Classroom Music I autumn term 2 I 2010/11 1

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Chris Duffill currently works at Monmouth Comprehensive School, where he is responsible for the A-level music technology course. He is also a member of the senior examining team for that A level. In his 20-year career, he has been a live performer, studio musician, composer and producer, working closely with new music technologies as they have developed.

A2: Edexcel Music Technology Task 3c (composing)by Chris Duffill

InTroducTIon

A-level Music Technology has had a ‘composing using technology’ task since the old curriculum 2000 quali-

fication. In the latest specification, the requirement to produce a score has been removed and now only one

composition is required, using a brief set by the exam board and available in September of the examining

year. The aim of composing using technology is that the technology is integral to the realisation of the

finished piece – that it could not have been done by any other means.

In practice this means developing unique timbres and possibly rhythmic and melodic motifs to be used

in the composition, using sound design and manipulation techniques such as synthesis, sampling and audio

editing, and creative exploitation of effects. What it does not mean is producing a multi-track recording of a

song played by a band, or sequencing a performance using standard out-of-the-box preset sounds. Either

of these approaches – or a combination of both – could have been achieved in a number of ways with a

similar outcome, and will not attract many marks for the use of technology.

This article will look at techniques for these approaches to composing using technology, at how to help

your students develop the necessary skills in creating unique sounds, and also how to use them effectively

as compositional elements. The requirements of writing to a brief and the types of brief offered will also be

discussed, and there will be some exploration of what makes successful composition, in the context of the

using the parts created using technology.

WorKIng To ThE brIEf, TASK rEquIrEMEnTS And ASSESSMEnT There is a choice of three briefs set by the exam board. The current format is a moving image brief, a set

text brief and a current affairs/sampling brief, each of which has slightly different requirements. They do all

share certain aspects – the necessity for getting the correct lengths for the scenes in the moving image brief

is fairly obvious, but the other two briefs also specify a length which should be adhered to: three minutes

means exactly that, not 2:36 or even 3:09. Another shared facet is the requirement to use technology as an

integral part of the work, as outlined above. If this has not been done, the brief cannot be said to have been

fully met, so marks will inevitably be lost.

Moving image brief

As alluded to previously, one of the unique requirements of this will be to work to set timings within the

scenes, and there will also be some hit points or significant action during the scenes where the music should

provide pivotal moments. The mood created by the composition will be of high importance, and will need to

change and evolve according to the scene. The form of each section will have a shape that is dictated by the

scene content, to an extent. It is sometimes a requirement to present separate scenes as discrete tracks on

a CD, otherwise the piece will be a continuous single track – though probably with some clear and obvious

UsefUl sUpport docUments

6MT03 Examiner’s Report 2010 �

Music Technology GCE Specification – explanation of the nature of the task and an example of �the mark scheme

Getting Started Teacher’s Guide �

2010 and 2011 Portfolio 2 (6MT03) Document �

All available at www.edexcel.com– some documents such as the examiner’s report may need se-cure download via your exams officer.

Classroom Music I autumn term 2 I 2010/11 2

changes of mood, pace and direction. In either case make sure the music is presented as requested – it is

a simple task that will lose marks if not done correctly.

This brief offers opportunities to explore a range of different musical ideas and perhaps even styles, and

a clear framework for the structure of the music. The use of themes and motivic development will almost

certainly play a part – this may suit some students more than others, as not all will be capable of generating

the wide range of musical ideas demanded by this brief, or of making a smooth transition between sections

that may be highly contrasting. It is likely that melodic, harmonic and rhythmic elements will need to show

considerable diversity, with changes of key, tempo and time signature needed.

This brief may not offer the best opportunities for exploiting the technology. Study of music for the moving

image will quickly reveal that large-scale orchestrations are the norm, and even where electronic sound is

used (such as Blade Runner/Vangelis) the approach is largely similar to writing and arranging for a large en-

semble, but with synths rather than orchestral sections. It is probably the case that for the technology to be

exploited fully in this brief, a more radical approach needs to be taken, as electronic, ambient and electro-

acoustic styles may be harder to fit to the brief.

Set text

This is usually presented as a poem, which will have a fairly straightforward rhythmic delivery with perhaps

a few twists that need some careful exploration. The brief offers the opportunity to write a song, but this is

not the only approach and the published portfolio document containing the briefs highlights the possibility

of using a spoken rendition of the text in the context of a soundscape. Taking this direction offers lots of

possibilities with technology, using sound-design techniques on the spoken vocal parts and accompanying

it with electronic and ambient influences, which is likely to attract more marks for manipulation and creative

sound design.

