karen consensus

8/13/2019 Karen Consensus

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Asian Ethnicity, Volume 2, Num be r 2, Se p t embe r 2001

The Karen C on s ensus ,

Ethnic o litic s an! "es o ur ce#$ s e %e&itimacy in No rth er nT ha ilan !

A NDREW W AL K ER *(Australian National Uni v e rsit y )

"ecent Thai research on Karen ethnicity an! resource

mana& e men t p l ace s si &ni ' c an t emphasis on rotational shi(tin&culti)ation (rai mun wian). A broa! consensus has eme r&e ! that

t h i s i s a r el a t i)el y s u s tainable , ecolo&ically (rien!ly an!su bsi ste nce#ori ente ! (orm o ( a&riculture that is threatene! by therecent intrusion o( the state an! the mar*et+ Thi s pap e r ar&ue sthat the po r trayal s encompasse! by thi s Karen consensus rely on

o)erly se le ct i) e accou nt s o( Karen economy an!, in particular,

play !o n the historical import anc e o ( lonterm a&riculturali nte n si ' cati on an! commercial e-chan&e+ .hile reco&nisin&t h e i mp ort an c e o( establishin& the le&itimacy o( uplan!c ommunit ie s in a conte-t o( te nu r e i n s ecuri t y an! resourcec on / i ct , the paper a r &ue s that the li mit e ! le&i ti macy o( the K are n c o nse n s u s run s the r is * o( un!erminin& Karen claim s

(or a &reater share o( n at ura l re sou r ce s an! !e)elopmentassi stance +

Introduction

In recent years, a rowin !o"y o# literature on environmentalmana ement $as ! ee n %ro "uce " !y non& overnmen tor ani sat ion s (N' s) an" aca "emic s in nort$ern $ailan". In t $ ismaterial t$e Karen * $ai la n" +s lar est , u%la n" + et$nic

ro u% * c o nsi st ently #eature a s conservationist, coo%erative,an" o t $er&wor l"ly . I n"ee " t$ere is consi"era!le - usti . ca ti on #o rar uin t$at t$ere is a !ro a " l y $el" , consensus + in N' an"aca"emic c ircl e s t$at t$e Kare n re%resent a #ra ile i"eal o#

mutually !ene . c ia l interaction !etween culture an" n a ture /


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, virt u a lly as one in t$e same ec osyste m +. 0 'enuine Karenliveli$oo", t $i s consensu ssu ests, is !ase" on a su! s istence &ori ent e " %ro"uction system t$atis un"er%inne " !y a ri c$ !o"y o# local env iron m enta l wis"om, av i o rou s communal orientation an" consist ent ly non &co m merc ia lva lues /

* $ is is a revise" an" e1%an"e " ve r s ion o# a %a%er %re sente " at t$e 2event$In ternation a l 3o n#eren c e on $ai 2 tu "ie s $e l " in Amster" a m in 0444 . 5any o#t$e a" "iti on s ma"e in t$e cu rren t version are a res%onse to t$e s t imu la t in criticalco mmen t s my %a%e r receive" at t$e 3on#er e nce . I also !ene . t e " #romc omme nt s ma"e !y collea ue s w$e n an early version o# t$e %a%e r wa s %resente"in t$e 6oint Ant$ r o%o lo y 2eminar 2eries at $e Australian Na t io na l University.Eloise 7rown assiste" rea tl y wit$ t$e translation o# $ai lan u a e material an"2airoun 2 a o%a n assiste" wit$ collectio n o# t$e material . 5ic$elle 2coccimarro ,8ara% or n 9u nya wa"e e an" 9en%orn 6ane:arn:i - were :in" enou $ to ive me

access to t$e "a t a #rom t$e socio&economi c survey un "e rt a :e n as %art o# ou rco lla !ora t iv e %ro-ect on water resou rc e mana emen t in n ort$er n $a ila n" . $ i s%ro-ect is #un" e " !y t$e Au strali a n 3ou nci l #or Interna t io na l A ri c ultura lResearc$. Nootsu %or n Kris"atarn #acilitate" . e l" tri %s to vill a e s in 5a e3$aem "istrict an" also %rovi"e" me wit$ "ata an" i"eas #rom $er own researc $ . Ialso ! ene . te " #rom " i s cussio n s wit$ N' s in 3$ian 5ai, in %articular t$eNort$ern Dev elo%men t ;oun"ation an" I59E3 . I loo: #orwar " to #urt$er"iscu ssio n o# t$ese #ascinatin an" %ro#o un" l y im%o rtan t issue s .

0 Kunlawa"i 7un%$inon , Ka nc$ at:a n sa%%$aya:o n suan ruam/ :on:ai nai:an ra:s a %a :$on c$ao :arian !a n 2ane %$on + ( 3ollectiv e Reso urc e5ana ement / 5ec$ an ism s #or ;orest 9rotection in t$e Karen 8il la e o#2ane %$on +), Ni et , vol. (044 ?) , %. 04.

I22N 0=@> &0>@ 4 %rint 0=@4& online C 0 C < 0 =B&0 E < 0 aylor F ; ran ci s Lt "D I/ 0 .0 C0=@>0>@ 0< B > 4


3/35

0=@ An!re

2$i#tin cultivation is really a way o# maintainin t$e li#estyle o#

t$e 9a:a:oeyor G2:a w Ka re n H, < an" it cannot !e se%arate" #romt$e !elie#s, tra"itions, rit u a ls an" li#estyle o# t$ e %eo%le. Every timet$ey come to %lant see" or to loo: over t$e . e l" s t$ey t$in: o# t$e

$ uma n s %iri t t$at is cl o s el y !oun " to t$e li v e s o# ani mal s an" tonature itsel#. Every time t$ey s tr i: e t$e s o il wit$ a s%a"e t$ey t$in:a!out t$e maintenance o# !io"iversity an" o# nature I $ esystem o# s $ i#ti n cultivation arises out o# lon stan"in systems o#local wis"om an" awa re nes s o# nature. $i s :nowle" e $as %ersiste"#or e ner at ion s . I# we a s : a 9a:a:oeyor w$y t$e y %ractise s $ i#t incultivation, t$ey will res%on" t$at s$i#tin cultivation is a %ro"uctionsyst e m t$at ta:es into con s i"er at io n t$e %rotection o# s o il , water,#o r es t an" animals. $e lan" !el on s to nature, not to %eo%le or any

in"ivi"ual. $e resources o# t$e worl" !elon to nature. We on l y s ee :%ermission to use t$e resources in t$e maintenance o# our liveli$oo"s.We $ave to %r o t ec t t$e resources so t$at t$ere will !e enou $ le #t

#or our c$il"ren to live $er e . >

In t $ is %a%er I critically e1amine t$i s %ortrayal o# Karenet$nicity an" r e sou rc e mana ement on two levels. ;irst, I ar uet$at, ta:en a s a w$ole, t$e recent !o"y o# wor: on t$e Karen

raises e t$no ra%$i c an" $istorical J uesti on s t$at warrant #urt$er"e!ate a n" investi ation. 5y view is t$at muc$ o# t$e materialrelies on stereoty%ically !ucolic ima e s o# Karen liveli$oo" t$at "onot stan" u% to critical scrutiny, es%ecially w$en %lace" in t $ econte1t o# lon &term a ricultural int ensi . c at io n an" commerciale1c$an e. # course, in ma:in t$e cl ai m s t$ey "o a!out Karena riculture, t$ese aut$or s are ma:in #un" a me n t al ly %olitical cl ai m san", #rom t $ is %ers%ective, et$no ra%$i c veracity may !e anissue o# secon"ary im%ortance. $e secon " stran" to myar ument is, t$en, to su est t$at t $ e %olitical wis"om o# t$e, Kare n consensus + cannot !e ta:en #or rante", es%ecially in ane n vi ro nme n t o# i n t ensi . e" resource com%etition. 5y concern ist$at t$e %olitically mot i& vate" construction o# a Karen i"entity!ase" on su!sistence&oriente" livel i$oo" s t $r e at en s to un"erminet$e r e sou rc e cl ai m s o# t$e lar e nu m ! e r s o# Karen w$o are

see:in mo"es t (re&)en a em en t wit$ national an" internationalcommercial networ:s. In t$e , Kare n co nse nsu s +, liveli$oo"

c la im s to resource ri $t s $ave !een closely lin:e" to t$e es ta ! lis$ &ment o# a %articular, an" "istinctive, #orm o# et$nic i"entity. $e

e##ect o# t$e latter $as, I !elieve, !een to wea:en t$e #orc e o# t$e#o rme r .

