LATE ROMAN AMPHORAE IN BRITAIN R. Tomber & D. Williams

One of the more common finds of pottery recovered from Roman sites in Britain are sherds of Mediterranean amphorae. These large container jarsJ normally two-handledJ were an important form of trade-packaging used over a long period in the Mediterranean and outlYing areas. Unl ike most other classes of Roman potterYJ it was the content s they carried which were prizedJ rather than the vessels themselves . . A detailed study of amphoraeJ thereforeJ c~n provide us with valuable evidence of economic activity and trade routes not easily obtained elsewhere. They supply direct evidence of the movement of a number of valued commodities which played an important role in the Roman way of 11feJ such as wlneJ olive-oil and fish products.

Although Britain was a northern frontier province far

away from the principal amphorae producing areas, it is

nevertheless clear that throughout the Roman period it re­

ceived large supplies of amphora-borne products. Sherds of

the globular Dressel 20 olive-oil amphora from Baetica in

southern Spain are, for example, a common feature on many

sites from the first century AD to at least the early third

century, perhaps longer, when their numbers show a decline

from a peak in the second half of the second century

(Williams and Pe ac o ck , 1983). This apparent shortfall in

olive-oil amphora supplies to Br itain seems to ha ve been

taken up to some extent by ol i ve-oi l amp hor a e f r om North

Africa, which seem to have arriv e d in Bri tain ma inly in the

late fourth and early fifth centuries AD (P eacock, 1977a).

It is clear, however, that the numb ers of such ve sse l s reach­

ing Britain were considerably fewe r than t he ear li er sup plies

from Spain ( Wi lliams and Peacock , 1983 ),

At about this time t here was a s teady increase of eastern

..-- 42

c

--- ..... '-~ -- ... \ .

\ \ \ \ \ Irc . ,

I

~B -----~

....

F

FIG. 7 Principal types of late Roman ribbed amphorae found in Britain.

A. Bi (tram Bottger, 1974 B. Bii (from Fulford and Peacock, 1984) C. Bii (from Riley, 1979 D. Biv (trom Annis, 1975) E. Biv (from Cunliffe, 1969 F "Gaza amphora" (from Zemer, 1978) . (Scale 1:10)

43

---------

Mediterranean amphorae throughout the western provinces. In Britain

this shift in the emphasis of amphora-borne supplies is apparent from

the small but growing numbers of eastern Mediterranean amphorae found in

late Roman and post-Roman contexts. These amphorae are relatively

common throughout the Mediterranean area from the late fourth/early

fifth century AD, and are found in large numbers at many sites. Several

of these eastenn Mediterranean types belong to a loose stylistic group

of ribbed amphorae which in Britain are generally referred to as "B"

wares (Thomas, 1959), and include the Bi, Bii, Biv and Gaza types. Not

all ribbed amphorae found in Britain are late Roman in date of course,

nor can it be taken for granted that all late Roman ribbed amphorae

sherds found here automatically belong to the forms mentioned above.

The enigmatic "carrot amphora," for example, is primarily a first cent­

ury AD ribbed type (Reusch, 1970), while petrological analysis of late

Roman ribbed sherds from Lincoln shows a range of fabrics quite differ­

ent from the "B" forms and the Gaza type, though perhaps belonging to

the same general tradition (Williams, 1984).

It is clear, however, that the "B" wares and Gaza types do form

the majority of ribbed amphorae found in late Romanand' post-Roman

Britain. Charles Thomas' (1981) catalogue of imported post-Roman pott­

ery found in Britain lists the growing number of new examples found

since his original work in 1959. Much of our understanding of these

types has benefitted from recent excavations around the Mediterranean,

where eastern Mediterranean amphorae are common. Studies at Carthage

(Riley, 1981; Tomber, forthcoming), Benghazi (Riley, 1979), Ostia

(Panella, 1973; Manacorda, 1977), Naples (Arthur, 1985), and Rome

(Whitehouse et al, 1982), have provided good dated examples. Increased

application of scientific analYSis, especially thin sectioning and heavy

mineral separation, has allowed fabrics to be characterized and indic­

ated likely source areas (Williams, 1982; Fulford and Peacock, 1984;

Peacock and Williams, forthcoming; see Fig.8).