The more obvious approach of writing a song offers a path that many students may already be familiar with

and feel confident about, so it is always worth considering, but again it may take some unconventional ap-

proaches to make the sound-design work fit, particularly if the student wants a typical rock-band format.

Hip hop, R&B and other electronic styles offer plenty of opportunities of course, and are often littered with

examples of vocal manipulation and sampling.

Current affairs

This approach has been used for a number of years now and focuses on the use of samples taken from

speeches, interviews and other sources to explore a recent news story or political activity. This provides a

broad palette of material to work with, and automatically draws the composition towards a more technologi-

cal approach as the samples can be manipulated using a range of techniques.

There is also a degree of skill in choosing the samples to represent a coherent storyline or viewpoint, and

editing the samples so they actually fit with the music – in the best cases the rhythmic construction of the

spoken words will be chosen, edited and shaped to form a rhythmic pattern closely linked to the musical

movement. Again, electronic and ambient influences are obvious choices of musical style, and have excel-

lent scope for creative electronic sound design.

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A note of cAUtion

The emphasis presented here will be on sound design, because this is an area that is often not fully exploited

by students. This does not mean that musical elements of the composition can be disregarded – a substantial

amount of marks are awarded for the compositional techniques used. There can be a danger in taking

ambient, abstract or avant garde approaches that do not have much content in terms of melody, harmony,

rhythm, texture and form. For example, a spoken narration of the poem accompanied with a few sound

effects and perhaps a synth pad or two could well fail to attract many marks for the musical elements. This

can be a successful approach if there is enough variety and development to give a strong form, interesting

textures and some sense of rhythm (including timing the sound effects to have a real purpose and impact

when used), and can clearly be a fertile ground for exploiting technology; but students who choose this

approach often produce work that is meandering and disconnected.

One of the requirements of each brief is that there are at least six instrumental parts (this will include voice if

used), so it is important that a variety of roles within an ensemble are filled. There is more discussion of this in

the final part of the article. Control with variety and development are always the key factors to aspire to.

It is true, however, that some of the elements can take a less important role. In common with many other

composition mark schemes, the five musical elements listed above are all marked but only the best three

are counted. This accounts for styles that may be simple in melody and harmony but more complex in

rhythm and texture.

Mark-scheMe suMMary

Four compulsory criteria:Responding to the brief (6) – the best work will be imaginative and reflect all aspects of the �brief

Style and coherence (6) – the best work will show excellent flow throughout, demonstrating �detailed understanding of the musical features of the style

Manipulation of sounds (6) – the best work will show an excellent sonic palette, actively created �to fit the song

Quality of recorded work (4) – the best work will be of high quality in all aspects �

optional criteria (best three from list; 6 marks each): melody, harmony, rhythm, texture, form/structure

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SynThESIS

Synthesis provides opportunities for making unique sounds, which can provide inspiration for a composition.

Here are some key points:

It is best used to create sounds of an artificial nature, rather than imitating real instruments �

original hardware synths were performance instruments with lots of knobs, buttons and sliders used to �

shape the sound during performance as well as create new timbres

The easiest type to use and program is a subtractive synthesiser, based on original analogue hardware �

synths (such as Moog, ArP, Prophet, oberheim)

These are available as a VST or an Au plug-in instrument within software (a1, Monologue or Prologue in �

cubase, Pentagon in Sonar, ES1 in Logic, Subtractor in reason) and as third-party freeware or purchased

models.

Components of a synthesiser

The screenshot shows the Subtractor synthesiser from Reason. This has been chosen because the layout is

easy to see, and settings are mostly made on sliders which should be clearer to view here than rotary con-

trols. You will find similar controls in all subtractive synths.

Synths have four basic components:

OsCillaTOrs

These create the basic waveform (sine, square, sawtooth, triangle). There are usually two oscillators and

controls for pitch (octave and fine tune) – see centre top of the picture.

FilTers

These modify the harmonic content (timbre) of the basic oscillator(s) by removing some of the frequency

content (low pass filter). There are two basic controls for cut-off frequency and resonance – to the right of

the oscillator section in the picture.

envelOpes

These control how an aspect of the sound changes over time. There are usually at least four controls – at-

tack, decay, sustain and release. The amplitude envelope controls the level of sound when a key is struck.

The filter envelope shapes the action of the filter – on the right below the filters.

lFO

Low-frequency oscillators can be applied to any other setting to create cyclical changes, such as the change

in pitch of an oscillator to create vibrato – there are two in Subtractor (see bottom centre).

See the list of free-ware and commer-cial products at the end of the article.

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Tutorial: exploring sound creation and shaping

Learning about how a synthesiser works can be approached in a step-by-step way, gaining understanding

of what each section does before moving on to a different area. The following is a tutorial for discovering the

sound generation and shaping possibilities on offer.

