king1 ppt ch01 3
TRANSCRIPT
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Chapter 1What is Psychology?
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Chapter Preview
Defining Psychology
Historical Foundations of Psychology
Contemporary Approaches to Psychology
Specializations and Careers in Psychology
Application: Health and Wellness
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Psychology: Defined
The scientific study of behavior and
mental processes
Key components of this definition: Science Behavior Mental Processes
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Psychology and Common Sense
Is psychology simply common sense?
Sometimes yes, but sometimes no…
Hindsight Bias
Unexpected Findings
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Positive Psychology
Traditional focus on the negative aspects of human experience
More than disordered Positive Psychology Movement
Experiences people value Traits associated with optimal functioning Positive group and civic values
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Historical Approaches
Western Philosophy
Biology and Physiology
Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920) First Psychology Laboratory (1879)
established at the University of Leipzig
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Structuralism
Wundt: Identify structures of the mind Research described dimensions of feeling:
Pleasure / Displeasure Tension / Relaxation Excitement / Depression
Methodology: Introspection
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Functionalism
William James and Pragmatism Identify the functions of the mind
Focused on interactions with environment Adaptive significance: “Why?” Flow of thought: Stream of consciousness
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Psychology and Evolution
Charles Darwin (1859)
Natural Selection There exists a constant struggle for resources Nature will favor those traits that promote
reproduction and survival Environmental changes alter evolution’s course
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Contemporary Approaches
Seven Current Psychological Perspectives
Biological
Behavioral
Psychodynamic
Humanistic
Cognitive
Evolutionary
Sociocultural
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The Biological Approach
Focuses on the brain and nervous system Central to understanding behavior, thought,
and emotion Neuroscience
Structure, function, development, genetics, biochemistry of the nervous system
Chapter 3: Biological Foundations of Behavior
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The Behavioral Approach
Focuses on the environmental determinants of observable behavior
Notable Behaviorists: John Watson, B.F. Skinner
Early conflicts with cognitive psychologists Chapter 7: Learning
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The Psychodynamic Approach
Emphasizes unconscious thought, conflict between internal drives and society, and early family experiences All influence behavior, thought, and emotion
Notable Psychodynamic Theorists Sigmund Freud, Erik Erikson, Alfred Adler
Chapter 11: Personality
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The Humanistic Approach
Focuses on positive human qualities, capacity for self-actualization, free will Developed in response to the behaviorist and
psychodynamic approaches Notable Humanistic Theorists
Carl Rogers, Abraham Maslow Chapter 11: Personality
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The Cognitive Approach
Emphasizes the importance of mental processes to problem solving, learning and memory
Mental processes control behavior through memories, perceptions, and thinking
Chapter 9: Thinking, Language, and Intelligence
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The Evolutionary Approach
Emphasizes the relevance of evolutionary theory to all behavior and mental processes Current function reflects changes that occurred
in response to ancestral environments Notable Evolutionary Psychologists
David Buss, Leda Cosmides, John Tooby Chapter 3: Biological Foundations of
Behavior
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The Sociocultural Approach
Examines how social and cultural environments influence behavior and mental processes In contrast to the evolutionary approach
Studies differences between ethnic and cultural groups within a country
Chapter 12: Social Psychology
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Contemporary Approaches
Seven Current Psychological PerspectivesBiological
Behavioral
Psychodynamic
Humanistic
Cognitive
Evolutionary
Sociocultural
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Critical Controversy: Altruism
Altruism Defined Voluntary behavior intended to help others Not motivated by expectation of personal gain
Altruism: The Evolutionary Approach Kin selection and inclusive fitness
Altruism: The Sociocultural Approach Social relationships unfold over time
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Areas of Specialization
Specializations are not mutually exclusive
Highlighted by “Intersections” in the text
American Psychological Association Abbreviated: APA Currently 56 divisions / specializations
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Areas of Specialization
Physiological Psychology
Behavioral Neuroscience
Developmental Psychology
Sensation and Perception
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Areas of Specialization
Cognitive Psychology
Learning
Motivation and Emotion
Personality Psychology
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Areas of Specialization
Social Psychology
Industrial and Organizational Psychology
Clinical and Counseling Psychology
Health Psychology
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Areas of Specialization
Community Psychology
School and Educational Psychology
Environmental Psychology
Psychology of Women
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Areas of Specialization
Forensic Psychology
Sport Psychology
Cross-Cultural Psychology
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Intersection: Culture and Emotion
Complete the “Happiness” scale in the text Sum your ratings and divide the total by 5 Higher scores = higher perceived happiness
Despite numerous cultural differences, most people report being happy
But culture can impact perceived happiness
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Intersection: Culture and Emotion
Individualistic Cultures Individuals viewed as unique and distinct from
their social group Value independence
Collectivistic Cultures Emphasize social group and the individual’s
role within that group Value interdependence
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Careers in Psychology
What do psychologists do? And where? Business Social and Human Services Research Education Research Laboratories Clinical and Private Practice Settings
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Careers in Psychology
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Careers in Psychology
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Psychology: Health and Wellness
Psychology is concerned with Mind-Body Connections
The mind impacts the body Examples?