Interestingly, petrological analysis has shown that not all of the

"B" ware and Gaza sherds examined conform to the classic prototypes of

their class, and that there is a certain variability of fabric within

each type. In some cases this may be represented by different typ~s

of inclusions present in the clay, or in others simply be due to differ­

ences of texture, affecting the size and proportions of a restricted

44

---

Biv

. ....~.......;.:~.:".:.::.

.\ ••••••;.:•. ......:'i~.'":

FIG.B. Possible source areas of late Roman Amphorae.

suite of minerals. This has been particularly noted at Carthage, where

a certain amount of fabric variability has been found amongst the large

numbers of "B" wares present (Williams, 1982). On the face of it, this

would seem to suggest that a number of production centres were involved

for each type. However, given the similarity of forms met with within

each class, this may only mean a dispersed localised production in some

cases rather than production centres situated some distance from each

other.

It is interesting to note that this hypothesis is analogous with

Peacock's (1982) rural workshop industry, combining characteristics of

both isolated and nu·cleated types. The case of the "B" wares and Gaza

amphorae can perhaps be seen as a number of production centres for each

45

class, producing basically the same vessel form within a restricted

geographical area to transport the local liquid commodity. These pott ­

eries would not necessarily have been nucleated in the sense of working

together or being under a "single management," but they would be bound

together under a shared tradition. A comparable situation is indicated

in Tripolitania, where neutron activation studies of cylindrical

amphorae suggest that fabric variations within a general class represent

the output of different estates (Riley, 1983). In an earlier period the

production of the late republican amphora Dressel 1 in Italy clearly

represents a similar mode of production, with widely dispersed kilns all

producing the same type of amphora (Peacock, 1977bj Peacock and

Williams, forthcoming).

In Britain, it is unfortunately true that the majority of finds of

late Roman ribbed amphorae occur as smallish bodysherds, making macro­

scopic identification at times difficult. However, it is to be hoped

that the following detailed descriptions of the major late Roman ribbed

amphorae types found in Britain will be of some help in this matter. In

the last resort petrological analysis should be able to tie down a sherd

to a particular type, though as we have stressed inthi; paper, with

allowances made for some variability of fabric.

Br i t i sn Bi (Thomas, _ 1959;. Carthage LR2 j Benghazi LR2; Keay LXV). FIG.7, A:

This type has a globular body with a small basal knob, a short conical

neck with a high everted rim and bowed handles from the shoulder to the

neck. The upper part of the body contains deep horizontal grooves

closely set together; these are normally straight but a wavy version,

apparently later in date, also occurs.

The fabric is .usually hard, fairly fine-textured and smooth where

undecorated. The colour tends to be light buff (10YR 8/4) to light red

(2.5YR 6/6), often with large white inclusions of limestone clearly vis­

ible on the surface. Thin sectioning normally reveals subangular grains

of quartz, cryptocrystalline limestone with occasional pieces of fossil,

strands of muscovite mica and a little chert, plagioclase felspar and

metamorphic quartzite (Peacock, 1971). This range of inclusions clearly

46_.-­

indicates a source area dominated by sedimentary rocks, and numerous

areas would qualify on this basis. A small number of thin Sectioned Bi

sherds from Carthage and Tintagel were also found to contain a few frag­

ments of volcanic glass (Williams, 1982).

Bi amphorae are widely distributed around the Mediterranean sea­

board (Riley, 1981; Fulford and Peacock, 1984; Keay, 1984; Robinson,

(1959), and are also present in Britain (Thomas, 1981), Roumania

(R'i:i'dulescu, 1976), Italy (Arthur, 1985), and Istanbul (Hayes, 1968).

The numbers fdund in the northern Aegean and Black Sea area may suggest

a possible source in this region. The volcanic areas of the Aegean

situated near to the coast include many of the Greek Islands, northern

Greece, north-west Turkey and the Bodrum region, while volcanic rocks

are also to be found on the Bulgarian coastline of the Black Sea. The

kiln at Oltina in Roumania (Irimia, 1968), mentioned by Alcock (1971),

is likely to be a brick kiln containing extraneous debris, rather than a

production site for Bi. Recently, a suspected kiln site for Bi amphora

has been suggested near Kounoupi in the Argolid (Munn, 1985). It is

worth noting that at Athens there are coarse pottery forms in similar

fabrics to the Bi, which seems to add weight to the idea of a reasonably

local source (eg Robinson, 1959, M226, M321 , M371).