1. OsCillaTOrs

The settings shown in the patch (a word used for a single group of settings) above are mostly basic, default

values. This is a good place to start. Note the following as a good starting point:

only one oscillator is active – osc 2 does not have the toggle switch lit so it is off �

The oscillator is set on a sawtooth wave �

The filter cut-off is about half way, the resonance at zero, and the type is LP12 (low pass filter, 12db per �

octave)

The amplitude envelope is set to recreate a piano-like response – quick attack (A), a sustain level (S) to hold �

the note if a key is held down, and a short release (r) to play after the note has ended

Lfo1 and Lfo2 both have amount set to zero – this means they will not affect the sound �

The filter envelope also has amount set to zero so it will not change the filter cut-off. �

Play a note somewhere in the middle of the keyboard and listen to the sound. Listen to the differences be-

tween the different oscillators by changing the type between triangle, sine, saw and square. Each one will

sound quite plain and basic, but they all have different characters.

Now switch in the second oscillator and listen to combinations of the two oscillators – now a wider range of

sounds starts to become available. Note that the mix knob controls the amount of level from each oscillator.

Next, try changing the octave and detune (called ‘cent’ in Subtractor). Straight away a more complex and

rich timbre is created.

Set up the patch shown on the next page – either copy the settings indicated in the table, which is the best

way of learning, or use one of the presets loaded onto the Classroom Music website.

tips

It is useful to set up a reverb and add a small amount to any synth sound. It always helps the sound to breathe – synths can sound very sterile with no effects. Some VST synths will have their own effects sections – these may not be the best quality.

Delay also helps give the sound life. A delay of around 300–400mS with just two or three repeats, mixed quite quietly, will work well.

It is always best to set up reverbs and delays on send and return loops rather than directly on the synth output. It gives much more flexible control as the dry and wet signals are independent.

Go to www.classroom-music.co.uk

Example patches are organised as follows:

Reason files – ‘Synths 1 to 4.rns’ has the Subtractor synths named ‘Synth ex’ 1, 2, 3 and 4 shown �and discussed later in the article; ‘Synths 5 to 7.rns’ has ‘Synth ex’ 5, 6 and 7

These are also provided as Subtractor patches (.zyp) for loading into Subtractor directly �

Equivalent patches are provided as Monologue patches in the Cubase 5 song ‘Synths.cpr’ – synths �1, 2 and 3 are on the first three tracks; synth 4 is not included as it depends on dual filters which Monologue does not have; note that Monologue is monophonic

Cubase song ‘Synth 6 and 7’ has versions of ‘Synth ex’ 6 and 7. �

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Synth ex 1 – detuned sawtooth patch

Settings osc 1 – triangle octave 3, detune +4osc 2 – triangle octave 4, detune -11Mix – slightly more of osc 1

filter cut-off almost fully openresonance – zero

Amplitude envelope Typical ‘piano’ type envelope, fast attack, sustain level medium, short but not zero release

other settings note that the ‘amount’ knob is at zero for Lfo 1 and 2, modulation envelope and filter envelope.

Playing this patch as it is will reveal a typical synth sound – buzzy, with a fatness caused by the detune of

the two oscillators. Synth patches based on sawtooth waves have a bold, aggressive quality and are very

common in all kinds of electronic music styles.

2. FilTer

With the original settings, bring down the filter cut-off (called ‘Freq’ in Subtractor) and notice how the sound

becomes duller. A typical synthesiser technique is to vary the cut-off either manually in performance or by

automation in a sequencer.

Now bring the cut-off back up and raise the resonance (res) to about halfway. Bring the cut-off down again

and notice the change in timbre. The cut-off frequencies are accentuated, giving a fuller sound. Moving the

cut-off quickly up and down between about 30% and 80% will produce a wah-wah type sound.

Increase the resonance again, with the setting almost at maximum. Bring the cut-off up and down again and

hear the accentuation of the cut-off frequency. The filter is now close to self-oscillating, producing its own

frequency component independent of the oscillator, and sounds something like tuning in an old transistor

radio on AM frequencies.

3. FilTer envelOpe

To see how this works, set the filter cut-off to around 50% and the resonance slightly higher. Note the settings

of the filter envelope in the ‘Synth ex 1’ screenshot above and copy them. Bring up the amount to about 60%

This means that none of these are in-fluencing the sound. We will continue to explore their func-tions further on.

Put the detune at 0 for each and hear the difference. Don’t forget to return to the original settings after to continue the exercise.