In t$i s "iscussion I am "rawin mainly, !ut not e1clusively, on

$ai &lan ua e ma te ria l %ro"uce" !y ac a"e mic s an" N' s in


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The Ka r e n t$e nort$ern city o# 3$ian 5ai. 5uc$ o# t $ is materialori ina te s #rom 3$ian 5 a i University an" #rom t$e Nort$ernDe vel o %me n t ;oun"ation, an ac ti v is t N' wit$ stron aca"emiclin: s . In uenti a l %rec ur s o r s to t $i s wor: inclu"e t$e stu"y !y

Uraivan et al . = on t$e Karen +s , interme"i at e one cri sis + a n"

9i n: a ew+ s B %at$&!rea:in wor: on t$e Kare n +s , loc a l ecolo ical wis"om. + Recent wor: incl u "e s im%ortant stu"ies o# rotational

s$i#tin cultivation @ ac coun t s o# local communit ie s

< $e two lar est Karen rou % s in $ailan" are t$e 2:aw an" t$e 9wo. In muc$recent $ai literature t$e 2 : a w Karen are re#erre" to as 9a: a:o eyo r (t$o u $9 a any a w may !e closer to w$at 2:aw Karen actually cal l t$em selves) . $ec$oice o# e t $on ym s is an interestin issue in itsel # !ut one w$ic$ lies outsi"e my

sco%e in t$i s %a%er.> Waraala: It$i%$onorlan , "ai mun ian man!aa haen& phuu t ( "ota t io na l

Shi(tin& Cult i) ati on 0 other o( l an t Varieties ) (9ro-ect #or t$e De velo%men t o#Nort$ern Waters$e " s !y 3om mun it y r a nisation s , 3$ian 5ai, 044 ) , %%.> = B.

= Uraivan an &K im&Mo n , Anan 'an-a na% an , 2$alar"c$ai R a mit a non" $ an"2anay Manasarn, Natural "es ourc e $tili ation an! ana& emen t in ae Khan3asin 0 4nte rme!iat e 5one Cri s i s (;aculty o# 2ocial 2ciences, 3$ian 5 a iUniversity , 3$ian 5ai, 04 ) .

B 9in:aew Leun a r a msri , hump an y a ni et itthaya chon phunmuan& 0 su*sa

* ara n i ch umcho n Karian& nai pa Thun& 6ai Nare sua n ( %o ca l Ecolo&ical.is!o m 0 C a s e Stu!y o( the Karen in Thun& 6ai Naresu a n 7 o res t ) (9r o -ect #orEcolo ica l Recovery , 7a n : o: , 04 4@) . 2ee also 9in:aew L e un aramsr i an"Noel Ra - e s $ (e"s), The 7utu re o( eople an! 7o rest s in Thailan! a(ter the%o&&in& 3an (9ro-ect #or Ecolo ica l Rec ove ry , 7an :o: , 044


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0= An!re

an" !io"iversity ? #urt$er stu"ies o# ecolo ical wis"om, local rice

vari etie s an" re sou rc e mana ement ca%a!ilities an" an accounto# t$e emer ence o# , wa te rs$ e " n e twor:s + in 3$ian 5 a i

%rovince . 4 5ore %o%ular %u!li ca ti on s inclu"e t$e Karen

lea"er 6on i+s, re e ct ion s on %$il o s o%$ y o# li#e +, 0 an" auto!io ra%$ical a cco unt s!y 7u%$o 00 an" L isa . 0L ??Kan ni: a 9$romsao an" 7en c$ a 2ilara:, a chet chan panya prat cha**h amb o*la o *hon& pho luan & 9oni :!o cha o ( Th e Se)en %e)el 7orest, the.i se man s .is!o m 0 The .or! s o( ;ea!man 9oni :! ech a o ) (LocalKn owle" e ;oun "ation , 7a n : o: , 044 4) Kunlaw a" i 7un %$in on , Wit$i c$iwitKa ri a n / wit$i $aen :$wam %$u: %$a n :a % t$ammac$ at + ( Karen Li#estyle/ ALi#estyle in armony wit$ Nature +), Ni et , vol. (044 >) Kunl a wa" i

Kan c$a t : a n sa%%$aya:on + 9rasert ra:ansu%$a:on , Kare n 3risis/ $e 3 a s e


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The Ka r e n o# Local Wis"om in ransition +, 9a%er rea" at @t$ Int e rnation a l 3o n#eren c e on

$ai 2 tu "ie s (3$ian 5ai, 0= L 0? cto! er , 044@ ) $iray u t2ena:$am an" 9$on%$ an a Kuaic$aroen , ha nthu*a m *ha o 0 botbat *an anura*lae ph atthan a !oi c humcho n ( "iceVarieties 0 The "ole o( Commu niti e s in rotection an!


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0B An!re

The Karen Consensus: Sustainability, Self-Sufciency andExternallyIm osed Crisis

$e va ri ou s com%o ne n t s o# t$e ecolo ical :nowle" e t$at over n st$e rotational system o# r ic e cultivation #or m t$e $eart o# t$e Karen

way o# li#e .0?

$e 9a:a:oeyor are %eo%le w$o #arm rice, to et$er wit$ var iou sve eta!les an" ot$er cro% s in u%lan" . el " s I $e li#e o#t$e 9a:a:oeyor is one t$at re J uir e s t$em to eat rice #rom u %la n". el " s I $e soul o# t$e 9a:a:oeyor live s in u%lan". e l"s . 0

;or t$e 9a:a:oeyor w$o live closely wit$ u%lan" rice . el " s al mo s tall t$eir live s , t$e u %la n"

. el " s are a small%a ra " ise . 04

It $as lon !een reco nise" t$at in t$e "evelo%ment an"maintenance o# et$nic i"e n tit y, %articular cultural t rai t s are c$osen

as ma r: e r s o# rou% co$esion. < In recent writin on t $ e Karen, a#orm o# rotational s$i#tin cultivation :no w n as rai mun ian $as

ta:en on t $ is role.


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The Ka r e n o( Ethno &e nesi s (2a e 9u !lication s , Ne w!ur y 9ar:, 04 4 ) .


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0B< An!re

sustaina!le c$aracteristics. 3onservat io ni s t %rac ti ce s are sai" toinclu"e care#ul site se le c & tion s$ort cultivation %erio" s com!ine"

wit$ lon #a llo w %erio"s care#ul mana ement an " control o#! urnin maintenance o# lar e tree stum%s minimal soil

" istur!ance an " %reservation o# ri" e&to% an" waters$e" #o re s tcover. $e environmental !ene . t s r e %o rt e " in t$e recentliterature are numerous / %rotection o# !io"iversity vi orou s #ores tre & rowt $ (sai" !y some to create ve etative "iversity su%erior toun"istur!e" #orest) very limite" soi l erosion oo" water Jualityan" Juantity in "own&slo%e streams limite" wee" in #e sta ti on an"maintaine", or even en$ance", wi l" li#e "iversity. In t$ese ac coun t s

t$e sustaina!ility o# rai mun ian is !orne out !y t$e relativeimmo!ility o# Karen settlements, wit$ villa e si te s o#ten remainin. 1 e " #or enerations, or relocatin on a rotational !asis wit$in a

narrowl y "e . ne " area .

