Lecture 14 coordination and subordination

1. Coordination and subordination2. Coordinating devices: coordinators punctuation marks3. Subordinators 4. Subordinate clauses

Coordination and subordination

• Coordination and subordination: two devices for combining and relating ideas, used to connect clauses or sentences.

• Coordination: ideas of approximately equal importance.

• Subordination: a relationship which indicates that one idea is more important than the other.

• Simply, coordination connects units at the same level, while subordination connects units at different levels.

It is getting dark and I must go home now.Because it is getting dark, I must go home now.Peter is an engineer and his sister is a painter.He closed the window, turn off the light and left the

room.We’ll have a picnic if it is fine tomorrow.Because they had finished their homework, they went

back home.

Coordination

• 1.Coordinate construction: a sequence of semantically-related grammatical units that are similar in form, equal in rank or structure, identical in function.

• coordinated words: exciting but taxing • coordinated phrase: a kind mother and a stern father • coordinated clauses: form a compound sentence.• Alice is clever.• Jane is dull.

• 2. Coordinating devices: coordinators and punctuation marks

• 2.1 Coordinators: coordinative conjunctions • Central coordinators: three basic coordinators: and,

or, but. • Correlative coordinators: both … and, not only …

but (also ), not … nor, neither … nor, either … or • Semi-coordinators: nor, so, yet, for• quasi-coordinators: as well as, as much as, rather

than, more than

• Semantically, three groups of coordinators:• coordinators denoting “addition” (listing)• coordinators denoting “alternation” (alternating)• coordinators denoting “contrast” (contrasting)a. And-group coordinators and, both …and, not only … but ( also ), not … nor, neither … nor• In addition to semantic extension, and can denote other

meanings, such as temporal sequence, result, condition, contrast, and it can also function as an attitudinal disjunct, eg:

• Mrs Cox is both kind and gentle to her pupils.• He is Jack of all trades and master of none.

He opened the door and went in. He heard a cry for help, and he rushed out of the house. Worker harder, and you will pass the test..

• She is not only pretty but also intelligent.• He didn’t come to the party, and that is a pity.• Come and have tea with us. (and = infinitive marker)• It is good and cool in the evening. (very cool)

• b. Or- group coordinators• Or, either … or, denoting “alternation” and a

negative condition.• She s a student or something.• Which John do you like to talk to, with or without

beard?• You can either come with me or stay at home.• Either you do it now, or you are fired.• Wear your coat, or you will catch a cold.• Hurry up, or you will be late.

• C. But-group coordinators but , not … but, while , whereas, yet, only, etc, denoting

“contrast” or a turn in meaning• This coat is not mine but yours.

It never rains but it pours.She is a funny girl, yet you can’t help liking her.

• They are poor but/yet proud.• Fortune often knocks at the door, but the fool does not

invite her in.• She is an American, but she knows little about American

history.• You can fool some people all the time, but you can not

fool all the people all the time.• Wise men seek after truth, while/whereas fools despise

knowledge. • While/whereas they want a house, we would rather live in

a flat.

• 2.2 punctuation marks• A. comma• If we have three or more items, we normally use commas

between them and save the coordinator for the last one.• What I need after a day’s hard work is a hot shower, a

cigarette and a nice cup of coffee.• Raising vegetables presents endless opportunities for

weeding and thinning and hoeing and watering.• Mr. Brown cooked, cleaned, mended, went to meetings of

sewing club; he did everything just to please his wife.

• B. semi-colon and colon• The breakfast menu consisted of fruit juice or cereal;

a boiled, fried, or poached egg; toast and marmalade; and a pot of tea or coffee.

• If she married the man, her parents would be unhappy; if she left him, she herself would be unhappy.

• Buses are always crowded; hence he prefers to cycle.• At the meeting he made an important announcement:

he would resign from the committee in two weeks.• Three causes have been given for the failure: poor

planning, insufficient manpower, and the shortage of material.

Subordination• Subordination refers to the linking of the two

clauses at different syntactic levels and results in a complex sentence.