For an example of a detuned sawtooth synth in action, listen to Zombie Nation/Kernkraft 400 on YouTube. The main synth riff enters around 0:47; before this, the octave synth pattern is played with an opening filter from about 0:40

This clip may be unsuitable for some groups – check it before showing to your students.

Warning – extreme resonance settings can produce very sharp and loud sounds: do not turn your equipment up too loud!

In the Zombie Nation example, listen from about 2:00 to hear the increased resonance setting on the synth.

7 Classroom Music I autumn term 2 I 2010/11

and play a note. The cut-off frequency is now being controlled by the filter envelope and the evidence should

be plain to hear as the filter opens and closes again, creating a similar ‘wah’ sound to that previously made

by manually altering the cut-off.

With a few changes this patch can become something very different. Bring the filter cut-off down to 25%, and

bring the filter envelope attack up to around 60%. Now the sound is a dark, filter-sweep-type pad, useful for

slow moving textural chords or lines (this is saved as ‘Synth ex 3’).

One further thing to note about envelopes – they can often be inverted. In Subtractor, the button on the top

right of the filter envelope section is selected to achieve this. This can lead to interesting results, though in

the current example it just cuts the sound to a low level. The Subtractor patch ‘Synth ex 5’ has settings where

the action of the filter envelope in normal and reverse mode can be heard clearly.

Synth ex 5 – demonstrates inverting filter envelope

4. MODulaTiOn envelOpe

The modulation envelope has a wider choice of destinations for the action of the envelope. In Subtractor,

Osc 1 and Osc 2 will change the pitch of each of those oscillators. In the next example, ‘Synth ex 4’, the

modulation envelope is set to ‘filter 2’. This is a second low pass filter, but not all synths have this. By using

the settings shown in ‘Synth ex 4’, the pad from ‘Synth ex 3’ becomes more complex, as the two filters are

being changed independently and with a different shape.

Synth ex 4 – sweep pad with dual filters

Load up the Subtractor patch ‘Synth ex 2’ or the Cubase song ‘Synths 2’, which has an example using Monologue on track 1, to hear the suggested settings in action. If you have a chance to try these side by side, you will hear that the filter in Subtractor has a smoother sound than Monologue, which sounds quite uneven as it changes value. In extreme cases digital filters can produce an unwanted sound called ‘zipping’ – you can hear the filter opening or closing by steps rather like the sound of a zip.

A synth pad is a common term used to refer to sounds that are suitable for textural thickness, usually having some element of motion and development to the sound, with a slowish attack and long releas.e Other synth sounds are categorised as leads, basses, poly synths (capable of playing more than one note at a time) and SFX.

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The options provided by envelopes when directed to the sound generation and shaping components of a

synth offer many possibilities for creating movement in the sound. This is important in a musical context, as

a static synth sound can quickly become fatiguing. All instrumentalists use movement in their expression –

vibrato and timbral changes using different techniques help create interest in the performance.

5. lOW FrequenCy OsCillaTOrs

An LFO does not create sound in the way oscillators 1 and 2 do. It creates a cyclical change in whatever

component of the synthesiser it is connected to – this could be oscillator pitch or filter cut-off, but the pos-

sibilities can be almost infinite on certain synths.

In its most common application, LFOs are used to create vibrato by changing the pitch of one or both of the

oscillators. Usually this can be controlled by the modulation wheel on a keyboard, so it can be used as a

direct performance control.

Because the LFO is cyclical, and the rate can be linked to a song’s tempo, it provides opportunities for using

up rhythmic synth patches. Return to the setting used in ‘Synth ex 2’, the filtered detune saw patch. Now set

LFO 1 to sync with the song’s tempo, and set the rate to 1/8 note. Two more settings need to be made – the

waveform which determines the shape of the cyclical changes (in this case set to a square wave), and the

destination (in the example shown set to the mix), changing the balance between the two oscillators. ‘Synth

ex 6’ in Subtractor shows these settings.

‘Synth ex 6’ – rhythmic octaves

Bring up the amount setting and listen to the effect this has on the sound. The oscillators are an octave apart

so the cycle between the Osc 1 and Osc 2 gives a pulsing octave figure. The filter is still operating, which

gives a shape to the sound as it opens and closes.

Other possibilities are available by using different waveforms to control the cycles – in the example above

these are selected via the ‘waveform’ button on the left of LFO 1. The first four are triangle, reverse sawtooth,

sawtooth and square, which offer regular variations using those waveshapes. The two at the bottom of the

list are interesting as they change the pulse width of the cycle each time (i.e. the up and down sections of

the wave are different lengths), while still maintaining a longer cycle that is linked to the tempo – this gives

a random element to the cycles. Changing the destination has further areas for exploration; the filter cut-off

will clearly have some interesting results.