$e s ta ! ilit y an" sustaina!ility o# Karen a ricultural %ract ice sare sai" to !e su%%o rt e " !y a com%le1 local system o# inte rate"resource mana ement. $ree e le me n t s o# t $ is system are re ularly$i $li $te". ;irst, a se l#&su# . ci ent , su!sistence orientation is sai"to lie at t$e $eart o# Karen i"entity. It is re ularly re%orte" t$atKaren economy is !ase" on %ro"uction o# rice an" ve eta!les #or$o use $ ol " co nsum%t ion , an" t$at cultural %rece %ts an " cautionary

tales re e c t t$e , $i $ ly&re a r" e " value o# sel # su! s istence +/


10/35

The Ka r e n limite" t$e "evelo%ment o# %rivate %ro %e r t y a rr a n e ment s in

relation to lan".


11/35

0B= An!re

co nse nsu s + is a tale o# , e - te rnall y impose! socio&economic

tra n s #orma ti on +


12/35

The Ka r e n re & c la ssi . cat ion , !ut it is wi"ely claime" t$at clearin an"cultivation o# #allow lan" $as ! ee n restricte" in many areas.Uncert ai n ti e s create" !y national %olicy an" in#o rma l lan" t enur eare also sai" to !e un"erminin local con . "e nc e in lonrotational systems. In !rie #, st at e "evelo%ment an" resourcemana ement %olici e s $ave $astene" t$e "ecline o# w$at are

assume" to $ave !een "istinct an" sustaina!le Karen a riculturalan" s o c ia l sy s te ms .

!istory and Self-Suf ciency$e Karen consensus * an " t$e central claim t$at rai munian is a , via ! le an" ! e ne

.c ia l m et $ o"+

>> *nee " s to !e

assesse" in te rm s o# t$e lon &term "evelo%ment o# Karen #a rmi nsystems. 2%ec i. c al ly , $istorical an" e t$no ra%$i c evi"ences u est s t$at K a re n rotational


13/35

The Ka r e n

s$i #t in cultivation wa s only sustaina!le on a lon &term !asis w$enit wa s associate" wi t $ limite" %o%ulation, a!un" a n t lan" an"consi"era!le o% %ortunit y #or villa e . ssio n an " out&mi ration.>= $e Karen s et tl e " in nort$&western $ailan" over t$e last twoce nturie s in an area t$at $a" !een e1tensively "e &%o%u lat e " incon O ict s !etween t$e 7urmese, t $ e 2iamese an" t$e nort$ern

$ai. >B $e relative recency o# t$eir s et tl eme n t $istory su est st$at, in t $ is area, t$e wi"ely use" "istinction !etween rotationalan" %ioneer s$i #t in cultivation may !e somew$at over"rawn.Karen rotational cultivation may, in #a ct , !e a s$ort&term to

me"ium&term pioneerin& tec$nolo y t$at wa s a"o%te" in relatively

re cent ly settle" areas %rior to t$e esta!lis$ment o# lar ercom mun iti e s an" more settle" #or m s o# a riculture.

$e , %io neer + situation o# lan" a!un"ance a%%ears to $ave come

un"er increasin an" , in some cases, critical %ressure !y t$e early

"eca"es o# t$e twentiet$ century. Alm o s t all o# t$e e t$no ra%$i c

ac count s o# Karen comm u ni ti e s con"ucte" !etween t$e 04B san" t $ e04? s re#er to u%lan" cultivation systems , un "e r severe st ress + wit$%o%ulation %ressure onlan" resultin in s$orter #allow %erio"s, lower yie l" s an"

su!sistence s$ort#all. >@ In 04@0, Moun wrote t$at Karen are not!y any means sel # su# . ci ent + an" t$at rice wa s o!tai ne " #romsurr oun" in $ai communit ie s or #rom $ill t r i!e s w$en

lowlan" %ric e s were too $i $. >? 2imilarly Ii-ima o !se r ve s /

Accor"in to vill a e r +s own statements swi""en #ar min in t$e $ill

villa e o# 5ae a Ki $a s !een in "ecay #or several "eca"es. $emain reason seems to !e t$e overe1%loitation o# t$ei r . el " s!ecause o# increasin %o%ulation in t$e w$ole $ill ar ea . >

$e su!&"istrict "escri!e" !y Uraivan et al . in t$e mi "&04 s $a"e1%erience" a tri%lin o# t$e Karen %o%ulation in t$e %re viou s"eca"e, an e1%ansion matc$e" !y a tri%lin in t$e are a o# u%lan". el " s an" a re"uction in t$e #allow %erio" to les s t$an . ve

years. >4 7y 044=, Kano: an" 7en-avan re%orte" t$at lon #allowrotational cultivation only %ersiste" in sma ll %oc:et s in t$e west o#

3$ian 5 a i %ro vi nc e an" in 5ae on 2on %rovince . = In !rie #,t $ e claim t$at rai mun ian systems , $av e !een ca%a!le o#%ro"ucin a ricultural cro% s to su%%o r t enerat ion s o# Karen #or

c ent u ri es + wa r ra n t s consi"era!le sc e%t ic ism . =0

# c ou rse , it is very li:ely t$at state r est r ict ion s on cultivationin #or e s t reserve area s

$ave com%o un"e " " e mo r a %$ i c %ressures on a ricultural


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0B< An!resystems. As 8an"er ees t $ a s

>= 2ee, #or e1am%le, inton, Declinin 9 ro "uc t io n +, 2$i eru, Ii-ima, Et$n icI"entity an" 2ociocultural 3$ an e amo n 2 aw K are n in Nort$ern $ailan " +,in 3$ arle s ; Key e s (e" . ) , Ethnic A!aption an! 4!en ti ty 0 The Kare n on theThai 7ronti e r ith 3urma (Institute #or t$e 2tu"y o# uman Issues,9$ila"el%$ia, 04? 4) , %%. 0 L < Kun sta"ter , 2u! si s t e nc e A riculturalE c ono mies + Lewi s an" L e wi s , 9eo %les +, %. = van Ec:e r t et al ., The Kare n7armin& Systems , %. @.

>B An" er s 7alt er 6or ensen , Kare n Natural R e sou r c e s 5ana em en t an"Re la t ion s to 2tate 9olity +, in In &7rit t

ran:ell an" Laura 2u mmer s (e"s), 7 a cet s o( o er an! it s %imitations 0olitical Culture in S ou t h eas t Asi a (U%%sala University, U%% sala , 044 ) , %. E, => Kun sta"ter , 2u !sisten c e

A ri cultura l Econ omies +, %. 0@ inton, Declinin 9 ro "u cti on +, %. 04=. 2ee also Ro!ert 3oo% er , "esou rc eScarcity an! the ;mon& "es pon se 0 attern s o( Settlement an! E c ono m y inTransition (2 in a%o r e University 9ress, 2 in a%ore , 04 =) , %. 0B 6a me sW. amilton, o Karen At the E!&e o( o unta i n an! lain (West9u! li s $in 3om %an y , 2t 9aul, 04 ?@) , %%. B= L ? Ii-ima, Et$n ic I"en ti ty +, %.0 > Ku nsta" t e r , 2u! sistenc e A ricul tu ra l E c on omies +, %%. ?? L 4, 4 L 0.

>? 'or" o n Mou n , The ;ill T r i b e s o( Northern Thailan! ( $ e 2iam2ociety, 7a n : o: , 04? =) , %. ??.

>E Ii-ima, Et$n ici"en ti ty +, %. 0 >.>4 Uraivan, et al ., Natural "esource $tili ation , %%. @. $e au t $ or s im%ly t$at

t $ is u%lan" e1% ansio n is a resu l t o# #arme r s losin t$eir %a" " y . el"s , $ow eve rt$ey also no t e t$at t$e area o# Karen %a""y . e l" s in t$e "istrict "ou! le " !etween04?B an" 04 B .

=D Kano: Rer: ase m an" 7en-av a n Rer: asem , Shi(tin& Culti)ation in Tha i la n! 0 4t sCurrent Situation an!