The body impacts the mind Examples?
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Chapter Summary
Explain what psychology is and describe the positive psychology movement.
Discuss the roots and early scientific foundations of psychology.
Summarize the main themes of seven approaches to psychology.
Evaluate areas of specialization and careers in psychology. Describe the connections between the mind and the body.
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Chapter Summary
Defining Psychology The scientific study of behavior and mental
processes Historical Foundations of Psychology
Origins in philosophy and physiology Structuralism – Wilhelm Wundt Functionalism – William James Evolutionary Theory – Charles Darwin
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Chapter Summary
Contemporary Approaches to Psychology Seven current approaches – complementary
Specializations and Careers in Psychology Business, social and human services, research Education, research, clinics and private practice
Application: Health and Wellness The mind-body connection is a “two-way street”
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Chapter 2Psychology’s Scientific Method
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Chapter Preview
Psychology and the Scientific Method Research Settings and Methods Data Analysis and Interpretation Challenges: Research Ethics and Bias Application: Health and Wellness
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What Makes Psychology a Science?
Scientific Approach Curiosity Skepticism Objectiveness Thinking critically
Collaboration Peer-reviewed research Meta-analyses
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The Scientific Attitude
Curiosity
Skepticism
Objectivity
Thinking Critically
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Collaboration
Peer Review
Publication
Research/Scholarly Journals
Meta-Analysis
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The Scientific Theory
What is a Theory?
What is a Scientific Theory? Broad idea or set of closely related ideas Attempts to explain observations Makes predictions about future events Connects observations and research
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Scientific Method: Observation
Operational Definitions
Objective description of variables
How will variables be measured?
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Scientific Method: Hypothesis
Formulate Hypothesis
Testable prediction
Derived from theory
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Scientific Method: Research
Collect Data Select participants
Population – entire group of interest Sample – subset of population Random sampling
Design Study / Select Research Method Analyze Data
Data – all information collected in a study Use statistical procedures to understand data
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Scientific Method: Conclusions
What do the results mean?
Statistical data analysis
Replication of results (reliability)
Revise theory?
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Research: Terms & Settings
What? Variable – anything that varies
Where? “Artificial” world – laboratory setting
Advantages and disadvantages? Real world - natural setting
Advantages and disadvantages?
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Descriptive Research
Goal: Observe and Record Behavior
Naturalistic observation Surveys and interviews Standardized tests Case studies
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Observation
The goal of observational research is to accurately describe behavior.
Naturalistic Observation: Investigates behavior in its natural environment.
Participant Observation: Studies a group as a participant in the natural environment.
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Descriptive Methods
Strengths Study behavior in context May see behavior that would not occur in a lab Systematically record events Record events too risky or unethical to create in a lab
Weaknesses Absence of control Researcher’ presence may alter behaviors Possible invasion of privacy
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Campus Bash Fun Using the principles of naturalistic observations, you will
observe behavior as it occurs in its natural environment.
You may utilize either of the following methods for observation
Naturalistic Observation: Investigates behavior in its natural environment.
Participant Observation: Studies a group as a participant in the natural environment.
Describe the context of the behavior, making note of the social roles and norms of the situation and people within.
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Campus Bash Fun, con’t Describe any incidence of conformity that you may have
observed
Here are some ideas for your observation: details about the setting and costumes (e.g., location, number of
people present, lighting, background noise, dirty clothes) physical and demographic features of the main "actors” non-verbal behaviors (e.g., personal space, territoriality, gestures,
eye contact, tone of voice) verbal exchanges
Compose your observations in a 1 page paper that you will turn in on Friday.
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How Does the Social Situation Affect Our Behavior?
Social Standards of Behavior Social Roles Social Norms
Conformity change in behavior, belief, or both to fit the group Norms: influence our behavior to do what is expected
or “normal” Mode of responding (written vs. spoken) Status lesser or higher
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How Does the Social Situation Affect Our Behavior?