There is a second LFO in Subtractor, which offers some different possibilities. For example, the destination

could be set to the cut-off in filter 2 operating at a different rate, which can develop some complex evolving

sounds. LFOs can be useful for pad sounds when set on a slower rate, so the changes evolve slowly, and

when fast rates are used some very bizarre, tremolo-like SFX can be created.

With the current popularity of dubstep, it would be a good point to look at how the distinctive wobble bass

is made. There are many different approaches of course, but here is one as starting point:

Set the two oscillators to square waves, in the same octave with no detune �

Set the filter cut-off to somewhere around 40% to 50%, so the sound is deep and round, and not very �

bright

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Make sure the amp envelope is set for a quick attack and sustains at a decent level when the note is held �

Set Lfo 1 to sawtooth wave and destination filter cut-off �

Set the rate to � 1⁄8 and bring up the amount. The rate can be varied between 1⁄4, 3⁄16, 1⁄8, triplet and so on, to

give the typical dubstep sound.

Further shaping can be done to filter and modulation envelopes to vary the attack of the sound.

Synth ex 7 – wobble bass

6. OTher synThesis COnTrOls

A lot of possibilities have been explored already, and these four components of a synthesiser will take you

a long way if you understand their function and their relationships with each other. But there is much more,

and it is worth mentioning some of the other functions briefly.

a. Other types of filter

LPf 12, 18, 24 – these numbers relate to the slope of the filter, or how much frequency it removes above the �

cut-off point. It is a figure for db per octave – so 12db per octave will attenuate the signal by that amount in

each octave above the cut-off frequency. The higher the number, the more extreme the filtering can sound,

especially once resonance is used.

hPf – high pass filter, removes low frequencies below the cut-off point. notice that this means when it is �

on ‘maximum’ there will be almost no sound. An interesting alternative is to lower the filter from a very thin

sound to a full one.

notch filter removes a narrow band of frequencies around a centre point (cut-off frequency). �

bPf – band pass filter, removes frequencies above and below the band of frequencies around the cut-off �

frequency.

b. noise

In the filter section there is often a noise generator. This can be used on its own by switching out any other

oscillators – you can make synth drum sounds like this – or can be blended in with the other oscillators to

add a bit of dirt.

c. portamento

Makes pitches of different notes slide between each other. A slight amount on lead synths is common, and

swooping effects can be created by turning it up and playing two consecutive notes spaced far apart.

d. velocity response

Subtractor has options to make the sound respond to variations in velocity. The usual mapping on any key-

board is that velocity alters the amplitude – the harder a key is struck, the louder the note. Other options that

can be used are filter cut-off, making harder notes brighter; mix of oscillator level, which could create layered

sounds; amplitude attack, which could make softer notes have a slower attack.

e. Modulation wheel destination

As mentioned above, the mod wheel is usually assigned to the LFO to create vibrato. This doesn’t have to be

the case, and more expressive set-ups could use filter cut-off or resonance as the destination. This is useful

for real-time performance of synth parts.

An example is given in ‘Synth ex 7’.

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Recording and editing real-time synthesis controls – automation, envelopes, MIDI controllers

The shaping of sound and introduction of variations is one of the strengths of synthesisers. The original

hardware synths had banks of knobs, buttons, sliders and switches to make sound design accessible and

to enable sound shaping to be part of the performance.

Most modern MIDI controller keyboards will come with a range of buttons and sliders that are intended for

this purpose. Some of them will relate to more mundane MIDI controllers like main volume, but there will be

controls that are mapped to the filter cut-off and resonance. Each keyboard is different, so it is just a case of

loading up a synth and moving the knobs/slider and observing what happens.

The good news is that knobs and sliders can be assigned to different controls – it is usually best to do this

on the MIDI keyboard rather than changing the VST instrument settings, because the control number used

for a filter, for example, on one synth, will often be the same on another. Hence, once the keyboard is set up

it should work on different plug-in instruments.

That being said, there is also a ‘MIDI learn’ function in most software that allows you to activate a control on a

synth, and send MIDI data by moving a knob, and this then sets that knob to that function. Reading manuals

and documentation will help clarify the approach for your own set-up.

Once a suitable set of controls are assigned, this can be recorded in the same way that any other MIDI part

is recorded, either in real-time with the performance, or using overdub on an existing part. The usual options

of editing are then available in the editor; controllers appear as lanes like the standard velocity lane and can

be set to show or hide.