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The Ka r e n

ar ue" in a %a%er t$at $as $a" a stron in uenc e on t$e , Kare nconsensus +, state r e ul at o r y action $as , e##ect iv e ly cri mina lise" +

u%lan" s$i#tin cultivation in many "istricts. =< ;or e1am%le, int$e Karen s u!&"ist ric t o# Wat 6an, lan"&cover "ata I $ave analyse"

su est s a4B %er cent "ecline in u%lan" cultivation in t$e most %rotecte"3 la ss 0 waters$e" a rea s , muc$ o# it since t$e local

esta!lis$ment o# a ; o re s t 9rotection an" 9olicin # . ce . =>

Nevert$eless, some caution s$o ul " !e e1ercise" in attri!utin toomuc$ in uenc e to st at e re ulation. 'overnment statements on t$eincom%ati!ility !etween #orest conservation a n" liveli$oo" a ct ivi ti e s

are well "ocumente" !ut t$ere $as !een relatively little researc$ ont $ e local im%lementation o# national %olicy. In"ee", "ocumentationo# a"ministrative im%otenc e an" inconsistency su ests t$at%rocesses o# re ulatory im%lementation $ave le#t consi"er & a!le

room #or local ma n oeuvr e an" ne otiation. == ;or e1am%le, incontra s t to Wat 6an, t $ e r e are areas in t$e #ar we s t o# 3$ian 5 a i%rovince w$ere most Karen cultivation still ta : e s %lace in 3 la ss 0

waters$e" areas. It is also si ni . c an t t$at some o# t$e most"etaile" rece n t "iscussions o# t$e contem%orary sustaina!ility o#rai mun ian "escri!e Karen vil la e s locate" wit$in un Mai

Naresuan wi l"l i#e sanctuary. =B $e %ossi!ility t$at some st at e&"e &clare" conservation areas $ave protecte! Karen vi lla e s #rome-ternal " e mo ra %$i c #o rce s wa r ra n t s #urt$er invest i at ion .

A&ri c ul tur a l 4ntens i ' cati on

$rou $ou t t$e %erio" o# %o%ulation r owt $ an" increasinstate re ulation many Kare n c o mmunit ie s $ave #ollowe" a %at$ o#a"a%tive a ricultural inte nsi . c at ion . y%ically, t $ is $as ta:en t$e#orm o# "evelo%ment o# irri ate" %a""y, a tec$nolo y w$ic$

a%%ears to $ a v e !een a"o%te" wit$ alacrity #rom t$eir nort$ern

$ai nei $ !our s .=@ 2urvey an" e t$no ra %$i c "ata su est t$at a wi"e s%ectrum o# Karen $ouse$ol" s $ave %artici%ate" in t$i sa ricu lt u ra l trans#ormation an" t$at recent %a""y creation is notmerely a %at$ o# u%war" mo!ility #o r Karen tra"e r s , $ea"menan" ritual s%ecialists, as it may $ave !een in t$e %ast. The cl aimthat Karen i!entity re)ol)es aroun! the culti)ation o( uplan! rice

is u nsuppo rt e ! by t h e important role o( pa!! y culti)ation inho use ho l ! e conomie s . Data #rom a ran e o# stu"ie s are instructive


16/35

0B= An!rean" $el% conte1tualise t$e "ecline in u%lan" cultivation an" a tren"to mor e %ermanent #orm s o# s et tl eme nt .

Durin recent $ou s e$ol " surveyin un" e rta : e n in Wat 6an,numerou s %a""y&cult ivat in

Karen "escri!e" $ow t$ey, or t$eir %arents, $a" create" t$eir own

%a""y out o# t$e #orest .=?

#ten, #oreste" areas were . rs t cleare" #or u%lan" cultivation wit$ suita!le %ieces o# la n"

=< 9eter 8an"er eest , 5 a%%in Nature/ erritoriali ation o# ;orest Ri $t s in$ ail a n" +, Society an! Na t u ral

"esources , vol. 4 (0 44@ ) ,%%. $e lan" cov e r analysis in t $ is %a%e r " raw s on t$ree slices + o# lan" &cov e r"ata %re%are" as %art o# a Na t io na l Researc$ 3ounci l o# $ailan" (NR3 )s t u"y an" %rov i"e " to t$e au t $o r !y co lla! oratin re searc$ er s in $a ilan" . Detail so# t$e stu"y are %rovi"e" in NR3 , Thailan! %an!u s e an! %an! Co)erCha n& e Ca s e Stu!y (NR3 , 7an :o : , 04 4?) .

== 9$ili% Dear" e n et al ., Nation a l 9 a r: s an" ill ri!e s in Nort$ern $ailan"/ A3ase 2tu"y o# Doi Int$a non +, So ciety an! Natural "esou rce s , vol. 4 (0 44@ ) , %%.0>B L @ 9$ili% irsc$, olitical E co no m y o( En) iro nmen t in T h ailan ! (6ou rna l o# 3ontem %ora r y Asia 9u!lis$ers, 5anila, 044 >) , 3$a%ter B8an"er eest , 5a%%in Nature +, %%.


17/35

The Ka r e n

ra"ually converte" into levelle" an" !un"e" %a""y over %erio" s aslon as 0 or < yea r s . It is li:ely t$at so il "e%osition #rom ero" e "u%&slo% e . el " s assiste" in t$i s ra"ual %roce ss o# %a""y

#ormation. = $e results o# t $i s on oi n investment $ave !een"ramatic/ in 04B= aerial %$o t o ra %$ s in"icate t$at t$ere were only

=@ rai =4 o# %a""y in a rou% o# #our Wat 6an villa es !y 04?>

t$i s $a" "ou!le" to 4

$i s %attern o# wi"es%rea" %a""y owners$i% amon Karenc o m mun iti e s is also evi"e n t

in t$e o t $erwi s e !lea: re%ort !y Uraivan et al . on t$e , interme"i at e

one cri sis + in t$e 5 ae K$an catc$ment. B= $eir stu"y in" ica te st$at in t$e mi " &04 s only > %er cent o# Kare n $ou s e$o l" s "i"not own %a""y an" t$at B %er cent "i" not own u%lan" . el" s(t$e la tt e r . ur e %ro!a!ly re O e ct in %a " "y&! a se " security rat$ert$an "estitution). I n"ee ", "es%ite t$e ir i"eolo ically a%%ealin%ro no si s o# a , yawni n economic a% !etween a minority o#lan"& $ol"e r s an" ma-ority lan"less %eo%le +, t$ey o on to su estt$at , mos t Karen val u e t$eir in$erite" #e rti le r ice . el " s as #amily


18/35

0B@ An!relan" an" ma:e a si ni . ca n t e##ort not to lose t $ is %ossession.+ BB

nce a ain, my analysis o# la n" &co ve r "ata #rom t$e u% %e r5ae K$a n catc$ment su ests t$at t$e area o# %a""y $asalmost "ou!le" since t$eir s tu" y wa s un"erta:en.

Commercial< i sen&a&emen t

$e t$ir" :ey element in t$e $istorical "evelo%ment o# Karen

e conomy * a lon wi t $ "eclinin u%lan" cultivation an"increasin %a""y c ult ivat ion * is , I woul" su est, a lon &term !isen&a&ement #rom many as%ects o# commercial e1c$an e.

istorically, Kare n

=E Pin:e et al ., 2oi l;erti lity +, %. 0B>.=4 ne rai e Ju al s .0@ $e ctares . 9anomsa: 9 ro m!u rom , An 4 n te&ra te ! Approach

(or A s sessin & "ice Su ( ' cien c y %e)e l in ;i&h lan ! Commun it ie s o( NorthernThailan! (5aster o# 2cience $ esi s su!mitte" at 3$ian 5ai University , 3$ian5ai), %. =>. 2ee also Mo:o ayami, Interna l an" E1ternal Discou rs e o#3omm una lity , ra"ition an " Environment / 5inority 3l a im s on ;orest in t$eNort$ern i ll s o# $ailan" +, Sou thea s t A s i an S tu!ie s , vol. >B, no.> ( 044 ?) , %. BB .

B0 Waraala:, "ai mun ian ,%%. =, 00.B< I!i" . ,%. I!i" . , %%. 4. Data % rov i" e " !y 6esa"a ( K a nchat*a n thi !in , %. BB) also

in" ic ate s relatively $i $ levels o# %a"" y own ers$ i % in t$e same area .B= Uraivan et al ., "esou rc e $se$tili ation , %. 00 .BB I!i" . , %%.0 >, 0 4.