Compliance Compliance gaining strategies:
FITD: start small, keep getting buy in, then assume compliance DITF: ask big, want small Low-Ball: get compliance with an attractive less costly investment
then renigging on it. Car sales
Social loafing: evil of the group project, diffusion of responsibility
Bystander effect
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Descriptive Research
Goal: Observe and Record Behavior
Naturalistic observation Surveys and interviews Standardized tests Case studies
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Correlational Research
Goal: Identify Relationships
Correlation coefficient: r
-1.00 ≤ r ≤ 1.00
Strength of relationship: #
Direction of relationship: + / -
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Correlation Coefficients
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Scatter Plots
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Correlational Research
Positive Correlations Factors vary in same direction ↑ and ↑ … or … ↓ and ↓
Negative Correlations Factors vary in opposite direction ↑ and ↓ … or … ↑ and ↓
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Correlation and Causation
Correlation does not equal causation Third Variable Problem
Multivariate approach Longitudinal design
Advantages and Disadvantages of Correlational Research
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Experimental Research
Goal: Determine Causation
Random Sampling and Assignment
Independent Variable(s) – Manipulation
Dependent Variable(s) – Measurement
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Experimental Research
Experimental Group Receives IV manipulation
Control Group Treated equally, but no IV manipulation
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Psychology’s Research Methods
Insert figure 2.4 here
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Validity
Ecological validity Representative of real world issues? Do results generalize to the real world?
Internal validity Are DV changes the result of IV manipulation? Bias? Logical errors?
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Bias and Expectations
Experimenter Bias
Research Participant Bias
Placebo Effect
Double-Blind Experiment
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Intersection: TMT Theory
Ernest Becker – human life and culture Terror Management Theory (TMT)
Death “awareness” leads to worldview defense Empirical Support
Rosenblatt and others (1989) Landau and colleagues (2004) Routledge and others (2004)
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Analyzing and Interpreting Data
StatisticsMathematical methods used to report data
Descriptive Statistics Describe and summarize data
Inferential Statistics Draw conclusions about data
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Descriptive Statistics
Measures of Central Tendency Mean Median Mode
Measures of Dispersion Range Standard deviation
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Inferential Statistics
Does data confirm the hypothesis?
Statistical significance
α = 0.05 (confidence level)
Significance vs. meaningfulness
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Research Ethics
Research participants have rights! Institutional Review Board (IRB) APA Guidelines
1. Informed consent
2. Confidentiality
3. Debriefing
4. Deception
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Animal Research in Psychology
Animal Research and Human Problems Prevalence of Animal Research Animals Rights and Welfare Institutional Animal Care and Use
Committees (IACUC)
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Minimizing Bias in Research
Gender Bias Research historically focused on males
Cultural and Ethnic Bias Research historically focused on middle-
socioeconomic-status European Americans Overgeneralizations about ethnic groups
Currently research emphasizes diversity: gender, ethnicity, socioeconomic status
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A Wise Consumer…
… is skeptical yet open-minded!
Cautions Distinguish between group results and
individual needs Avoid overgeneralizing results Look for converging evidence Question causal inferences Consider the source
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Application: Happiness
The Science of Happiness Subjective Well-Being Happiness ↔ Life Success Challenges to Becoming Happier
The hedonic treadmill The pursuit of happiness
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Chapter Summary
Explain what makes psychology a science. Discuss common research settings and the three main
types of research that are used in psychology. Distinguish between descriptive statistics and inferential
statistics. Discuss some challenges that involve ethics, bias, and
information. Discuss scientific studies on human happiness and the
nature of their findings.
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Chapter Summary
The scientific method is marked by Curiosity, skepticism, objectiveness, and
critical thinking
Research settings and methods Descriptive, correlational, and experimental
studies conducted in natural settings or the lab
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Chapter Summary
Data analysis and interpretation Descriptive and inferential statistics
Challenges: Research Ethics and Bias APA guidelines and the IRB
Application: Health and Wellness The scientific study of happiness
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Chapter 3Biological Foundations of Behavior
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3-1 The Neuron
Neurons are specialized cells in the nervous system that send and receive information.
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1) The Neuron
Researchers have identified three different types:
Sensory Neurons: Detect stimuli inside the body or in the world
Motor Neurons: Send commands from the brain to other parts of the body, telling them what to do
Interneurons: Connect other neurons to one another.
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2) A Neuron Consists of a Soma, Dendrites, and an Axon
The basic components of the neuron are the:
Soma: The cell body of the neuron
Dendrites: Branch-like extensions of the soma that receive information from other neurons.
Axon: Tail of the soma that sends electrochemical messages
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2) A Neuron Consists of a Soma, Dendrites, and an Axon
More Neuron parts:
Myelin sheath: A protective coating of fatty cells around an axon
Synapses: The entire area of the terminal button of one neuron and the synaptic cleft, and the dendrite of another neuron.
Terminal Buttons: Area that releases neurotransmitters to a receiving neuron.