• The clause on the higher level: the main clause.• The attached clause on the lower level: the

subordinate clause.• Though he had an immense fortune, he died a most

unhappy man.

• It is a general practice to put the main idea in the main clause and the minor idea in a dependent clause.

• A subordinate construction might be a finite clause, a non-finite clause, a verbless clause, or a phrase.

• As they were curious about their new neighbors, the Johnsons went and visited them at the first opportunity.Being curious about their new neighbors, the Johnsons …Curious about their new neighbors, the Johnsons …

With curiosity, the Johnsons went and visited their new neighbors at the first opportunity.

• 1. Subordinators:• In terms of word formation: simple subordinators, complex

subordinators, correlative subordinators and marginal subordinators.

• A. Simple subordinators• Simple subordinators, also known as “one-word subordinators”,

include:• after immediately unless

although lest untilbecause like when(ever)before since where(ever)directly that whereuponfor though whileif till whilst, etc

When I was young, I listened to the radio waiting for my favorite songs.She married him not because he was rich but because he had anattractive personality.

• B. Complex subordinators• “multi-word subordinators”. Some of these end in “that”:• assuming (that) insofar that

but that in the event that considering (that) now (that) except (that) provided (that) excepting (that) providing (that) for all (that) save that given (that) seeing (that) granted (that) so (that) granting (that) such that in that supposing (that)

• Some end in “as”:according as forasmuch as as far as inasmuch as as long as insofar as as sonn as insomuch as, etc

• Others include: as if in case as though, etc• Supposing that I don’t have a day off, what shall we do?• She is not so old but that she can read.

• C. Correlative subordinators • Subordinators of this group are composed of two correlative words,

including:• as … as barely / hardly / scarcely .. when

as … so more / (-er) / less … than not so … as no sooner … than such … as whether … or

• He had hardly go to bed when the door bell rang.• D. Marginal subordinators• Marginal subordinators refer to some free lexical combinations. This

group is sometimes hard to distinguish from complex subordinators:• even if for the reason that

if only by reason that just as for fear (that) only it in spite of the fact that every time (that) in the light of the fact that the instant (that) on account of the fact that the moment (that) on the grounds that due to the fact that regardless of the fact that

• They hide themselves behind the bush for fear that the enemy should find them.

• 3. Subordinate clauses:• Syntactically, subordinate clauses can be subdivided into

nominal, relative, and adverbial clause. • 3.1 Nominal clauses known as “noun clauses”, usually introduced by “that” or

by a wh-word, functioning as subject, object, subject complement, appositive, and prepositional complementation, eg:

• It is quite clear that the crime was done deliberately.I can’t imagine what made him behave like that.The mystery is whether he ever went there at all.My original question, why he did it at all, has not yet been answered.You must give it back to whoever it belongs to.

• 3.2 Relative clauses• A relative clauses is normally introduced by a relative word, ie by a

relative pronoun, a relative determiner, or a relative adverb. • 3.3 Adverbial clauses• Adverbial clauses are those that perform the function of adverbial in

a complex sentence. Semantically, this kind of clause can be subdivided into adverbial clauses of time, place, manner, cause, result, purpose, condition, and concession, eg :

• Whenever I met with any difficulty, he came to my help.Where there is a will, there is a way.You must do the exercises as I show you.As there was no answer, I wrote again.He had overslept, so that he was late for work.They climbed to the top of the building in order that they could get a bird’s-eye view of the city.In case it rains, we won’t be able to go there on foot.I shouldn’t have time to seen him, even if he were here.

• 1. ____ the workers stopped for lunch, people were allowed to enter the building.

• 2. Mr. Clinton was a high school teacher for many years, ___ now he is teaching at the university.

• 3. he carried the parcel all the way home, ____ was actually unnecessary.

• 4. ___ the end of this term is nearly at hand, Jerry has not completed all the projects he had hoped to finish.