Another recording method involves using track automation. This is usually selected using a separate record

arm switch on the relevant plug-in instrument track (there is also usually a read automation switch that will

need to be selected to hear back the results). The real-time movement of any control on the graphic inter-

face of the instrument can then be recorded, so using a mouse to adjust settings can be useful if your MIDI

controller keyboard does not have knobs. The recorded data will show up as track envelopes, which can be

edited from the main arrange page using the usual tools. There are advantages to working this way, though

it should be noted that the data is the same as the MIDI controller data, so if both methods are used there

will be conflicts. Choose one method or the other.

The approach of real-time shaping and variation should be regarded as an essential of synthesiser use,

certainly for the purposes of this assessment task. The key to successful synthesis is a willingness to explore

– learning the basics as outlined here provides some starting points for that exploration. Using synthesis it is

possible to create sounds that are visualised (or auralised?) in the composer’s imagination to suit a particu-

lar part of the music; alternatively, free exploration can give rise to a new sound that will suggest a musical

mood, or inspire a riff or melody.

The type of synthesis explored here is called subtractive synthesis. There are other types, including FM and granular synthesis that are offered in other plug-ins. See the list at the end of the article.

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SAMPLIng

Sampled sound is the basis of many instruments heard today. Here’s a summary of what samplers do.

Using sampling in composition

Any sound can be used as a sample, so the only limit is imagination. One approach is to take some every-

day materials and see what sounds can be generated, recording the results. Paper is a good example – it

can be rubbed between the palms, slapped with pens or a ruler, torn, scrunched up, flapped – all of which

will produce different sounds. The recordings are then edited, which will include trimming away unwanted

silence, and then loaded into a sampler for playback.

Simply experimenting with how the sample sounds at different pitches gives a whole range of possibilities.

A non-pitched sound can make an ear-catching motif if a short phrase is played with it. Whole styles have

been based on the idea of re-tuned drum loops – drum and bass uses tuned up loops, making the drums

pingy and tight, while trip hop uses tuned-down loops, making the drums grainy and dark.

With the example of scrunched paper, if there is a fairly long section, pitching it down could yield an in-

teresting grainy rhythmic pattern. This could be looped so it continues for longer, and it is also possible to

experiment with reverse playback or a forward/reverse loop. Add some reverb and delay, and possibly some

filtering and LFO movement, and this can become a unique and interesting textural element.

Another approach to using audio material can be to bypass the sampler altogether, and import it directly into

an audio track in sequencing software. This is particularly useful for vocal or instrumental material. From an

audio track it can be sliced and moved to fit in with the music; a different range of processing can be applied

including pitch and time shift/stretching, which again produces unique results.

When exploring recorded material for sample use, it is good to stay aware of the possibility of extracting

short samples from longer recordings to be used as percussive or SFX elements. Some very individual

sounds can be found in this way. A classic example is vocal stuttering, which is well used but effective, and

gapping, which applies a rapid fluctuation in level in the same way an LFO would do.

AboUt sAmplers

The original samplers used a short recorded sound in the place of oscillators in the same configuration as a synthesiser – so it can be shaped using filtering, envelopes, LFO etc. The pitch of a sample follows the keyboard up and down, and the sound is made to sustain by making it play as a loop, usually taken from the sustained portion of the sample. Moving a sample too far from its original pitch can make it sound very unnatural – this may be a good thing if unique sounds are wanted, but when creating authentic instruments, samplers will use multi-samples that are mapped across the keyboard, so no sample is playing very far from its original pitch.

Because samples are actual recordings, they are more realistic than synthesised sounds for imitating real instruments, so many high-quality keyboards, sound modules and VST instruments use sampled sounds as their basic sound source. Drum sounds are usually sampled – this is easy to do as there is no sustained portion to the sound.

Samplers are digital, and sounds are usually stored on a hard drive, or on removable data storage. With the current availability of large data storage systems, sampled instruments now have huge libraries, often with many samples for each note (or individual drum) which are triggered at different velocities.

The predominant use of samplers currently is as a high-quality sample playback instrument. This is a valuable use, but it also ignores the creative potential of sampling. The original hardware samplers were often used to generate unusual and unique sounds by adjusting and editing the raw sampled material, or sourcing unusual sounds in the first place. This application is what we will explore here, as this has most relevance to the sound-design requirements of the composing task.

12Classroom Music I autumn term 2 I 2010/11

listening exAmples

negativland � make use of sampled spoken material – The Truth in Advertising has some examples of cutting

and placing spoken word to create new contexts

the prodigy � sample many sources – a classic example is the track Charly, which uses the soundtrack from

a 1970s road safety advert

hip hop � has always extensively drawn on material from other sources, initially by mixing breaks from vinyl,

but examples of creative sampling can often be found

This vide � o has some useful discussion of making sound effects for Terminator Salvation.

crEATIVE EffEcTS uSE

Effects are very important in electronic sound-shaping. As mentioned already, reverb and delay will help

give life to synth and sampled sounds – they are essential for this purpose as the sounds will often be sterile

without some general mix effects to soften and help them blend. There is another approach to using effects,

where the settings are pushed beyond the normal boundaries and start to become a component in making

unique timbres.