19/35

The Ka r e n

a ricultural systems were su %%orte " !y tra"in net wor: s ,al!eit to varyin "e ree s , B@ t$rou $ w$ic$ u%lan" #orest %ro"uct s

were e1c$an e" #or rice. 5a rs$al l+s classic ac coun t o# t$e Karenin nineteent$ century 7urma "ocument s tra"e in sesame, !et el &

nuts , o ra n e s , stic:&lac an" $oney. B? Ra -a $ +s account o# Kareninvolvement in t$e %ro"uction an" tra"e o# #ermente" tea ( mian& )re#e r s to a more recent %erio" !ut %rovi"e s a oo" in"ication o#

t $ e intensity o# t$ese commercial relations. B Durin t$e latter"eca"es o# t$e nine te ent $ century, Karen also !ecame $eavilyinvolve" in t$e tim!er in"ustry, a %osition t$at t$e y consoli"ate"over t$e years to t$e %oint w$ere, !y t$e mi""le o# t$e twentiet$century, t$e y were re%orte" to $ave , somet $in o# a m ono%o l y on

t$e - o! s associate" wit$ e1tractin te a : #rom t$e #orest s o#nort$&western $a il an" +. B4 Ele %$ a nt s were an im%ortant s o urc eo# income in u%lan" Karen communities, an" Moun note" int$e early 04@ s t$at , mor e %ros% e ro u s Karen $ave lon stan"in!usiness wit$ tea: co m %anie s , contractin wor: wi t $ t$em #or t$e

use o# t$eir e le %$a n t s +. @ Evi"ence also %oint s to Kareninvolvement in a wi " e ran e o# ot$er commercial a ct ivi ti e sinclu"in cattle tra"in , slave tra"in , . $ti n a s m erce n a rie s ,

an" in some cases o%ium %ro"uction an" tra"e. @0 In"ee", it $as !eens u est e " t$at at t$e en" o# t$e nineteent$ century Karen$ou se $o l" s $a" an avera e income , %ro!a!ly $i $er t$an t$at o#t$e nort$ern $a is +, lar ely a result o# t$eir involvement in e1t ra&com & munity commercial intera ct ions . @ an" =.B? arry I natiu s 5ars$all , The Karen eople o( 3urma 0 A Stu!y in

Anthropolo& y an! E th nolo & y (W$ite Lotus , 7an :o : , 04 4?) , %%. = L ?.BE Ana n" a Ra-a$, "emainin& Karen A Stu!y o( Cultural "epro !u cti o n an! the

a i n tena nc e o( 4!entity (Do ctoral$esi s su!mitte" at $e Australian National

Unive r s ity , 3an!erra, 04 @) .B4 3$arle s ;. Keye s , Int ro "uc t io n +, in Keye s , Ethnic A!aption , %. 0B. 2ee also

Keyes, $ e Karen in $ai istory +, %%. >@, =@.@D Moun , The ;ill Tribe s , %%. ?? L . 2ee also Ku nsta" ter , 2u! sistenc eA ricul tu ra l E c ono mies +, %%. 0 > L B.@0 2ee, #or e 1am% le , R.E. Elson, The En! o( the easantr y in S outhe as t Asia 0 A

S ocia l an! E c onomi c ;istory o( easa n t % i) elihoo! , 1B00 C 1@@0 s(5acmillan, o un" mil ls , 044? ) , %%. < 4 ## ;in:, 4mpo sin & Co mmun i tie s , %%.=B L @ olt 2. allet, A Thousan! il e s on an E lep han t in the Shan States(W$ite Lotus, 7a n : o: , 04 ) , %%. > L 0 amilton, o Karen , %%. ?? L ,0>@, 0 B 9eter inton, W$ y t$e Karen Do Not 'row % ium / 3om%etitionan" 3ontra"iction in t$e i $ la n" s o# Nort$ $ailan" +, Ethnolo&y , vol. , no. 0 (0 44 ) . 2ee also Elson, TheEn! o( the e asa ntr y , %%. =0, < 4## 6o r en sen , Kare n Natura l Resources +,%%.


21/35

The Ka r e n

Karen comm u ni ti e s a%%ear to !e e1%lorin %at$s o# mar:etoriente" "iversi . ca ti on t$a t su%%o r t re ularly un"er&%ro"ucin %a""y an! u%lan" rice s y st em s .

Ethnicity and the "olitics of #esource $ana%ementIn %resentin t $i s et$no$istorical material, it is not my intention toinitiate an un%ro"u c ti v e "e!ate a!out t$e aut$enticity o#contem%orary re %re senta ti on s o# Karen economy. Nor a m Isee:in to c$allen e t$e ,# re e"o m o# im a inat ion + o# Karen

lea"ers an" t$ose actin on t$eir !e$al#. @@ owever, reco nisin

t$e le&itimacy o# %rocesses o# , e t$no e n e si s +@?

n e e" not amount toa reluctance to en a e in "e!ate a!out t$e inclusiveness an"

a%%ro%ria tene ss o# t$e %articular " irec ti on s t$ese %rocesses $aveta:en. $e "e . n in #eat ure s o# et$nic i"entity "eserve on oin"iscussion an" "e!ate %recisely !ecause t$ese #e at u re s not onl y

enerate t$e cultural content o# i"entity, !ut lay "own

#ram ewor: s o# inclusion an " e1clusion t$at s$a%e access to t$e

ri $t s an" resources !ein sou $t . 5y %ur%os e in intro"ucinalternative e t$no ra %$i c an" $istorical ac coun t s is, t$en, to$i $li $t t $ e selecti)e rat$er t$an inaut$entic c$aracter o# t$e, Ka re n consensus +. $i s selectivity, w$ il e %olitically success#ul insome res%ects, also r un s t$e ris: o# un"erminin Karen cl ai m s inan env iron m en t o# increasin resource com%e titi on.

$e :ey ac$ievement o# t$e , Kare n consensus + is t$at itmo!il is e s a selective nosta l i a

#or , t ra"it ional + values an" a ricultural %ra ctic e s to " e . ne an""e#en" a le&itimate %osit ion wit$in conteste" nort$ern $ailan"sca%es. As ayami $as su este", t$e %romotion o# rai mun

ian as a central element o# Karen cultural i"entity is a %oliticallystrate ic inversio n o# , t $ e "i ##e renc e im%ose" on Gt $ e Karen H int$e "esi nation o# R $i ll t ri!es S w$o %ra ctic e $arm#ul swi""en

c ult ivat ion +. @ $e a c$ie v e me n t s o# t $ is , "e#e n si v e sense o#

i"enti ty + s$oul" not !e un"erstate". @4 $ere is now consi"era ! l yless em%$asis in national %oli c y "is cour s e on t$e e1%ulsion o#

u%lan" comm u ni ti e s #rom #o re s t reserves an" muc$ more onmana&in& t$e %resence o# a ricultural activity in all !ut t$e m o s tvulne r a ! l e areas. 8ery #e w Karen c ommunit ie s $ave !een relocate"in t$e %ast "eca"e an" resource cl ai m s on #orest s surro un"in Karen communi ti e s $ave !een success#ully resiste". 5ore

enerally, r e co ni & tion o# in" i enou s ecolo ical :n owl e" e an"

local r e sour c e mana ement c a%a!i liti e s is increasin ly evi"ent in


22/35

0@ An!re$ai %u!lic "iscourse an" %olicy "evelo%ment. Im%ortantly o ve r n

& ment %olicy, %artly in res%onse to t$e ar u m ent s %ut !ya ca"e mic s an" N' s, %laces an increasin ly s tron em%$asis ont$e su!sistence %ro"uction o# communit ie s in #orest res erv e areas.2ome areas o# state %olicy are now com!inin t $ is su!sistenceorientation wit$ a commitment to t$e stren t$enin o#communal resource mana ement inst it uti on s . $ e a u t $o r s o# t$e, Kare n con s ensus + $ave ma"e an im%ortant contri!ution to t$esea c$i eve & me nts.