British Bii (Thomas, 1959; Carthage LR1; Benghazi LR1; Keay LIII). FI G. 7, B an d C

This form has two versions, a larger and a smaller type. Both have

ovoid bodies with rounded bases, broad neck with thickened rim and thick

stumpy handles. Widely-spaced ribbing appears at the middle of the

body, gradually narrowing at the shoulder and base of the vessel. These

ribs are paralleled by distinctive grooves on the interior. Red dipinto

marks in Greek cursive script are sometimes found on the shoulder.

The fabric is hard and sandy, with noticeable white limestone

fragments on the surface. The normal colour is cream to yellow-cream

(10YR 8/3), but can range from pinkish-cream (7.5YR 8/2-4) to reddish­

yellow (5YR 7/6). In thin section the most prominent inclusions are

grains of quartz, fr,agments of cryptocrystalline limestone, serpentine

and some pyroxene grains. These can vary in size and sorting, with

47

samples showing different proportions of each type. This range of

inclusions suggests a source area which has ultra-basic as well as

sedimentary rocks. Heavy mineral separation has produced residues of

frequent pyroxene grains, mostly diopdide and enstatite, to the virtual

exclusion of other minerals, suggesting derivation from peridotite, an

ultra-basic rock (Williams, 1982).

Egypt has been put forward as a possible source area for the Bii

amphora on account of the large numbers found there (Hayes, 1976), but

this appears unlikely on petrological grounds (Williams, 1979). Ultra­

basic rocks have a fairly restricted distribution in the eastern

Mediterranean and are hardly to be found at all around the Black Sea

area. Small outcrops are present on Cyprus, Lesbos and Euboea, while

larger formations occur along the south-west coast of Asia Minor and

northern Syria. Some vessels have painted inscriptions of the Cypriot

modius (Lang, 1976, 55-56), one of the areas that would qualify petrol­

ogically, but the form is not particularly common on the island (inform­

ation L Nehru). Instead, a more attractive source is the Antioch region

of northern Syria, an area which had a robust contemporary olive-oil

export trade (Liebeschuetz, 1972, 79-81). It has been suggested that

the Bii form carried olive-oil (Thomas, 1959, 92), and it is thus tempt­

ing to contemplate an origin near Antioch, rather than say North Africa,

one of the traditional suppliers of this commodity to the west. The

latter area can be ruled out because of the petrology of the Bii fabric.

Bii amphora have a wide distribution and are commonly found in

Egypt (Adams, 1962), Athens (Robinson, 1959), and the Aegean (Hayes,

1976). They are also found in some numbers in Tunisia and Cyrenaica

(Riley, 1979; Fulford and Peacock, 1984), Italy (Whitehouse et aI, 1982;

Arthur, 1985, Spain (Keay, 1984), the Black Sea region (Barnea et aI,

1971), and to a lesser extent Britain (Thomas, 1981). They date from

the early fifth to the mid-seventh centuries AD, reaching a peak in the

later fifth and early sixth centuries AD (Riley, 1979; Fulford and

Peacock, 1984). It is not possible at present to suggest a separate

chronology for the larger and smaller forms.

48

--"

British Biv (Thomas, 1959; Carthage LR3; Benghazi LR10). FIG.7, D and E

This form appears in two versions, the earlier type has one handle and

the later two. Both types have a long slender neck with one (or two)

short strap-handles, high rounded shoulders and a tapering foot, which

is convex in the earlier form and more concave in the later. A broad

shallow ribbing covers most of the vessel, which is fairly thin-walled

(for photographs of both forms see Robinson, 1959, Pl.41).

The fabric is hard and smoothish, with a slight soapy feel, norm­

ally appearing highly micaceous. The colour is usually a deep reddish­

brown (2.5YR 5/4 or 5YR 5/4). However, many samples of the early form

from Carthage can be as light as buff (7.5YR 7/4) in colour. Thin sec­

tioning can show some textural variation, but the dominant minerals are

always abundant flecks of muscovite and biotite mica and some grains of

quartz, sometimes with fragments of metamorphic quartzite and rarer

quartz-muscovite-schist. A heavy mineral separation of samples of Biv

fabric from Tintagel produced a practically monomineralic suite of

dahllite grains, while a sample from Carthage contained amounts of gar­

net and kyanite (Williams, 1982). Taken together, the -jJetrological

results suggest an origin in an area of igneous and metamorphic rocks.