Timed delay

Most delay plug-ins have a function to sync to tempo. The delay time is then presented as note values. The

following is an example of how to work with suitable parts to create new rhythms and textures.

Take a rhythmically simple part, not too busy – a hi-hat or percussion line, or a riff or rhythmic chord part.1.

Set up a delay on a send and return, and with the sync activated, set the delay time to 1/8 note.2.

Bring up the send on the chosen part and listen to the result – adjust the delay feedback so just a few 3.

repeats are heard.

Now try different time settings – 1⁄16 is an obvious one to try for a faster pace. Notice that when the delay 4.

time is changed there is a pitch shift as it is adjusted. This can be interesting, and the change could be

automated to achieve another unique sound.

Try other delay time settings – 3⁄16 and dotted-note settings will produce a more complex rhythmic ele-5.

ment. Triplet settings will introduce swing to the rhythm.

Automation was mentioned in one context above, and track automation can be used to control any of the

settings so the delay can be switched in or out as needed, the level can be changed or feedback could be

increased.

Once a suitable setting has been found, the delay can be further manipulated using other effects. Phaser

or flanger can work very well, as can filtering of the delayed signal. At extreme settings, the effect can start

to sound like a sweeping synth pad. It’s even possible to put a different delay on the delay, creating even

more complex rhythms.

Quality control

It is important to consider quality issues when using samples. Usual recording quality control needs to apply, as any imperfections will tend to be magnified when the sound gets manipulated. When sourcing sample material on the internet, particularly vocal quotes, it should be noted that YouTube generally has poor audio quality. Another danger is getting unwanted clicks or glitches. This can occur when a sample it cut. There will always be a method of putting a short fade on the start and end of samples to avoid this, and this should be adopted as standard procedure when handling digital audio.

13 Classroom Music I autumn term 2 I 2010/11

Other uses for delay include marking a high point in the music with a dramatic addition of delay on a vocal

line, drum hit or instrumental line. This technique is commonly used in dub mixing, where instruments or

vocals are muted from the mix and short sections are dropped in with extreme amounts of delay, and reverb

can also be used in this way.

Reverb

A well-used technique with reverb is to reverse the image. This can be done by sampling a normal reverb

with a decent-length tail from a percussive sound or cymbal, and reversing this using audio editing on an

audio track or in a sampler. Timing it to end at some rhythmically significant point in the song, or creating

space for it to fill, can be a good way of a punctuating a phrase.

Reverb units will also usually have the option to select a reverse reverb. This will still play after the initial

sound, but is still a useful sound to experiment with. Again, automation is a help as it is unlikely the effect will

be used extensively – switching it in at crucial points for dramatic impact works better.

Use of extreme amounts of reverb is another technique to try out. Long, washy reverbs can be successful on

spare piano parts, or on occasional vocals lines. Reverbs will often have EQ settings built in, and it helps to

keep this type fairly dark without much high frequency. EQ on the original sound can also have the high end

cut to assist this; very bright settings will interfere with other high frequencies in the mix, and could occupy

too much of those areas of the spectrum.

As with the delays, adding additional effects to a reverb can develop new dimensions of the sound. Phaser,

wah, flanger, chorus and filtering will all create different types of movement. Long reverbs can be gapped as

described above in the section on sampling.

Other areas to explore are the unusual settings you will find in the list of presets available. Spring reverb can

be interesting – it has a very different quality from other reverbs. If there is a guitar amp with spring reverb,

this can be used on a send and return to process a range of sounds, not just guitar.

EQ/filtering

EQ is not generally referred to as an effect, as it does not create an additional image in the way delay or

reverb do. It has become commonly used in sound design and at extreme settings the result can be termed

an effect. One of the most popular is the ‘telephone voice’, the result of sharply removing low and high fre-

quencies and leaving just a narrow range in the mid range. This can also work well on some instruments

– putting a drum break through a thin EQ like this can be the basis of a breakdown. Adding further effects

like delay can work well.

Filters like those explored in the section on synthesis can also be found as a stand-alone effect, and sweeps

or high resonance settings can produce interesting results.

Experiments with real acoustic spaces can yield other useful results – a sports hall or stairwell can be worth investigating.

As with all these approaches, experimentation is essential, as is keeping an open mind as to how a sound could be used in the context of a composition.

other effects

Modulation effects such as wah, phaser, flanger, ring modulation, vocoder and chorus are all worth exploring. Their use has been mentioned already in the context of adding additional movement to delays and reverbs, but using them on their own also works.