$e le itimacy esta!lis$e" !y t$e , Ka re n con s ensus + is,$owever, very limite". W$ il e it m a:e s a s tron case #or t$ele itimate %resence o# Karen comm u ni ti e s in u% lan "

c at c$ment s , t$e , Kare n c on se nsu s + "oes t $i s on t$e !asis o# ani"ealise" rural li#estyle !a se " on su !si ste nce&orie nte ", s el #su# . ci en t an" non#commercial a ricultural %ro"uct ion . $i s is a%otentially $a ar"ous an" "ivisive strate y an" one t$at is notnecessarily - usti . e" * no r nec essi t at e" * !y t$e%olitical im%e r a ti ve s o# i"enti ty #ormation. ;our s %e ci . c issues*@@ 9art$a 3$atter-ee, The Nation an! 4t s 7ra& ments 0 Colonial an! ostcolonial

;i s t o rie s (9rinceton University 9ress , 9rinceton, 044 >) , %. 0>.@? Roosens, Creatin&Ethn i c it y .@E ayami, Interna l an" E1ternalDisco urse +, %. B?B.@4 Daniel 3$irot, 3on ictin I"en t itie s an" t$e Da n er s o# 3ommu nalism +, in

Daniel 3$irot an" An t $on y Rei" (e"s), Essential :u tsi ! ers 0 Chinese an! 9 e sin the o!ern Trans(ormation o( S outh eas t Asia an! Central E u rop e (Univ ersity o# Was$in ton 9ress, 2eattle, 044? ) .


23/35

The Ka r e n

%a""y cultivation, c as$&cro%%in , a ricultural "evelo%mentassistance an" co m merc ia l $arvestin o# #or e s t %ro"uct s*$i $l i $ t t$e strate ic limi ta ti on s se t !y t$e , Ka re n consen & sus+ .

a!!yCult i)atio n

Wit$ #ew e1ce %t ion s t$e , Kare n co nse n s u s + ives very littleattention to %a""y c u lti vat ion , "es%ite it s !ein a si n i . ca nt , i#not %re"omina n t , #orm o# a ricultural activity in ma ny Karen

villa es. ? $ere a%%ear to !e a nu m ! e r o# reasons #or t$is.;irst, an" m o s t im%ortantly, %a""y is re a r" e " as an et$nically

un"istinctive #orm o# a ricultural %ra ctic e w$ic$ $as !eenim%orte" into Karen communities. 2econ"ly, %a""y %ro%ert yrel at ion s a%%ear relatively , mo"ern + an" in"ivi"ualise" in c o nt r a s t tot$e communal c$aracter w$ ic $ is attri!ute" to , tra"i ti on a l+ Karenvilla es. $ir"ly, %a""y cultivation usually la c: s t$e c ro % "iversityt$at is seen as one o# t$e et$nically "e . n in #e at u re s o# Karena ricultural %rac ti ce . An" #ourt$ly, %a""y . el " s are usually $el"un "e r more secure #orm s o# tenure t$an u%la n" . e l" s an", assuc$, are %erceive" as a les s t$reatene" site o# a riculturalac ti vit y.

;rom t$e %oint o# view o# mo!ilisin %eo%le aroun" a "istinctan" t$reatene" sense o# i"entity, t$ese are vali" reasons #or%layin "own t$e role o# %a""y cultivation. o we v e r , #rom t$e

%oint o# view o# "e#en"in a le itimate %osition #or Karen

co m mun iti e s in u%la n" lan"sca%es, t$e limite" em%$asis on

%a""y seems sel#&"e#eatin . $e environme n t al ly !eni n im%acto# %a""y cultivation is well reco nise" . 9a""y . e l" s slow t$e%assa e o# water t$rou $ u%lan" c at c$ment s , contri!ute to

rou n"wat e r rec$ar e an" $el% to . lte r t $ e %assa e o# se"imentin t$e la n" sc a%e * %reci sel y t$e catc$ment !ene . ts t$atare usual ly attri!ute" to #orest in state environ m enta l "isc o urse . ?0

7y %lacin suc$ a $i $ %riority on t $ e !istincti)eness o# Karen

i"entity, t$e , Kare n co nse n s u s + misses t$e o%% ortunit y to "em on &strate t$e environmentally !eni n c$aracter o# t $ is lar e an"increasin ly im%ortant a s%ec t o# t$eir a ricultural %ro"uc ti on . Ina""ition, incor%oratin %a""y cultivation more #ully int o Kareni"entity woul" $el% to esta!lis$ a le itimate K a re n claim toirri ation wa te r* a %oi n t o# en"emic tension in nort$ern

$ai a ricultural syst ems * rat $e r t$an s u est in t$at t $ eKaren are merely uar"ia n s o# water source s #or more active


24/35

0@< An!re#arme r s "own s trea m . ;i n a lly, at t$e m o s t eneral level, a stron erem%$asis on %ermanen t %a""y %ro"uction wo ul " a ls o stren t$enresi"ency c la im s o# Karen communit ie s !y c learly s u!vert ininaccurate st ereo & ty%es o# , $il l&tri!es + as "ri#tin + or transient%o %ula ti on s .


25/35

The Ka r e n

In"ee", in a nu m ! e r o# Karen vi lla e s sur ve y e " in 5ae 3$aem"istrict, rice i s a rel at ive ly minor cro% on u%lan" . el " s an"si ni . can t areas $ave !een wit$"rawn #rom a n nua l cro%%inalto et$er an" converte" to orc$ar"s. In t$e "ry season t$e level o#

cultivation is some w$ a t lower * a result o# !ot$ watersu% %l y limi ta ti on s an" t$e restricte" J uota s o# e1tension a enci es* !u t almost 0 %er cent o# t $ is a ricultural %ro"uction is"evote" to cas$ cro%s. ;or many Karen $o use $ ol " s , "ry&seasoncas$ cro%%in is an attractive a lt erna & tive to o##a r m wa ela!our, even w$ere ret urn s are relatively low as wit$ soy!eans.Al so , in some Karen villa es, t$e nee" to mana e care#ully !ot$

t$e allocation o# "ry &se aso n water an" e1tension a ency Ju ot a s $asstren t$ene" t$e , communal + as%ects o# %ro "uct io n w$ic$ arestereoty%ically associate" most stron ly wit$ su!sistence&oriente"%ro"uct ion .

ow "oes t$e , Kare n co nse n sus + "eal wit$ t$e as%i rat ion s o#t$ese $ ouse$ol"s T In som e accounts, cas$ cro% %ro"uction is"eclare" irrelevant, iven t$e natural a!un"ance o# Kare nsu!sistence s y st em s /

Almost every #ami ly $as no annual income. 7ut t$ey $ave a $a%%yli#e. $ere is enou $ #oo " to eat. $ey row t$eir own rice in u%lan". el " s an" t$ere are ve eta!les in t$e u%lan" . el " s , in t$e #ore s t

an" on t$e !an: s o# t$e streams. $ere are . s$ in t$e r iver s . ? 9ratuan , #or e1am%le,a c:n owl e" e s wi"es%rea"a"o%tion o# soy!eans in t$e 5ae Wan catc$ment !ut %or t ray s t$i sas an e1ternally "r ive n "evelo%ment #un"amentally antit$etical tot$e Ka ren +s , su!sist enc e live li$ oo"s +, , su!sis t & ence e cono m y +

an" , tra " iti ona l s el #&su# . ci enc y +. ?= In ot$er accounts, moral%re ce %t s an " cautionary tales are cite" as evi"ence o# Karen#arm ers + cultural resistance to co m merc ia l& is m an" t$eirsatis#action wit$ su!sistence %ro"uction o# (u%la n" ) rice/ , you can

eat rice !u t you can +t eat m o ne y +. ?B

$ere are s i ni . c an t $a ar"s in t $i s a %%roac $ in an environment o# int ensi #yi n re sou rc e com%etition. $e lan ua e o#