On this basis, an origin for Biv amphorae in western Turkey

(Hayes, 1976, 117) appears attractive, for this region has a great var­

iety of igneous, volcanic and metamorphic formations. While other

suggested source areas such as Byzantium (Thomas, 1976, 246) or Egypt

(Grace, 1961, fig.67) have less to commend them. The Byzantium region

consists mainly of Devonian rocks, while northern Egypt is composed pre­

dominantly of sedimentary rocks (assuming a source near to the coast).

Of course there are many other areas than Turkey in the eastern

Mediterranean which contain igneous and metamorphic rocks, and further

work is needed before the Biv source can be confidently tied down.

The one-handled form first appears in the late first century AD

(Lang, 1955, 277-278; Panella, 1973, 460-462), while the earliest two­

handled version is found in late fourth century contexts at San Sisto

Vecchio in Rome (Annis, 1975, 31, nos and 2), and also at Carthage

(Riley, 1981). Two complete examples of the one-handled form from Bath

and Ospringe predate the late fourth century (Peacock, 1977c). At

49 .-_ ...

Carthage there was a peak in numbers of Biv during the Vandal period,

c.AD 475, followed by a reduction until the sixth century when the

numbers increase again (Fulford and Peacock, 1984).

Like the Bi and Bii types, there is a widespread distribution of

Biv amphorae around the Mediterranean (Robinson, 1959; Riley, 1979;

Fulford and Peacock, 1984; Whitehouse et aI, 1982; Arthur, 1985),

stretching to Britain (Thomas, 1981), Roumania (Barnea, 1966) and the

Black Sea region (Zeest, 1960). Contents analysis has identified olive­

oil residues in a sample of Biv fabric, although more analyses are

needed to confirm that this was the main item carried (Rothschild­

Boros,1981; Passietal, 1981).

"Gaza amphora" (Almagro 54; Carthage LR4; Benghazi LR3) FIG.7, F

This distinctive "cigar-shaped" amphora has a small everted rim with

roughly-made loop handles on the shoulders and a narrowish cylindrical

body tapering to a rounded or flat base. Heavy ribSing~ommonly appears

on the shoulder and between the handles, with accretions of clay around

the rim and on the shoulder.

The fabric is hard, thick and sandy, with a scatter of small frag­

ments of white limestone. The typical external colour is drab "choco­

late" brown (5YR 5/6), although reddish-brown (2.5YR 5/8) examples are

known, and a greyish core (10YR 5/1) sometimes occurs. Thin sectioning

shows varying amounts of well-sorted grains of quartz and fragments of

cryptocrystalline limestone with some fossil remains, small grains of

pyroxene are commonly present, as well as some plagioclase felspar and

tourmaline.

The form is generally believed to come from Gaza in Palestine

(Zemer, 1978; Riley, 1975; 1979). This view has been strengthened by

the thin sectioning results obtained by Peacock (1975), who found that a

modern sample of fired clay compared well with the fabric of an Almagro

54.

This amphora form is common throughout the south-eastern

50

Mediterranean from the fourth to the sixth centuries AD, while also

reaching Britain (Thomas, 1981), Italy (Whitehouse et al, 1982; Arthur,

1985), North Africa, western Europe and the Black Sea region in small

numbers (Riley, 1919). If a Gaza origin is correct, then this form may

well have carried the famous wine of the region (ibid). However, recent

contents analysis research has suggested that olive-oil and sesame oil

were carried in these amphorae, though this remains to be substantiated

(Rothschild-Boros, 1981; Passi et al, 1981).

ADAMS W Y 1962

ALCOCK L 1911

ALMAGRO M 1955

ANNIS MB 1915

ARTHUR P 1985

BARNEA I 1966

BARNEA I, ILIESCU 0 & NICOLESCU C 1911

BOTTGER B 1914

CUNLIFFE B 1969

FULFORD M G & PEACOCK D P S

GRACE V R 1961

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54 .--------­