• 5. Not everyone can go to Cambridge ___ Oxford.• 6 You won’t enjoy your trip to Mexico ___ you are careful about what

you eat.• 7. they drive to the village ___ the barn dance was to take place.• 8. ___ he was on the verge of starvation, his brother was living an

extravagant life.• 9. it’s none of my business ____ you want to marry a girl twenty

years younger than you are.

• 1. I am driving to the railway station to meet an engineer. He will be an important member of our team for the project.

• 2. Carlos decided to renew the lease on his New York apartment. He was growing tired of city life.

• 3. New Hampshire does not have a general sales tax. It does not have an income tax either. It is the only state that does not have either tax.

• 4. We were eating dinner. Our guests arrived.• 5. his mother waited up. He came home.• 6. he had a soar throat. He had spoken for three hours.• 7. she spoke French rapidly. I couldn’t understand her.• 8. you promise to behave yourself. You shall not go to the

party this afternoon.

• Adverbial clauses• 1. Adverbial clauses of time: when, while , as , before,

after, and until • He entered the room ___ the meeting was going on.• ___ Jim was reading, Jack was writing.• ___ he finished the speech, the audience burst into

applause.• ___ she goes in the town, she visits his aunt.• The dog barked ___ it heard a noise.• They had hardly talked for half an hour __ she entered.• She went to see him ___ she got the letter.• It was not long ___ he sensed the danger of the position.• When I reached the station, the train had left.

I reached the station after the train ( had ) left.The train ( had ) left before I reached the station.

• 2. Adverbial clauses of cause: because, for, since , as, now that, seeing that, etc.

• 2.1 because and for: are different in use in the following ways: • First, a because-clause is mobile; it may appear either before or after

the main clause, whereas a for-clause can only follow rather than precede the main clause.

• Secondly, a because-clause can stand alone as a response to a why-question, while a for-clause cannot.

• Thirdly, because can be negation for cannot be used this way. • Finally, a because-clause can function as the focal element of a cleft

sentence, whereas a for-clause cannot, eg:• He didn’t go to the party, because he was not invited.

Because he was not invited, he didn’t go to the party.Why didn’t he go to the party? --Because he was not invited.He didn’t go to the party not because he was busy, but because he was not invited.It was because he was not invited that he didn’t go to the party.

• 2.2 Compared with since and as, because is the strongest in tone; since ranks next, and as next to since.

• 2.3 in that, inasmuch as, now that and seeing that. • What are you going to do seeing (that) they won’t agree?

Now (that) I’m here, I’d better stay for a few days.• Seeing that means “in view of the fact that” and can

sometimes be used to replace as or since.• Now that combines the meaning of cause with a temporal

sense. So in a context of present time, now that is interchangeable with seeing that, since, or as. But in a context of past time, now that cannot be used to introduce an adverbial clause, eg:

• Now that / Seeing that / Since / As we are all here, the meeting can begin.Seeing that / Since / As I was in the same class as George, I know him well.(Here Now THAT is impossible.)

• As for the use of in that and inasmuch as, they are restricted to formal writing only.

• He was punished ___ he did not obey the regulations.

• There must be no one in the house ___ the door is closed.

• It was ___ he was too careless that he failed in the exam.

• He will get promoted, ___ he has done good work.• _____ you are old enough to judge things, you

should start your own career.• ____ this method doesn’t work, let’s try another.• ____ you say so, I suppose it is true.

• Though and although • denote concession and are interchangeable in many cases. However,

they are not interchangeable when a though-clause is intensified by even.

• although can only function as a subordinator, while though can be used either as a subordinator or, in informal style, as an adverb. As an adverb, though usually takes the end position, whereas although never occurs at the end of a sentence.

• He didn’t light the fire though / although it was very cold.• Compare:• I forgot my appointment even though my secretary reminded me.

Though everybody desert you, I will not.Clever though he was, he failed the exam.David is over eighty. He is still writing, though.

• Even if the sea were to run dry and the rocks were to crumble, I would not break my word.

• Even if the sea were to run dry and the rocks were to crumble, I would break my word.

• We will go out if it should rain. • We will not go out if it should rain.