26/35

0@= An!resu!sistence&oriente" an" ecolo ically #rien"ly a ricu ltura l%ro"uction all too rea"ily sli%s into a"vocacy o# a ricultural an"

commercial restraint in t $ e u%lan"s. In"ee", t$e claim is ma"e, wit$ varyin "e rees o# e1%licitness, t$at Kare n %resence inu%% e r& wa te rs$ e " areas is le itimate precisely because Karenc ommu ni ti e s !o not ma*e ! e man ! s on natural r esource s . $e, K a re n con se nsus + come s close to %or t rayin commerciala riculture !y Karen #armers, not as a %ro"uctive contri!utionto u% lan " e cono m ie s , !ut as an ina%%ro%riate, an" evenunnecessary, consum%tive assault on e col o & ical assets t$atcom%romis e s t$e %ro"uctive e##ort s o# t$ose #urt$er "own s trea m /

;or s$i#tin cultivation ( rai mun i an ) t$ere is no nee" to usec$emicals. No nee" to us e #ertiliser. It is not " a n e rou s #or t$e s o ilan" " oe sn +t o w o## into t$e water. 3ecause e l i) e at the top o( the

atershe!, e !on t ant to s p oi l the ater, to spoil the ater (orthe p e op l e !o nst re am I I# it wa s necessary to ta:e u%%ermanent cultivation we wou l " not !e a!le to overcome t$e rassI we woul" nee" to use c$ e mic a ls to :ill t$e rass Ian" we wou l " a ls o nee" to use c$emical #er ti liser . W$en t$e soil

wa s e1$auste" we wou l " !e #orce" to mov e #urt$er into t$e

#o r es t . ?@

?< Wirawat $ira%ra sat , K$ amn iy om + ( ;orew or" +), in 9in:aew,h ump any a ni et itthaya , %. ?.

?> Uraivan et al ., Natural "eso urc e $tili ation , %%. @4, 0 . 2ee also $irayut an"9$on%$ana , ha nthu*a m *h ao , %%. > @ ?.

?= 9ratuan , 3ommunit y ;orestry +, %%.0>@, 0>?, 0=0.?B Lisa, .ithi lo* pa , %. >=. 2ee also 3$atc$ awan , Su psa n %anna , %. @@ 6on i ,

3anthu* Kanni:a an" 7 e nc$ a , a chet ch an , %. 0 9in:aew, h umpa ny a

ni et itthaya , %. @ 4.?@ Waraala:, "ai mun

ian , %. > .


27/35

The Ka r e n

$e critiJue o# commercial a riculture !ecome s even moree1%licit in re#erence to t $ e %ro"uctive ac ti vit ie s o# nei $!our in

mon c ommunit ie s . Wit$in t$e , Kare n consensus +, t$e rotationalcultivation o# t$e Karen is #avoura!ly contraste" wit$ t$e %ioneer

swi""eni n o# t$e mon in w$ic$ cleare" #o re s t areas are#arme" until so il &"e %let io n or w ee " in#estation necessitates

a !an"onme n t an" out&mi ration. ?? $e main intention a%%ears to!e to "raw a clear "istinction !etween r e sou rcerien"l y Karen%ra ctic e s an" t$e e1%ansive a n" mo!ile a ricultural %rac ti ce s o#t$eir u%&slo% e n e i $!o urs . Reco nisin t$at most monco mmunit ie s $ave now a"o%te" more %ermanent #orm s o#

cultivation, t$e critiJue o# t $ e, Kare n c on s ensus + come s to rest on t$e o##&s it e e##e ct s o#intensive u%lan" cu lti vat ion .2eemin ly corru%te" !y t$eir lon &term association wit$ o%iuman" t$e mar:et, mon #a r m er s are "enie" a le itimate %resencein u%lan" ca tc $ m ents /

$e cultivation o# o%ium in waters$e" #or es t s !y monI is an im%ortant cause o# t$ e "estruction o# lar eJ ua n titi e s o# vir in #o r es t . I 5ono&cro%%in o# ca!!a esan" te m%er at eow e r s I !y t$e mon $as cause" t$e "estruction o# t$e

waters$e" #orest o# t$e GKar en Hvilla e o# 5ae K $a %uu . $e cultivation o# cr o% s !y mon in t$e

waters$e" area creates r ea t con ic t wit$ t$e internal ecolo icalsystem "ue to t$eir $i $ c$emical u s e . ?


28/35

0@@ An!remon v ill a e s , se t s out a strate y #or #urt$er e1tension into

, outl yin + Kare n vi lla e s t$at will #o cu s on consoli"atin

su!sistence %ro"uction .

$i s "is%arity in "evelo%ment assistance receives no criticalcommentary at all in rece n t literature on t$e Karen. In"ee", Juitet$e o %%osit e seems to !e t$e case, wit$ a c le a r relations$i%%osite" !etween limite" intervention !y overnment a encies an"a ! e sir a bl e state o# relative u n"er&"evel o %me nt . Local resourcemana ement ca %a!il it ie s are seen a s "erivin #rom an , er a o##ree"om + ( yu* iss a ra ) w$en t$e vil la e $a" not yet #allen u n"e r

t$e inu e n c e o# t$e state. 0 $ese c a%a!i liti e s %ersist in areas w$ere, t $ e state " e vel o %me n t system $as !arely reac$e" t$e villa e in

t$e %ast > years o# national "e v e lo%men t + ! ut , conversely, are ont$e "ecline w$ere state a encies $ave #acilitate" mar:et

inc or %orat ion , %rimary sc$ool e"ucation an" %u!lic $ealt$. $elamenta!le state o# a ##a ir s in one suc $, "evel o% e " + villa e is "escri!e" insome "et ai l/

?? Anan 'an-ana%an , $ e 9olitic s o# 3onse rvatio n an" 3o m%le1 it y o# Local3ontrol o# ;orest Lan" in t$e Nort$e r n $ai i $lan "s +, ountain "esearch an!


29/35

The Ka r e n

$e roa" an" t$e income t$at came alon wit$ commercialcro% s increasin ly "rew t$ e vill a e r s into reater e1ternal"e%en"ency, an" "e%e n "e n c y on t$e e1ternal mar:et, an" ca u s e " t$erelations$i% !etween %eo%le an" t$e #ore s t to "ecline, e s %e ci al ly int$e area o# #oo" an" me"icinal $er ! s . Day !y "ay t$e new

eneration will !e se%arate" #rom t$e ori inal loca l wis "om an":no wl e" e o# t$e community. G $ e vil la e H $as receive"con s i"e ra ! le mainstr ea m "evelo%ment. 2everal $o us e$o l" s $ave%ic:&u% t ruc: s an" almost every $ouse$ol" $as a motor&!i:e.5o s t o# t$e villa e $as electricity an" electrical a%%lia n c e s . I

$e continuation o# t$e ori inal %oint o# view is a $eavy !u r " e n ont$e community. I Kno wl e" e in relation to mana ement o#!io"iversity can clearly !e seen to !e at t$e lowe s t level Go# t$e t$ree

vill a e s stu"ie"H. 5ainly t$i s is a result o# t$e %rimary e"ucationsystem w$ic$ se%arates c$il"ren #ro m t$e li#e s tyl e o# t$e villa e an"ori ent s t$em t o war" s ma:in a liveli$oo" in t$e c a%i tal is tsys te m. !ut itis, as yet, unclear $ow stron ly Karen #arme r s t$emselves

su!scri!e to t $ is view. I n"ee ", t$e wil lin n e ss o# many Karen#a r m er s to e1%eriment wit$ alternative cro%s, !uil"in on a $istoryo# a ricultural a"a%tion an" incor% orat ion , su est s t$at t$ey "onot %erceive suc $ a stron con ic t !etween , e 1te r na l+ su%%or tan" , loca l+ ca%a!ilities. W$ile t$ere is, no "ou !t , enormou sroom #or im%rovement in t$e "esi n an" "elivery o# rural

" e v e lo%men t i n it iat iv e s , #ramin t$e le itimacy o# a ricultural:nowle" e in overly local te rm s t $ re at en s to un"ermine Karencl ai m s #or a reater s$are o# t$e "evelo%ment !u" e t .

