www.ecomarinepower.com/en/green-shippinghttp://www.ecomarinepower.com/en/aquarius-systemhttp://www.ecomarinepower.com/en/aquarius-systemhttp://www.ecomarinepower.com/en/tonbo-hybrid-marine-power-vesselhttp://www.ecomarinepower.com/en/tonbo-hybrid-marine-power-vesselhttp://www.ecomarinepower.com/en/aquarius-systemhttp://www.ecomarinepower.com/en/green-shippinghttp://www.ecomarinepower.com/en/tonbo-hybrid-marine-power-vessel


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Built in Kiel, Germany, PlanetSolar is the worlds biggest solar ship and is powered exclusively by

solar energy. In May 2012 the vessel completed the first solar-powered trip around the world,

sailing for 584 days.

Before its 2013 voyages the ship underwent major maintenance operations, the PlanetSolar team

said. The most significant optimisation was related to the propulsion systemthe surface

propellers were replaced by a completely immerged system, said a statement.

The ship undergoing maintenance early this year, courtesy PlanetSolar

Navigation was problematic on the North Atlantic, the crew reported. The weather conditions

were particularly unfavourable during this crossing, said Grard dAboville, the ships captain.

The wind, first during our southern descent, then the current, and finally a much lower than

average amount of sunshine in the region for this time of year!

During the voyage, researchers from the University of Geneva (UNIGE) took physical and

biological measurements along the Gulf Stream as part of an ongoing scientific project, the

PlanetSolar DeepWater expedition. The last phase of their measurements will begin in the shipscurrent location, Oostende.

The final phase is of particular interest because data will be collected on the outskirts on an

urban area. We have already observed some very interesting results around Boston [U.S.], said

Jrme Kasparian, UNIGE researcher and member of the expeditions scientific committee.

Launched in Florida, U.S. in early June, the DeepWater expedition covered over 8000 km,

collecting a continuous series of physical and biological measurements from air and water. The

research team studied aerosols and phytoplankton, which are key parameters of climate

regulation, in an attempt to better understand the complex interactions between ocean and


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atmosphere and their role in climate change.

The researchers were particularly interested in the phenomenon of ocean vorticeslarge

whirlpools that break away from the main part of the Gulf Streamwhich can influence heat

exchanges with the atmosphere as well as the behavior of phytoplankton.

While the vessel is moored in Oostende, alongside press events with local authorities, the team

said it will test a net which it plans to use during a floating plastic waste collection campaign, a

collaboration with theWaste Free Oceansfoundation.

The ship will then leave for London [UK], where the UNIGE researchers will conclude their

project. I look forward to discovering what measures will be taken around the British capital,

Kasparian said.

PlanetSolar will be at London's South Dock, West India Dock on Monday, 2 September.

PlanetSolar crossing the Atlantic, courtesy PlanetSolar

Read more solar energy news here.
http://www.wastefreeoceans.eu/http://www.wastefreeoceans.eu/http://www.wastefreeoceans.eu/http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/rea/home/solar-energyhttp://www.renewableenergyworld.com/rea/home/solar-energyhttp://www.renewableenergyworld.com/rea/home/solar-energyhttp://www.wastefreeoceans.eu/

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