Putting phaser or flange on a drum break or percussion part can work very well. Ring modulation will produce a Dalek voice on vocals. Wah can be very useful on electric pianos and synth pads.

Take care when applying these types of effects to bass sounds – in fact, avoiding it completely would be recommended, as some of them change the frequency content, which in the bass range can have strange and unwanted results.

14Classroom Music I autumn term 2 I 2010/11

listening exAmples

dub reggae � is a fruitful source of extreme and dramatic effects use – King Tubby is a good place to start;

Lee Perry is also a great experimenter

brian eno � and peter gabriel often use interesting and unusual approaches

madonna � ’s Ray of Light album, produced by William Orbit, has some great electronic sound design.

MuSIcAL conTExT

How should students make the most of these techniques when writing composing? Two areas can make a

composition really stand out – proportion and development. Given that the control of the musical elements is

suitable, a good composition will show variety in the ideas (giving a sense of development) and well thought-

out placing of ideas in the structure (giving a sense of proportion).

Most popular music uses an ensemble based on instruments covering similar roles:

rhythm – drums and/or percussion usually have a prominent position in the music �

harmonic structure – often based on rhythmic chordal parts – the guitar is the most common but keyboards �

also fill this role; often, several parts combine or take the lead at different points

Melodic lines – even a very rhythmic and textural approach will benefit from some short melodic motifs �

(hooks) – guitars, keyboards and synths, brass or strings often being used; where the approach is to present

a piece with melody as the main focus, this is likely to be in the vocals, but could also be instrumental

bass line – sometimes built on straightforward underpinning of the harmony, but also sometimes with more �

melodic and rhythmic movement, particularly in electronic and dance styles.

The exact construction and delivery of these elements, and the choice of timbre for the different parts, de-

pend on the conventions of the style being used.

Some conclusions that may emerge:

riffs are likely to be used in several of the areas – hooks, harmonic patterns and bass lines are often riff- �

based

changes in musical parts are linked to structural elements – intro, verse, pre-chorus, chorus, bridge, instru- �

mental, links, solo, outro

Some songs vary the sections each time they occur – the second chorus may be longer than the first, the �

third verse may go straight to the bridge or add a pre-chorus instead of the chorus

Additional parts or variations often occur near the change of a section – drum rolls before a chorus or to �

mark each four- or eight-bar phrase; additional harmonic lines or a variation in the bass part.

To apply this thinking to composition and to ensure development, each of the main instrumental parts within

the piece should have four variations. If there are four distinct sections to the structure this may seem obvi-

Note that the styles chosen here are last year’s and this year’s special focus styles.

exercise

Get your students to analyse several pieces from diverse styles – say heavy rock, reggae, soul, indie/grunge – and identify:

The instruments in each of these roles �

Where the changes occur and how they relate to each other �

How the song builds up and relaxes �

What is important about the performance and delivery of the musical parts �

The recording and production approaches. �

15 Classroom Music I autumn term 2 I 2010/11

ous, but in the case of a lot of electronic music there may be fewer parts to the structure, which can often

be strophic.

Even if there are four different sections to the structure, variations to the basic patterns are still desirable – as

mentioned above, good song-writing will include variations between the repeated sections so, for example,

the second verse has a different bass line and some additional harmony elements.

These basic musical building blocks can be augmented by occasional punctuation using more dramatic

and extreme elements – discussed in the sampling and effects sections – or using SFX synth parts. Care

should be taken with these parts that they are not over used, to avoid the music becoming cluttered and to

preserve the dramatic impact.

Plug-in synths to investigate

freeware:

RGC Triangle II – subtractive synth �

Green Oak Crystal – a more complex type of synth �

MDA DX10 – FM-type synth �

Dash Signature Da Hornet – subtractive synth based on the Wasp hardware synth �

Ichiro Toda Synth 1 �

Superwave P8 – nice polysynth �

Native Instruments (NI) Kore Player – has only a few controls but is very good quality. �

commercial:

Native Instruments (NI) – make a range of powerful synths including Absynth and Reaktor �

Arturia – make several good recreations of classic synths. �

Within the requirements of the assessment for this task, it should always be remembered that the musical elements provide a large proportion of the marks. Going too far into the realms of the avant-garde and experimental, at the expense of demonstrating control in melody, harmony, rhythm, texture and structure, can be a dangerous approach. The skill of a composer in this field is knowing how to balance those elements with the sound design and more radical sounds.

Visit www.kvraudio.com for lists of freeware synths and plug-ins, as well as discussion on com-mercial products.