7orestro! uc t s

Encyclo%ae"ic : nowle " e o# #orest %ro"uct s #eat ure s %rominentlyin t$e , Kare n c on s ensus +. owever, once a ain, t$e em%$asis is onsu!sistence rat$er t$an commercial use. Ac coun t s o# Kareneconomy stress t$at vil la e r s , $arves t #orest %la nt s to use in t$e$ou se $o l " an " only sell a very littl e + ( * ha y baan & le* le* nooy


30/35

0@ An!renooy ). = 2tron cultural aversions to commercial tim!er cuttinare alle e", an" even t$e acJuisition o# tim!er #or $ou s e&!u il" &in is re%orte" to !e constraine" !y an array o# re ul at ion s an"moral %rece%ts/ i# t$ere is a nest, t$e tree cannot !e use" !ecauset $ is woul" !e li:e "estroyin someone else +s $ou s e to !uil" your

own +. B 9reviou s commercial "ea lin s in #o re s t %ro"uc t s area c:no wl e" e " (t$ou $ t$e recor" is silent on wi"es%rea" Kareninvolvement in t$e tim!er in"u s try ) ! ut , most im%ortantly, t$ea!an"on m en t o# t$ese alle e"ly unsustaina!le %ra ctic e s isa%%la u" e ". In t$e #amou s "is%ute over #orest mana ement in Wat6an, a nationally %rominent N' announce" t$at t$e Karenv ill a e r s $a" a ree" to ive u% ta%%in %ine oil in t$e inte rest s o#

#orest conservation, wit$ re li iou s c eremoni e s $el" to mar:t $ is act o# e col o i ca l re%entance. @ n o in e1%loitation o##or e s t %ro"uc t s is ty%ically attri!ute" to , outsi "ers + ( *hon phaynoo * ) secretly enterin t$e #ores t an" stealin t$e local ecolo ical

$erit a e . ?

E< I!i" . , %%. B@, 44 L 0 . 2ee also 3$a tc$awa n , Supsan %anna , %%. @4L ?6esa"a , Kanc hat*a n thi !in , %. > L isa , .ithi lo* pa , %. @ Nort$ern

De velo%men t ; oun"atio n et al ., Kansu :s a :$wamla:lai +, %%. ?E, 0=


31/35

The Ka r e n

W$ile t$e critiJue o# t$ese , outsi "ers + is %otent, t$e "iscourseclearly "enies Kare n co mmunit ie s t$emselves a le itimate role int$e commercial use o# #orest resources. $ e overall e##ect is a#un"amentally conservative one/ state a encies an" well&%lace"

!usi n e ss interests retain control o# #orest &!a se " re)enue w$ileKaren comm u ni ti e s are allocate" a, su!sis te nce&on ly + presence . $e , Kare n conse n sus + convincin ly%resents wi"e&ra n i nevi"ence o# Karen "esire to !e more closely in volve " in #o re s t

mana ement, !ut #ra mi n t$e le itimacy o# t$eir case in t erm s o# an, a lt ernat iv e "evelo%ment tra-ectory !ase" on loca l su!si ste nc e +%resents only a minimalist claim #or a , m or e eJual s$are o# t$e!ene . t st rea m sO owi n out o# t$e #o re sts +. 4 # course it woul" !e na ve toassume t$at t$ere are no tstrate ic limi t s on t$e %u rsui t o# ri $t s to commerciale1%loitation o# #o re s t resource s . owever, t$e o%tion s$o ul " not!e too rea"ily "ismisse", es%ecially in comm u ni ti e s wi t$ c$ronicsu!sistence "e . c it s an" #ew income& eneratin alternatives.Reco nisin t $ e le itimacy o# t$e collection an" sa le o# #o re s t%ro "uct s may also %rovi" e a more resil ie n t #oun"ation #orsustaina!le local mana ement t$an maintainin t$e stereoty%e o#r e sou rc e %lun"erin !y s$a"owy o ut si"e r s .

Conclusion: To&ards a 'ess 'imited 'e%itimacyW$at m o ti v a te s t$e %ro"uction o# t$e , Kare n con se nsus +T ;orsome o# it s ori i n a tor s t $ e consensus may, %er$a%s, arise #rom a. rm commitment to Karen culture as an in t rinsi c %ro%erty o# a"e . ne" , an" "e . na!l e , rou% o# %eo%le. Un" e r t$reat #rom t$ee1ternal #o rce s o# t$e mar:et an" t$e state, t $ is uniJue et$nic$erita e is seen as "eservin o# "ocumen & tation, %reservation an"%ro m o t ion . owever, t$e a u t $o rs$i % o# a %rim o r"ia l et$nici"entity "oes not necessarily amount to a commitment to

%rimor" ial is t view s o# culture. $ e reco nition t$at tra"itionalism

can !e a strate ically use#ul manoeuvr e in t$e %ursuit o# ri $t san" re so urce s is now common%lace. ;ramin c la im s in te r m s o#

et$nic ri $ts * com & !inin , a n interest wit$ an a ##e ct +4* en$ance s t$eir mora l levera e !y trans#ormi nJuoti"ian re sou rc e c on ict s into , m o r e "ramatic $ uma n ri $t s

issue s +. 40 An" t$e sel ect ion o# rai mun ian as a central "e . n in#eature o# Karen i"entity is rea"ily un"erst an"a!le , iven it s

resonance wit$ national an" international interest in t$e lin:e"


32/35

0? An!re%reservation o# !iolo ical an" cultural "iversity an" t$e %romotiono# se l#&su# . cie ncy as an anti"ote to t $ e e1cesses o# lo!al is at ion .

$ese are %ower#u l motivations. owever, in t$i s %a%er my%rimary aim $as !een to su est t$at t$e strate ic value o# t$e, Kare n consensus + s $ oul " not !e ta:en #or rant e" . 5y ar ument

in relation to %a""y cultivation, cas$ c r o%%in , a ricultural"evelo%ment a n" #orest %ro"uc t $arvestin is t$at t$e , Ka r e nc o nse nsu s +, !y relyin on an overly narrow a n" "istinct sense o#Karen i"entity, %otentially contri ! ut e s to t$e on oin mar inalisation o# Karen #arme r s in conte 1 t s o# resourcecom%etition. In t$e #ollowin %a ra ra%$s , I wi ll conclu"e wit$ amore eneral "iscussion o# t$e limi ta ti on s o# t$e , Ka re n

c on se nsus + a n" some %ossi!le a lt ernat ive s .$e :ey o!-ective o# t$e , Kare n con s ensus + is not to c$allen e e V

lite an" state "is cour se s a!out t$e a ricultural %ra ctic e s o# u%lan"%eo%le s , !ut to e-clu!e the Karen (rom them+ In

EE 9ari 7aumann, $ e 9ersistence o# 9o%ulism in In"ian ;orest 9o licy +, 9ournalo( easa n t S tu!ie s , vol. E, no. B (0 44? ) .


33/35

The Ka r e n

res%onse to c$a r e s o# "e#orestation an" waters$e" "e ra"ation,t$e , Ka re n consensus + is to su!mit a vi oro u s , no t uil t y + %lea,rat$er t$an Juestion t$e !asis o# t$e c$ a r e s t$emselves. Des%itet$e constant em%$asis on alternative #orm s o# in"i enou s

:nowle " e , t $ is construction o# t$e Karen as mo"elecolo ical c it i en s leaves t$e %re"omina n t environmentalmana ement or t $o "o1ie s com%letely unc$allen e". Rat$er t$an"rawin on t$e rowin !o"y o# evi"ence, !ot$ in $ailan" an"

internationally, t$at Jues ti on s t$es e environmental ort$o"o 1i es* t$a t #orest clearin re"uces water su%%ly, t$at intensiveu% lan " cultivation creates "ownstream se"imentation an" t$atc$emical use , %oi son s + soil an " wa te r* t$ e , Kare nc o nse n s u s + assem!les a !o"y o# ecolo ical :nowle " e a!outt $ e rel at ions$i% s !etween #orest, soil an" water t$at ec$oes t$e

, o# . ci al + :no wl e" e o# t$e st at e an" conservationist rou%s . 4

karen consensus

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