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Neurons: Structure
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3-3c Brain Parts Amygdala: Fear & Agression (Approach or Avoid) Cerebral Cortex: Higher order mental processes Cerebellum: Body movement and coordination Hipocampus: Acquisition & consolidation of new info Hypothalamus: Homeostasis (balance: eat, drink, sex) Limbic System: Emotional Center Medulla: Breathing, heart rate, swallowing Pons: Sleeping and arousal Thalamus: Sensory Relay station
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The Neural Impulse
Resting Potential Stable, negative charge of an inactive neuron
Action Potential Ion gates cause depolarization Brief, positive electrical charge: firing
All-or-None Principle Once initiated, it cannot be stopped
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Synapses and Neurotransmitters
Synaptic Transmission Neurochemical communication Action potential (electrical impulse) is
converted into a chemical signal Synapses
Space between terminal buttons and the receiving neuron’s cell body or dendrites
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Synapses and Neurotransmitters
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Neurotransmitters
Neurotransmitters either excite or inhibit Acetylcholine
Muscle actions, learning, memory Alzheimer’s disease: ↓ Ach levels Nicotine: ↑ Ach levels
GABA – inhibitory functions Anxiety: ↓ GABA levels
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Neurotransmitters
Norepinephrine Stress and mania: ↑ Norepinephrine levels Depression: ↓ Norepinephrine levels Regulates sleep states in conjunction with ACh
Dopamine Stimulant drugs: ↑ Dopamine levels Parkinson’s disease: ↓ Dopamine levels
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Neurotransmitters
Serotonin Regulation of sleep, mood, attention, learning Depression: ↓ Serotonin levels Prozac ↑ Serotonin levels
Endorphins Endogenous (natural) opiates Mediate feelings of pleasure and pain
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Neurotransmitters
Oxytocin Both a hormone and a neurotransmitter Related to onset of lactation in new mothers Related to attachment / emotional bonds
Drugs and Neurotransmitters Agonist – mimics or enhances NT effects Antagonist – blocks effects of NT
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The Nervous System: Divisions
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The Nervous System: Divisions
Central nervous system (CNS) Brain and spinal cord
Peripheral nervous system (PNS) Somatic nervous system
Sensory nerves and muscular activity Autonomic nervous system – internal organs
Sympathetic nervous system – arouses Parasympathetic nervous system – calms
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The Endocrine System Communicates by Secreting Hormones Endocrine system: Network of glands that manufacture and secrete hormones
directly into the bloodstream
Hormones: Chemical signals manufactured and secreted into the blood in one part of the body and that affect other parts of the body.
The Pituitary gland
body’s “master” gland
located at the base of the brain
stimulates and regulates the endocrine system.
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Modern Technology Measures Five techniques that may be used for for measuring the
brain’s electrical activity, structure, blood flow, and chemistry are:
Electroencephalograph (EEG): Records “waves” of electrical activity in the brain
Computerized Axial Tomograph (CAT): Combines thousands of X-ray photographs to construct a cross-sectional image of the brain.
Positron Emission Tomography (PET) scan: Measures average amount of metabolic activity in brain regions
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Modern Technology Measures
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI): Produces 3-D images of the brain’s soft tissue by detecting magnetic activity
Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI): Measures the average neural activity in different brain regions
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3-3c Brain Parts Amygdala: Fear & Agression (Approach or Avoid) Cerebral Cortex: Higher order mental processes Cerebellum: Body movement and coordination Hipocampus: Acquisition & consolidation of new info Hypothalamus: Homeostasis (balance: eat, drink, sex) Limbic System: Emotional Center Medulla: Breathing, heart rate, swallowing Pons: Sleeping and arousal Thalamus: Sensory Relay station
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The Cerebral Cortex Consists of Specialized Regions, or “Lobes.”
Occipital Lobes: visual processing
Parietal Lobes: touch sensation
monitors body’s position
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11) The Cerebral Cortex Consists of Specialized Regions, or “Lobes.”
Temporal Lobes: audition and language.
Frontal Lobes: coordination; higher mental processes.
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13) The Right and Left Cerebral Hemispheres Function Differently Research shows these cautious generalizations:
Right hemisphere: visual and spatial tasks recognizing nonlinguistic sounds identifying faces perceiving and expressing emotions
Left hemisphere: Excels at language, logic providing explanations for events
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14) The Sexes May Differ in Their Hemispheric Organization Hemisphere Organization Left hemisphere damage due to stroke
Men are more likely to develop aphasia Women’s brains are bilateralized for
language Women’s left hemispheres may be
organized differently than men’s.
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15) The Brain Can Alter Its Neural Connections
Plasticity: ability to alter its neural connections
Peak age of plasticity is 4-10 years of age
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Genes and the Environment
The “Nature versus Nurture” Debate Nature describes one’s genetic potential
Genotype – genetic heritage Nurture the expression of that potential
Phenotype – observable characteristics Both physical and psychological characteristics